RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION
_Recapitulation._
I will now recapitulate the course of this work, more fully with respect
to the former parts, and briefly <as to> the latter. In the first
chapter we have seen that most, if not all, organic beings, when taken
by man out of their natural condition, and bred during several
generations, vary; that is variation is partly due to the direct effect
of the new external influences, and partly to the indirect effect on the
reproductive system rendering the organization of the offspring in some
degree plastic. Of the variations thus produced, man when uncivilised
naturally preserves the life, and therefore unintentionally breeds from
those individuals most useful to him in his different states: when even
semi-civilised, he intentionally separates and breeds from such
individuals. Every part of the structure seems occasionally to vary in a
very slight degree, and the extent to which all kinds of peculiarities
in mind and body, when congenital and when slowly acquired either from
external influences, from exercise, or from disuse <are inherited>, is
truly wonderful. When several breeds are once formed, then crossing is
the most fertile source of new breeds{507}. Variation must be ruled, of
course, by the health of the new race, by the tendency to return to the
ancestral forms, and by unknown laws determining the proportional
increase and symmetry of the body. The amount of variation, which has
been effected under domestication, is quite unknown in the majority of
domestic beings.
{507} Compare however Darwin's later view:--"The possibility of
making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated,"
_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23. The author's change of opinion
was no doubt partly due to his experience in breeding pigeons.
In the second chapter it was shown that wild organisms undoubtedly vary
in some slight degree: and that the kind of variation, though much less
in degree, is similar to that of domestic organisms. It is highly
probable that every organic being, if subjected during several
generations to new and varying conditions, would vary. It is certain
that organisms, living in an _isolated_ country which is undergoing
geological changes, must in the course of time be so subjected to new
conditions; moreover an organism, when by chance transported into a new
station, for instance into an island, will often be exposed to new
conditions, and be surrounded by a new series of organic beings. If
there were no power at work selecting every slight variation, which
opened new sources of subsistence to a being thus situated, the effects
of crossing, the chance of death and the constant tendency to reversion
to the old parent-form, would prevent the production of new races. If
there were any selective agency at work, it seems impossible to assign
any limit{508} to the complexity and beauty of the adaptive structures,
which _might_ thus be produced: for certainly the limit of possible
variation of organic beings, either in a wild or domestic state, is not
known.
{508} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 469, vi. p. 644, Darwin makes a
strong statement to this effect.
It was then shown, from the geometrically increasing tendency of each
species to multiply (as evidenced from what we know of mankind and of
other animals when favoured by circumstances), and from the means of
subsistence of each species on an _average_ remaining constant, that
during some part of the life of each, or during every few generations,
there must be a severe struggle for existence; and that less than a
grain{509} in the balance will determine which individuals shall live
and which perish. In a country, therefore, undergoing changes, and cut
off from the free immigration of species better adapted to the new
station and conditions, it cannot be doubted that there is a most
powerful means of selection, _tending_ to preserve even the slightest
variation, which aided the subsistence or defence of those organic
beings, during any part of their whole existence, whose organization had
been rendered plastic. Moreover, in animals in which the sexes are
distinct, there is a sexual struggle, by which the most vigorous, and
consequently the best adapted, will oftener procreate their kind.
{509} "A grain in the balance will determine which individual shall
live and which shall die," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 467, vi. p. 642. A
similar statement occurs in the 1842 Essay, p. 8, note 3.{Note 59}
A new race thus formed by natural selection would be undistinguishable
from a species. For comparing, on the one hand, the several species of a
genus, and on the other hand several domestic races from a common stock,
we cannot discriminate them by the amount of external difference, but
only, first, by domestic races not remaining so constant or being so
"true" as species are; and secondly by races always producing fertile
offspring when crossed. And it was then shown that a race naturally
selected--from the variation being slower--from the selection steadily
leading towards the same ends{510}, and from every new slight change in
structure being adapted (as is implied by its selection) to the new
conditions and being fully exercised, and lastly from the freedom from
occasional crosses with other species, would almost necessarily be
"truer" than a race selected by ignorant or capricious and short-lived
man. With respect to the sterility of species when crossed, it was shown
not to be a universal character, and when present to vary in degree:
sterility also was shown probably to depend less on external than on
constitutional differences. And it was shown that when individual
animals and plants are placed under new conditions, they become, without
losing their healths, as sterile, in the same manner and to the same
degree, as hybrids; and it is therefore conceivable that the cross-bred
offspring between two species, having different constitutions, might
have its constitution affected in the same peculiar manner as when an
individual animal or plant is placed under new conditions. Man in
selecting domestic races has little wish and still less power to adapt
the whole frame to new conditions; in nature, however, where each
species survives by a struggle against other species and external
nature, the result must be very different.
{510} Thus according to the author what is now known as
_orthogenesis_ is due to selection.
Races descending from the same stock were then compared with species of
the same genus, and they were found to present some striking analogies.
