It was the invincible march of Protestantism in the land of its birth
which brought about this buttressing of the old belief and this
adopting of fresh methods for its efficiency.
When Ferdinand died in 1564 the great majority of the German people had
become Protestants. The Empire was honeycombed with the new faith.
Even in Austria, that everlasting stronghold of Papacy, the Catholics
were in a minority. True to the traditions of the past, Bavaria, the
home of the ancient Welfs, was the one thoroughly zealous and obedient
champion of the Pope in all Germany.
It seemed as if the great conflict was almost over. But it had not
even commenced!
The history of this great movement would have been very different, had
it been carried on steadily under one leader. But it had four! Those
devout souls who believed they had found in the simple gospel truths of
Protestantism a religion in which all might unite were soon convinced
of their mistake.
Lulled by the apparent triumph of the new faith, reformers set about
the task of defining the belief and correcting the errors of Protestant
doctrine. To the followers of Calvin the belief of the Lutherans
became almost as abhorrent as Papacy itself, while the Lutherans were
again subdivided into an extreme and a moderate party; the one
following to the letter the doctrines of Luther, and the other the more
modified views of Melancthon. Not only men but states were divided and
in bitter strife over these differences, so that the Emperor Ferdinand
had said, "Instead of being of one mind they are so disunited, have so
many different beliefs, the God of truth surely cannot be with them!"
It is apparent now that the issue underlying all this upheaval was
deeper than anyone then knew. The real struggle was not for the
supremacy of Romanist or Protestant; not to determine whether this
dogma or that was true and should prevail, but to establish the right
of every human soul to choose its own faith and form of worship. The
great battle for human liberty had commenced, and the Romish Church had
been shaken to its foundations not because its doctrine was false, but
because it was a _despotism_!
From the abdication of Charles V. to 1600 was a period of political
tranquillity in Germany. The reign of two conciliatory sovereigns,
Ferdinand I., and his son Maximilian II., tended to produce a
surface-calm, which, although ruffled, was not broken by the stern and
despotic reign of Rudolf II., who succeeded in 1576.
It was a half century of unfruitful and sullen waiting--waiting for a
future which no one could divine. Protestantism was not blossoming;
but the seed was germinating amid elements good and evil, strangely
mingled together.
While the Reformation was the leading fact in Europe at this period,
another event had created a new and pervading atmosphere, in which all
else existed. The impulse given to civilization by the taking of
Constantinople by the Turks (1452), and the consequent disseminating of
Greek culture throughout Europe, was a transforming event in the
history of civilization. Literature, art, music, took on new forms and
thrilled with a new life. The activity of the human mind manifested
itself in everything. It was an age of great men and great things.
Copernicus, followed by Tycho Brahe, Galileo, and Kepler, brought order
into the heavens. The Medici in Italy, who were guiding these new and
enriching streams which had set in from the East, helped to produce a
wonderful art period, which swept in successive tides over Europe.
Fainting and sculpture reached their climacteric. Music, still in its
infancy, developed into the new forms of opera and oratorio.[1] And
while these things were happening, a mysteriously inspired man--seeming
to hold as in a crucible the wisdom distilled from all ages and all
human experiences--was writing immortal plays in England!
The Teuton race does not take on the graces of life very quickly. The
serious and sincere German mind must inspect the idea first, and then
become thoroughly imbued with it, before the hand will act! But when
the Teuton roots do begin to draw upon the soil, they strike deep and
hold firmly, and know just what they are going to do with the rising
sap; concerning themselves much more about that than the foolish
branches and leaves!
So this new light did not at once flood Germany, but its influence was
felt there. Thought was quickened, knowledge increased, art and
science began to flourish, wealth accumulated, and the people became
less simple and more luxurious in their ways of living. The King of
Spain was occupied in his hopeless attempt to subdue the Netherlands,
and Hungary and Austria were still struggling with the Turkish invasion.
Such was the condition at the beginning of the seventeenth century. In
spite of the material advance there was a feeling of impending
misfortune. But the magnitude of the coming disaster none then could
have imagined or dreamed.
The fatal circumstance was that the Protestants were divided into two
angry and hostile camps, at the very time when the Catholics, under the
teachings of the Jesuits, were uniting with solid front against them.
The Thirty Years' War would never have been undertaken against a united
adversary who held four-fifths of Germany!
During the despotic reign of Rudolf II. the Protestants for their
protection formed a Union with the Elector Palatine Frederick at its
head. Thereupon the Catholic princes also united in a _Catholic
League_ under Maximilian of Bavaria. The forces were now gathering for
the great explosion. Matthias had succeeded his brother Rudolf as
Emperor.
When a great storm is impending, it takes only a trifling disturbance
in equilibrium to precipitate it.
Such a disturbance occurred in Prague (1618) over a church which the
Protestants were erecting. An angry mob armed itself, burst into the
Imperial Castle at Prague, and flung out of the window two Catholic
Bohemian nobles.
With this act of violence commenced the Thirty Years' War, which lasted
through three reigns, those of Matthias, Ferdinand II., and Ferdinand
III., and caused unparalleled misery in Germany.
Two years from that day the Protestant faith was obliterated in the
realm of Austria, and the progress of a hundred years was wiped out.
In three years more, not only Austria, but Germany, was in a worse
condition than she had known for centuries--the wretched people, a prey
to both parties, were slaughtered, robbed, driven hither and thither,
and a country only recently rejoicing in its material prosperity was a
waste and a ruin.
The Imperial troops were splendidly led by two great generals--Tilly
and Wallenstein. The Protestant nations--England, Holland, Denmark,
and Sweden--looked on in dismay as they saw a powerful and triumphant
Protestantism being wiped out of existence in the land of its birth.