The offspring also of races when crossed, that is mongrels, were
compared with the cross-bred offspring of species, that is hybrids, and
they were found to resemble each other in all their characters, with the
one exception of sterility, and even this, when present, often becomes
after some generations variable in degree. The chapter was summed up,
and it was shown that no ascertained limit to the amount of variation is
known; or could be predicted with due time and changes of condition
granted. It was then admitted that although the production of new races,
undistinguishable from true species, is probable, we must look to the
relations in the past and present geographical distribution of the
infinitely numerous beings, by which we are surrounded--to their
affinities and to their structure--for any direct evidence.
In the third chapter the inheritable variations in the mental phenomena
of domestic and of wild organic beings were considered. It was shown
that we are not concerned in this work with the first origin of the
leading mental qualities; but that tastes, passions, dispositions,
consensual movements, and habits all became, either congenitally or
during mature life, modified and were inherited. Several of these
modified habits were found to correspond in every essential character
with true instincts, and they were found to follow the same laws.
Instincts and dispositions &c. are fully as important to the
preservation and increase of a species as its corporeal structure; and
therefore the natural means of selection would act on and modify them
equally with corporeal structures. This being granted, as well as the
proposition that mental phenomena are variable, and that the
modifications are inheritable, the possibility of the several most
complicated instincts being slowly acquired was considered, and it was
shown from the very imperfect series in the instincts of the animals now
existing, that we are not justified in _prima facie_ rejecting a theory
of the common descent of allied organisms from the difficulty of
imagining the transitional stages in the various now most complicated
and wonderful instincts. We were thus led on to consider the same
question with respect both to highly complicated organs, and to the
aggregate of several such organs, that is individual organic beings; and
it was shown, by the same method of taking the existing most imperfect
series, that we ought not at once to reject the theory, because we
cannot trace the transitional stages in such organs, or conjecture the
transitional habits of such individual species.
In the Second Part{511} the direct evidence of allied forms having
descended from the same stock was discussed. It was shown that this
theory requires a long series of intermediate forms between the species
and groups in the same classes--forms not directly intermediate between
existing species, but intermediate with a common parent. It was admitted
that if even all the preserved fossils and existing species were
collected, such a series would be far from being formed; but it was
shown that we have not _good_ evidence that the oldest known deposits
are contemporaneous with the first appearance of living beings; or that
the several subsequent formations are nearly consecutive; or that any
one formation preserves a nearly perfect fauna of even the hard marine
organisms, which lived in that quarter of the world. Consequently, we
have no reason to suppose that more than a small fraction of the
organisms which have lived at any one period have ever been preserved;
and hence that we ought not to expect to discover the fossilised
sub-varieties between any two species. On the other hand, the evidence,
though extremely imperfect, drawn from fossil remains, as far as it does
go, is in favour of such a series of organisms having existed as that
required. This want of evidence of the past existence of almost
infinitely numerous intermediate forms, is, I conceive, much the
weightiest difficulty{512} on the theory of common descent; but I must
think that this is due to ignorance necessarily resulting from the
imperfection of all geological records.
{511} Part II begins with Ch. IV. See the Introduction, where the
absence of division into two parts (in the _Origin_) is discussed.
{512} In the recapitulation in the last chapter of the _Origin_,
Ed. i. p. 475, vi. p. 651, the author does not insist on this point
as the weightiest difficulty, though he does so in Ed. i. p. 299.
It is possible that he had come to think less of the difficulty in
question: this was certainly the case when he wrote the 6th
edition, see p. 438.
In the fifth chapter it was shown that new species gradually{513}
appear, and that the old ones gradually disappear, from the earth; and
this strictly accords with our theory. The extinction of species seems
to be preceded by their rarity; and if this be so, no one ought to feel
more surprise at a species being exterminated than at its being rare.
Every species which is not increasing in number must have its
geometrical tendency to increase checked by some agency seldom
accurately perceived by us. Each slight increase in the power of this
unseen checking agency would cause a corresponding decrease in the
average numbers of that species, and the species would become rarer: we
feel not the least surprise at one species of a genus being rare and
another abundant; why then should we be surprised at its extinction,
when we have good reason to believe that this very rarity is its regular
precursor and cause.
{513} <The following words:> The fauna changes singly <were inserted
by the author, apparently to replace a doubtful erasure>.
In the sixth chapter the leading facts in the geographical distribution
of organic beings were considered--namely, the dissimilarity in areas
widely and effectually separated, of the organic beings being exposed to
very similar conditions (as for instance, within the tropical forests of
Africa and America, or on the volcanic islands adjoining them). Also the
striking similarity and general relations of the inhabitants of the same
great continents, conjoined with a lesser degree of dissimilarity in the
inhabitants living on opposite sides of the barriers intersecting
it--whether or not these opposite sides are exposed to similar
conditions. Also the dissimilarity, though in a still lesser degree, in
the inhabitants of different islands in the same archipelago, together
with their similarity taken as a whole with the inhabitants of the
nearest continent, whatever its character may be. Again, the peculiar
relations of Alpine floras; the absence of mammifers on the smaller
isolated islands; and the comparative fewness of the plants and other
organisms on islands with diversified stations; the connection between
the possibility of occasional transportal from one country to another,
with an affinity, though not identity, of the organic beings inhabiting
them. And lastly, the clear and striking relations between the living
and the extinct in the same great divisions of the world; which
relation, if we look very far backward, seems to die away. These facts,
if we bear in mind the geological changes in progress, all simply follow
from the proposition of allied organic beings having lineally descended
from common parent-stocks. On the theory of independent creations they
must remain, though evidently connected together, inexplicable and
disconnected.
In the seventh chapter, the relationship or grouping of extinct and
recent species; the appearance and disappearance of groups; the
ill-defined objects of the natural classification, not depending on the
similarity of organs physiologically important, not being influenced by
adaptive or analogical characters, though these often govern the whole
economy of the individual, but depending on any character which varies
least, and especially on the forms through which the embryo passes, and,
as was afterwards shown, on the presence of rudimentary and useless
organs. The alliance between the nearest species in _distinct_ groups
being general and not especial; the close similarity in the rules and
objects in classifying domestic races and true species. All these facts
were shown to follow on the natural system being a genealogical system.
In the eighth chapter, the unity of structure throughout large groups,
in species adapted to the most different lives, and the wonderful
metamorphosis (used metaphorically by naturalists) of one part or organ
into another, were shown to follow simply on new species being produced
by the selection and inheritance of successive _small_ changes of
structure. The unity of type is wonderfully manifested by the similarity
of structure, during the embryonic period, in the species of entire
classes. To explain this it was shown that the different races of our
domestic animals differ less, during their young state, than when full
grown; and consequently, if species are produced like races, the same
fact, on a greater scale, might have been expected to hold good with
them. This remarkable law of nature was attempted to be explained
through establishing, by sundry facts, that slight variations originally
appear during all periods of life, and that when inherited they tend to
appear at the corresponding period of life; according to these
principles, in several species descended from the same parent-stock,
their embryos would almost necessarily much more closely resemble each
other than they would in their adult state. The importance of these
embryonic resemblances, in making out a natural or genealogical
classification, thus becomes at once obvious. The occasional greater
simplicity of structure in the mature animal than in the embryo; the
gradation in complexity of the species in the great classes; the
adaptation of the larvae of animals to independent powers of existence;
the immense difference in certain animals in their larval and mature
states, were all shown on the above principles to present no difficulty.
In the <ninth> chapter, the frequent and almost general presence of
organs and parts, called by naturalists abortive or rudimentary, which,
though formed with exquisite care, are generally absolutely useless
<was considered>. <These structures,> though sometimes applied to uses
not normal,--which cannot be considered as mere representative parts,
for they are sometimes capable of performing their proper
function,--which are always best developed, and sometimes only
developed, during a very early period of life,--and which are of
admitted high importance in classification,--were shown to be simply
explicable on our theory of common descent.
_Why do we wish to reject the theory of common descent?_
Thus have many general facts, or laws, been included under one
explanation; and the difficulties encountered are those which would
naturally result from our acknowledged ignorance. And why should we not
admit this theory of descent{514}? Can it be shown that organic beings
in a natural state are _all absolutely invariable_? Can it be said that
the _limit of variation_ or the number of varieties capable of being
formed under domestication are known? Can any distinct line be drawn
_between a race and a species_? To these three questions we may
certainly answer in the negative. As long as species were thought to be
divided and defined by an impassable barrier of _sterility_, whilst we
were ignorant of geology, and imagined that the _world was of short
duration_, and the number of its past inhabitants few, we were justified
in assuming individual creations, or in saying with Whewell that the
beginnings of all things are hidden from man. Why then do we feel so
strong an inclination to reject this theory--especially when the actual
case of any two species, or even of any two races, is adduced--and one
is asked, have these two originally descended from the same parent womb?
I believe it is because we are always slow in admitting any great
change of which we do not see the intermediate steps. The mind cannot
grasp the full meaning of the term of a million or hundred million
years, and cannot consequently add up and perceive the full effects of
small successive variations accumulated during almost infinitely many
generations. The difficulty is the same with that which, with most
geologists, it has taken long years to remove, as when Lyell propounded
that great valleys{515} were hollowed out [and long lines of inland
cliffs had been formed] by the slow action of the waves of the sea. A
man may long view a grand precipice without actually believing, though
he may not deny it, that thousands of feet in thickness of solid rock
once extended over many square miles where the open sea now rolls;
without fully believing that the same sea which he sees beating the rock
at his feet has been the sole removing power.
{514} This question forms the subject of what is practically a
section of the final chapter of the _Origin_ (Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p.
657).
{515} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.