By 1629 Ferdinand II. considered his power re-established absolutely
over all Germany. He issued what was called the "Edict of
Restitution," which ordered the restoration of all Protestant territory
to Catholic hands. Wallenstein, in addition to this, declared that
reigning princes and a national diet should be abolished and all power
centered in the Emperor! Indeed this Wallenstein was minded to play
the dictator as well as general. He traveled in regal state, with his
one hundred carriages, one thousand horses, fifteen cooks, and fifteen
young nobles for his pages!
This taste for splendor was, like Wolsey's, his undoing. People began
to fear the ambitious leader, and Ferdinand dismissed him. With rage
and hate in his heart he retired to Prague to await developments.
Twelve years of war in horrible form had wrought utter ruin and broken
the spirit of the Protestants. But help and hope suddenly came in 1630.
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, with his heart all aflame with zeal
to defend the falling cause of Protestantism in Germany, is the
knightliest figure which adorns the pages of history.
We in this present age have reached a point of development when,
without the quivering of an eyelash, we can hear of the destruction of
suffering peoples, even if it involves the principles and things most
sacred to us. Whether it be the effacing of Christianity in Crete, or
of liberty in Cuba, the motto of practical men and nations is--"hands
off."
Gustavus Adolphus had not learned that potent phrase. He was still in
that undeveloped condition when the elemental impulses of the heart
sway men's action. And without a regret, without an enfeebling doubt,
he could turn his back upon a throne and an adoring people, in defense
of an imperiled Protestantism in another land.
From the moment his foot touched the soil of Germany on that 4th of
July, 1630, life and hope revived. The Emperor Ferdinand laughed and
called him the "Snow King," who would melt away after one winter. But
when one city after another was stormed and taken, when he left behind
him a path of religious liberty and rejoicing--when Tilly was no longer
able to cope with this Snow King and Wallenstein had to be recalled,
and when it looked as if the work of twelve years might be undone, then
Ferdinand no longer laughed!
Wallenstein would only return upon conditions which actually made him
the lord and Ferdinand the subject. Having thus become absolute master
of the Imperial cause, he confidently set about the task of defeating
Gustavus.
The Queen of Sweden had joined her husband in Germany. On the 27th of
October, 1632, he took leave of her. As he passed through the country,
the people fell on their knees, kissing his garments, calling him
Deliverer. He exclaimed, "I pray that the wrath of the Almighty may
not be visited upon me, on account of this idolatry toward a weak and
sinful mortal."
Before the great conflict began he made an address to his Swedes, and
then the whole army united in singing Luther's grand hymn, "A tower of
strength is our Lord!"
For hours the battle raged furiously, and while the issue was trembling
in the balance, the sight of the riderless horse of the Swedish King,
covered with blood and wildly galloping to and fro, told the awful
story. The terrified animal had carried him with a shattered arm right
into the enemy's ranks, where he was instantly shot.
While Wallenstein was retreating to Leipzig, the body of this most
royal of kings was lying under a heap of dead, so mutilated by the
hoofs of horses as to be almost unrecognizable.
The Protestant cause had lost its soul and inspiration. But, in
falling, the heroic king had so broken the enemy that there was a long
pause in hostilities. And the wily general retired again to Prague,
there to evolve new plans for his own aggrandizement.
At this crisis a new champion arose. It was not to be expected that
Richelieu, who had been putting down Protestantism with an iron hand in
France, would feel sympathy for the Protestant cause in Germany! But
that wary primate and minister was not going to stand on a little
matter of religion, when he saw an advantage to be gained for France!
He had long ago determined how this conflict should end. He did not
intend to permit Imperial Germany under Ferdinand to rise to ascendancy
in Europe.
With the weight of France thrown into the scale when the Imperial cause
was already so shattered by Gustavus, it was easy to see how it must
end.
Wallenstein secretly opened negotiations from Prague with the French
ambassador, and steadily disregarded the Emperor's orders to return to
his command. The project was that he should go over to the Protestant
side in return for the crown of Bohemia.
A general whom the traitor trusted, in turn betrayed him to the
Emperor. Six soldiers, under the pretense of bearing dispatches,
entered his room.
"Are _you_ the traitor who is going to deliver your Emperor's troops to
the enemy?" shouted one of the men.
Wallenstein realized that his hour had come. He said not a word, but
stretched out his arms and silently received his death-blow.
With an invading French army in Germany, under the famous Marshals
Turenne and Conde, looking about for choice bits of territory for
France, a religious war had become a political one. It lasted until
1648, when the "Peace of Westphalia" concluded the most desolating
struggle in the history of wars.
And what had been gained? The very principle for which it was
undertaken was surrendered. Entire religious freedom was granted to
Protestants (excepting in Austria); four great states were lost to the
empire; a population of seventeen millions was reduced to four
millions, with Imperial authority abridged and broken.
France took Alsace, and Sweden Pomerania. Holland and Switzerland were
recognized as independent States. The supreme power was invested in
the Reichstag, and the several German princes were made almost
independent. The empire, as a unity, had been reduced to a shadow.
The devastation which had been wrought by those thirty terrible years
cannot be described. Its details are too awful to be dwelt upon.
Famine had converted men into wild beasts, who formed themselves into
bands, and preyed on those they caught.
Such a band was attacked near Worms and was found cooking in a great
caldron human legs and arms!
The spirit of the people was broken. Germany had been set back two
hundred years. And for what? Not to accomplish any high purpose, not
even from mistaken Christian zeal, but simply to carry out the despotic
resolve of the Catholic Church to rule the minds and consciences of all
men through its Popes and priesthood. It was the old battle commenced
six centuries before. Had Henry not gone to Canossa in 1073, there had
been no Thirty Years' War in 1618!
[1] For a comprehensive understanding of this period see Chart of
Civilization in Six Centuries, "Who, When, and What."