Shall we then allow that the three distinct species of rhinoceros{516}
which separately inhabit Java and Sumatra and the neighbouring mainland
of Malacca were created, male and female, out of the inorganic materials
of these countries? Without any adequate cause, as far as our reason
serves, shall we say that they were merely, from living near each other,
created very like each other, so as to form a section of the genus
dissimilar from the African section, some of the species of which
section inhabit very similar and some very dissimilar stations? Shall we
say that without any apparent cause they were created on the same
generic type with the ancient woolly rhinoceros of Siberia and of the
other species which formerly inhabited the same main division of the
world: that they were created, less and less closely related, but still
with interbranching affinities, with all the other living and extinct
mammalia? That without any apparent adequate cause their short necks
should contain the same number of vertebrae with the giraffe; that their
thick legs should be built on the same plan with those of the antelope,
of the mouse, of the hand of the monkey, of the wing of the bat, and of
the fin of the porpoise. That in each of these species the second bone
of their leg should show clear traces of two bones having been soldered
and united into one; that the complicated bones of their head should
become intelligible on the supposition of their having been formed of
three expanded vertebrae; that in the jaws of each when dissected young
there should exist small teeth which never come to the surface. That in
possessing these useless abortive teeth, and in other characters, these
three rhinoceroses in their embryonic state should much more closely
resemble other mammalia than they do when mature. And lastly, that in a
still earlier period of life, their arteries should run and branch as in
a fish, to carry the blood to gills which do not exist. Now these three
species of rhinoceros closely resemble each other; more closely than
many generally acknowledged races of our domestic animals; these three
species if domesticated would almost certainly vary, and races adapted
to different ends might be selected out of such variations. In this
state they would probably breed together, and their offspring would
possibly be quite, and probably in some degree, fertile; and in either
case, by continued crossing, one of these specific forms might be
absorbed and lost in another. I repeat, shall we then say that a pair,
or a gravid female, of each of these three species of rhinoceros, were
separately created with deceptive appearances of true relationship, with
the stamp of inutility on some parts, and of conversion in other parts,
out of the inorganic elements of Java, Sumatra and Malacca? or have they
descended, like our domestic races, from the same parent-stock? For my
own part I could no more admit the former proposition than I could admit
that the planets move in their courses, and that a stone falls to the
ground, not through the intervention of the secondary and appointed law
of gravity, but from the direct volition of the Creator.
{516} The discussion on the three species of _Rhinoceros_ which
also occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 48, was omitted in Ch. XIV of
the _Origin_, Ed. i.
Before concluding it will be well to show, although this has
incidentally appeared, how far the theory of common descent can
legitimately be extended{517}. If we once admit that two true species of
the same genus can have descended from the same parent, it will not be
possible to deny that two species of two genera may also have descended
from a common stock. For in some families the genera approach almost as
closely as species of the same genus; and in some orders, for instance
in the monocotyledonous plants, the families run closely into each
other. We do not hesitate to assign a common origin to dogs or cabbages,
because they are divided into groups analogous to the groups in nature.
Many naturalists indeed admit that all groups are artificial; and that
they depend entirely on the extinction of intermediate species. Some
naturalists, however, affirm that though driven from considering
sterility as the characteristic of species, that an entire incapacity to
propagate together is the best evidence of the existence of natural
genera. Even if we put on one side the undoubted fact that some species
of the same genus will not breed together, we cannot possibly admit the
above rule, seeing that the grouse and pheasant (considered by some good
ornithologists as forming two families), the bull-finch and canary-bird
have bred together.
{517} This corresponds to a paragraph in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
483, vi. p. 662, where it is assumed that animals have descended
"from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an
equal or lesser number." In the _Origin_, however, the author goes
on, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 663: "Analogy would lead me one step
further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have
descended from some one prototype."
No doubt the more remote two species are from each other, the weaker the
arguments become in favour of their common descent. In species of two
distinct families the analogy, from the variation of domestic organisms
and from the manner of their intermarrying, fails; and the arguments
from their geographical distribution quite or almost quite fails. But if
we once admit the general principles of this work, as far as a clear
unity of type can be made out in groups of species, adapted to play
diversified parts in the economy of nature, whether shown in the
structure of the embryonic or mature being, and especially if shown by a
community of abortive parts, we are legitimately led to admit their
community of descent. Naturalists dispute how widely this unity of type
extends: most, however, admit that the vertebrata are built on one type;
the articulata on another; the mollusca on a third; and the radiata on
probably more than one. Plants also appear to fall under three or four
great types. On this theory, therefore, all the organisms _yet
discovered_ are descendants of probably less than ten parent-forms.
_Conclusion._
My reasons have now been assigned for believing that specific forms are
not immutable creations{518}. The terms used by naturalists of affinity,
unity of type, adaptive characters, the metamorphosis and abortion of
organs, cease to be metaphorical expressions and become intelligible
facts. We no longer look at an organic being as a savage does at a
ship{519} or other great work of art, as at a thing wholly beyond his
comprehension, but as a production that has a history which we may
search into. How interesting do all instincts become when we speculate
on their origin as hereditary habits, or as slight congenital
modifications of former instincts perpetuated by the individuals so
characterised having been preserved. When we look at every complex
instinct and mechanism as the summing up of a long history of
contrivances, each most useful to its possessor, nearly in the same way
as when we look at a great mechanical invention as the summing up of the
labour, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous
workmen. How interesting does the geographical distribution of all
organic beings, past and present, become as throwing light on the
ancient geography of the world. Geology loses glory{520} from the
imperfection of its archives, but it gains in the immensity of its
subject. There is much grandeur in looking at every existing organic
being either as the lineal successor of some form now buried under
thousands of feet of solid rock, or as being the co-descendant of that
buried form of some more ancient and utterly lost inhabitant of this
world. It accords with what we know of the laws impressed by the
Creator{521} on matter that the production and extinction of forms
should, like the birth and death of individuals, be the result of
secondary means. It is derogatory that the Creator of countless
Universes should have made by individual acts of His will the myriads of
creeping parasites and worms, which since the earliest dawn of life have
swarmed over the land and in the depths of the ocean. We cease to be
astonished{522} that a group of animals should have been formed to lay
their eggs in the bowels and flesh of other sensitive beings; that some
animals should live by and even delight in cruelty; that animals should
be led away by false instincts; that annually there should be an
incalculable waste of the pollen, eggs and immature beings; for we see
in all this the inevitable consequences of one great law, of the
multiplication of organic beings not created immutable. From death,
famine, and the struggle for existence, we see that the most exalted end
which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the creation of the higher
animals{523}, has directly proceeded. Doubtless, our first impression is
to disbelieve that any secondary law could produce infinitely numerous
organic beings, each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and
widely extended adaptations: it at first accords better with our
faculties to suppose that each required the fiat of a Creator.
There{524} is a [simple] grandeur in this view of life with its several
powers of growth, reproduction and of sensation, having been originally
breathed into matter under a few forms, perhaps into only one{525}, and
that whilst this planet has gone cycling onwards according to the fixed
laws of gravity and whilst land and water have gone on replacing each
other--that from so simple an origin, through the selection of
infinitesimal varieties, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful
have been evolved.
{518} This sentence corresponds, not to the final section of the
_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 664, but rather to the opening
words of the section already referred to (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 480,
vi. p. 657).
{519} This simile occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 50, and in the
_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665, _i.e._ in the final section of
Ch. XIV (vi. Ch. XV). In the MS. there is some erasure in pencil of
which I have taken no notice.
{520} An almost identical sentence occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
p. 487, vi. p. 667. The fine prophecy (in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
486, vi. p. 666) on "the almost untrodden field of inquiry" is
wanting in the present Essay.
{521} See the last paragraph on p. 488 of the _Origin_, Ed. i., vi.
p. 668.
{522} A passage corresponding to this occurs in the sketch of 1842,
p. 51, but not in the last chapter of the _Origin_.
{523} This sentence occurs in an almost identical form in the
_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 490, vi. p. 669. It will be noted that man is
not named though clearly referred to. Elsewhere (_Origin_, Ed. i.
p. 488) the author is bolder and writes "Light will be thrown on
the origin of man and his history." In Ed. vi. p. 668, he writes
"Much light &c."
{524} For the history of this sentence (with which the _Origin of
Species_ closes) see the Essay of 1842, p. 52, note 2{Note 184}:
also the concluding pages of the Introduction.
{525} These four words are added in pencil between the lines.
INDEX
For the names of Authors, Birds, Mammals (including names of classes)
and Plants, see sub-indexes under _Authors_, _Birds_, _Mammals_ and
_Plants_.
Acquired characters, _see_ Characters
Affinities and classification, 35
America, fossils, 177
Analogy, resemblance by, 36, 82, 199, 205, 211
Animals, marine, preservation of as fossils, 25, 139, 141;
--marine distribution, 155, 196
Australia, fossils, 177
AUTHORS, NAMES OF:--Ackerman on hybrids, 11;
Bakewell, 9, 91;
Bateson, W., xxix, 69 _n._, 217;
Bellinghausen, 124;
Boitard and Corbie, 106 _n._;
Brougham, Lord, 17, 117;
Brown, R., 233;
Buckland on fossils, 24, 137, 145 _n._;
Buffon on woodpecker, 6;
Bunbury (_Sir_ H.), rules for selection, 67;
Butler, S., 116 _n._;
d'Archiac, 146 _n._;
Darwin, C., origin of his evolutionary views, xi-xv;
--on Forbes' theory, 30;
--his _Journal of Researches_ quoted, 67 _n._, 168 _n._;
--his _Cross-and Self-Fertilisation_, 69 _n._, 103 _n._;
--on crossing Chinese and common goose, 72 _n._;
Darwin, Mrs, letter to, xxvi;
Darwin, F., on Knight's Law, 70 _n._;
Darwin, R. W., fact supplied by, 42 _n._, 223;
Darwin and Wallace, joint paper by, xxiv, 87 _n._;
De Candolle, 7, 47, 87, 204, 238;
D'Orbigny, 124, 179 _n._;
Ehrenberg, 146 _n._;
Ewart on telegony, 108 _n._;
Falconer, 167;
Forbes, E., xxvii, 30, 146 _n._, 163 _n._, 165 _n._;
Gadow, Dr, xxix;
Gaertner, 98, 107;
Goebel on Knight's Law, 70 _n._;
Gould on distribution, 156;
Gray, Asa, letter to, publication of in Linnean paper explained, xxiv;
Henslow, G., on evolution without selection, 63 _n._;
Henslow, J. S., xxvii;
Herbert on hybrids, 12, 98;
--sterility of crocus, 99 _n._;
Hering, 116 _n._;
Hogg, 115 _n._;
Holland, Dr, 223;
Hooker, J. D., xxvii, xxviii, 153 _n._;
--on Insular Floras, 161, 164, 167;
Huber, P., 118;
Hudson on woodpecker, 131 _n._;
Humboldt, 71, 166;
Hunter, W., 114;
Hutton, 27, 138;
Huxley, 134 _n._;
--on Darwin, xi, xii, xiv;
--on Darwin's Essay of 1844, xxviii, 235;
Judd, xi, xiii, xxix, 28, 141 _n._;
Knight, A., 3 _n._, 65, 114;
--on Domestication, 77;
Knight-Darwin Law, 70 _n._;
Koelreuter, 12, 97, 98, 104, 232;
Lamarck, 42 _n._, 47, 82, 146, 200;
--reasons for his belief in mutability, 197;
Lindley, 101;
Linnean Society, joint paper, _see_ Darwin and Wallace;
Linnaeus on sterility of Alpine plants, 101;
--on generic characters, 201;
Lonsdale, 145 _n._;
Lyell, xxvii, 134 _n._, 138, 141 and _n._, 146 _n._, 159, 171, 173,
178;
--his doctrine carried to an extreme, 26;
--his geological metaphor, 27 _n._, 141;
--his uniformitarianism, 53 _n._;
--his views on imperfection of geological record, 27;
Macculloch, 124 _n._;
Macleay, W. S., 202;
Magendie, 117;
Malthus, xv, 7, 88, 90;
Marr, Dr, xxix;
Marshall, 65;
--on sheep and cattle, 78 and _n._;
--on horns of cattle, 207;
Mivart, criticisms, 128 _n._;
Mozart as a child, his skill on the piano compared to instinct,
19 _n._;
Mueller on consensual movements, 113;
--on variation under uniform conditions, (2), 62;
--on recapitulation theory, 219;
Murchison, 145 _n._;
Newton, Alfred, 132 _n._;
Owen, R., xxvii, 219;
Pallas, 68, 69;
Pennant, 93 _n._;
Pliny on selection, 67;
Poeppig, 113 _n._;
Prain, Col., xxix;
Rengger, sterility, 100;
Richardson, 132 _n._;
Rutherford, H. W., xxix;
St Hilaire on races of dogs, 106;
--on sterility of tame and domestic animals, 12, 100;
Smith, Jordan, 140;
Sprengel, 233;
Stapf, Dr, xxix;
Strickland, xxvii;
Suchetet, 97 _n._;
Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W., xxix, 167;
Wallace, xxiv, xxix, 30, 170 _n._;
Waterhouse, 125, 126;
Western, Lord, 9, 65, 91;
Whewell, xxviii, 200;
Woodward, H. B., 145 _n._;
Wrangel, 119 _n._;
Zacharias, Darwin's letter to, xv
Barriers and distribution, 30, 154, 157, 178
Bees, 113, 117;
combs of Hive-bee, 19, 121, 125, 126
Beetles, abortive wings of, 45
BIRDS, transporting seeds, 169;
feeding young with food different to their own, 19, 126;
migration, 123, 124;
nests, 120, 121, 122, 126;
of Galapagos, 19, 159;
rapid increase, 88;
song, 117
BIRDS, NAMES OF:--Apteryx, 45, 236;
Duck, 46, 61, 65, 128, 224 _n._;
Fowl, domestic, 59, 82 _n._, 97, 113, 114, 217;
Goose, 72;
--periodic habit, 124 _n._;
Grouse, hybridised, 97, 102;
Guinea-fowl, 79;
Hawk, sterility, 100;
--periodic habit, 124;
Opetiorynchus, 83;
Orpheus, 31;
Ostrich, distribution of, 158;
Owl, white barn, 82;
Partridge, infertility of, 102;
Peacock, 79, 97, 102;
Penguin, 128 _n._, 237;
Petrel, 128 _n._;
Pheasant, 97, 102;
Pigeon, 66, 82, 110 _n._, 113, 114, 116, 117, 129, 135;
_see_ Wood-pigeon;
Rhea, 158;
Robins, increase in numbers, 88, 90;
Rock-thrush of Guiana, 93;
Swan, species of, 105;
Tailor-bird, 18, 118;
Turkey, Australian bush-turkey, 121 _n._, 122;
Tyrannus, 31;
Water-ouzel, 18 _n._, 120;
Woodcock, loss of migratory instinct, 120;
Woodpecker, 6, 16, 128 _n._, 148;
--in treeless lands, 16, 131;
Wood-pigeon, 122;
Wren, gold-crested, 120;
--willow, 105, 148
Breeds, domestic, parentage of, 71
Brothers, death of by same peculiar disease in old age, 42 _n._,
44 _n._, 223
Bud variation, 58;
_see_ Sports
Butterfly, cabbage, 127
Catastrophes, geological, 145, 147
Caterpillars, food, 126, 127
Characters, acquired, inheritance of, 1, 57, 60, 225;
--congenital, 60;
--fixed by breeding, 61;
--mental, variation in, 17, 112, 119;
--running through whole groups, 106;
--useless for classification, 199
Cirripedes, 201, 229
Classification, natural system of, 35, 199, 206, 208;
--by any constant character, 201;
--relation of, to geography, 202;
--a law that members of two distinct groups resemble each other not
specifically but generally, 203, 212;
--of domestic races, 204;
--rarity and extinction in relation to, 210
Compensation, law of, 106
Conditions, direct, action of, 1, 57 _n._, 62, 65;
--change of, analogous to crossing, 15, 77 _n._, 105;
--accumulated effects of, 60, 78;
--affecting reproduction, 1, 4, 78, 99;
--and geographical distribution, 152
Continent originating as archipelago, bearing of on distribution, 189
Cordillera, as channel of migration, 34 _n._, 191
Correlation, 76
Creation, centres of, 168, 192
Crocodile, 146
_Cross-and Self-Fertilisation_, early statement of principles of, 15,
69 _n._, 103 _n._
Crossing, swamping effect of, 2, 69, 96;
--of bisexual animals and hermaphrodite plants, 2;
--analogous to change in conditions, 3, 15, 69;
--in relation to breeds, 68;
--in plants, adaptations for, 70
Death, feigned by insects, 123
Difficulties, on theory of evolution, 15, 121, 128, 134
Disease, hereditary, 43 _n._, 58, 222
Distribution, geographical, 29, 31, 151, 174, 177;
--in space and time, subject to same laws, 155;
--occasional means of (seeds, eggs, &c.), 169
Disuse, inherited effects of, 46, 57
Divergence, principle of, xxv, 37 _n._, 145 _n._, 208 _n._
Domestication, variation under, 57, 62;
--accumulated effects of, 75, 78;
--analysis of effects of, 76, 83
Ears, drooping, 236
Elevation, geological, favouring birth of new species, 32, 34 _n._,
35 _n._, 185-189;
--alternating with subsidence, importance of for evolution, 33, 190;
--bad for preservation of fossils, 194
Embryo, branchial arches of, 42, 220;
--absence of special adaptation in, 42, 44 _n._, 220, 228;
--less variable than parent, hence importance of embryology for
classification, 44 _n._, 229;
--alike in all vertebrates, 42, 218;
--occasionally more complicated than adult, 219, 227
Embryology, 42, 218;
its value in classification, 45, 200;
law of inheritance at corresponding ages, 44 _n._, 224;
young of very distinct breeds closely similar, 44 _n._, 225
Ephemera, selection falls on larva, 87 _n._
Epizoa, 219
Essay of 1842, question as to date of, xvi;
description of MS., XX;
compared with the _Origin_, xxii
Essay of 1844, writing of, xvi;
compared with that of 1842 and with the _Origin_, xxii
Evolution, theory of, why do we tend to reject it, 248
Expression, inheritance of, 114
Extinction, 23, 147, 192;
locally sudden, 145;
continuous with rarity, 147, 198
Extinction and rarity, 198
Eye, 111 _n._, 128, 129, 130
Faculty, in relation to instinct, 123
Faunas, alpine, 30, 170, 188;
of Galapagos, 31 _n._, 82, 159;
insular-alpine very peculiar, 188;
insular, 159, 160
Fauna and flora, of islands related to nearest land, 187
Fear of man, inherited, 17, 113
Fertility, interracial, 103, 104
Fish, colours of, 130, 131;
eggs of carried by water-beetle, 169;
flying, 128 _n._;
--transported by whirlwind, 169
Floras, alpine, 162;
of oceanic islands, 162;
alpine, related to surrounding lowlands, 163;
alpine, identity of on distant mountains, 163;
alpine resembling arctic, 164;
arctic relation to alpine, 164
Flower, morphology of, 39, 216;
degenerate under domestication if neglected, 58;
changed by selection, 66
Fly, causing extinction, 149
Flying, evolution of, 16, 131
Food, causing variations, 1, 58, 77, 78
Formation (geological) evidence from Tertiary system, 144;
(geological), groups of species appear suddenly in Secondary, 26, 144;
Palaeozoic, if contemporary with beginning of life, author's theory
false, 138
Formations, most ancient escape denudation in conditions unfavourable to
life, 25, 139
Forms, transitional, 24, 35 _n._, 136, 142, 194;
on rising land, 196;
indirectly intermediate, 24, 135
Fossils, Silurian, not those which first existed in the world, 26, 138;
falling into or between existing groups and indirectly intermediate,
24, 137;
conditions favourable to preservation, not favourable to existence
of much life, 25, 139, 141
Fruit, attractive to animals, 130
Galapagos Islands and Darwin's views, xiv;
physical character of in relation to fauna, 31 _n._, 159
Galapagos Islands, fauna, 31 _n._, 82
Gasteropods, embryology, 218
Genera, crosses between, 11, 97;
wide ranging, has wide ranging species, 155;
origin of, 209
Geography, in relation to geology, 31 _n._, 174, 177
Geographical distribution, _see_ Distribution
Geology, as producing changed conditions, 4;
evidence from, 22, 133;
"destroys geography," 31 _n._
Glacial period, effect of on distribution of alpine and arctic plants,
165
Habit in relation to instinct, 17, 113, 115, 116
Habits in animals taught by parent, 18
Heredity, _see_ Inheritance
Homology of limbs, 38, 214
Homology, serial, 39, 215
Hybrid, fowls and grouse, 11;
fowl and peacock, 97;
pheasant and grouse, 97;
Azalea and Rhododendron, 97
Hybrids, gradation in sterility of, 11, 72, 97;
sterility of not reciprocal, 97;
variability of, 78;
compared and contrasted with mongrel, 107
Individual, meaning of term, 58
Inheritance of acquired characters, _see_ Character
Inheritance, delayed or latent, 43, 44 _n._, 223;
of character at a time of life corresponding to that at which it
first appeared, 43, 44 _n._, 223;
germinal, 44, 222, 223
Insect, adapted to fertilise flowers, 87;
feigning death, 123;
metamorphosis, 129;
variation in larvae, 223
Instinct, variation in, 17, 112;
and faculty, 18, 123;
guided by reason, 18, 19, 118;
migratory, 19;
migratory, loss of by woodcocks, 120;
migratory, origin of, 125;
due to germinal variation rather than habit, 116;
requiring education for perfection, 117;
characterised by ignorance of end: _e.g._ butterflies laying eggs,
17, 118;
butterflies laying eggs on proper plant, 118, 127;
instinct, natural selection applicable to, 19, 120
Instinct, for finding the way, 124;
periodic, _i.e._ for lapse of time, 124;
comb-making of bee, 125;
birds feeding young, 19, 126;
nest-building, gradation in, 18, 120, 121, 122;
instincts, complex, difficulty in believing in their evolution, 20, 121
Intermediate forms, _see_ Forms
Island, _see_ Elevation, Fauna, Flora
Island, upheaved and gradually colonised, 184
Islands, nurseries of new species, 33, 35 _n._, 185, 189
Isolation, 32, 34 _n._, 64, 95, 183, 184
Lepidosiren, 140 _n._, 212
Limbs, vertebrate, of one type, 38, 216
MAMMALS, arctic, transported by icebergs, 170;
distribution, 151, 152, 193;
distribution of, ruled by barriers, 154;
introduced by man on islands, 172;
not found on oceanic islands, 172;
relations in time and space, similarity of, 176;
of Tertiary period, relation of to existing forms in same region, 174
MAMMALS, NAMES OF:--
Antelope, 148;
Armadillo, 174;
Ass, 79, 107, 172;
Bat, 38, 123, 128 _n._, 131, 132, 214;
Bear, sterile in captivity, 100;
--whale-like habit, 128 _n._;
Bizcacha, 168, 203, 212;
Bull, mammae of, 232;
Carnivora, law of compensation in, 106;
Cats, run wild at Ascension, 172;
--tailless, 60;
Cattle, horns of, 75, 207;
--increase in S. America, 90;
--Indian, 205;
--Niata, 61, 73;
--suffering in parturition from too large calves, 75;
Cheetah, sterility of, 100 and _n._;
Chironectes, 199;
Cow, abortive mammae, 232;
Ctenomys, _see_ Tuco-tuco;
Dog, 106, 114;
--in Cuba, 113 and _n._;
--mongrel breed in oceanic islands, 70;
--difference in size a bar to crossing, 97;
--domestic, parentage of, 71, 72, 73;
--drooping ears, 236;
--effects of selection, 66;
--inter-fertile, 14;
--long-legged breed produced to catch hares, 9, 10, 91, 92;
--of savages, 67;
--races of resembling genera, 106, 204;
--Australian, change of colour in, 61;
--bloodhound, Cuban, 204;
--bull-dog, 113;
--foxhound, 114, 116;
--greyhound and bull-dog, young of resembling each other, 43,
44 _n._, 225;
--pointer, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118;
--retriever, 118 _n._;
--setter, 114;
--shepherd-dog and harrier crossed, instinct of, 118, 119;
--tailless, 60;
--turnspit, 66;
Echidna, 82 _n._;
Edentata, fossil and living in S. America, 174;
Elephant, sterility of, 12, 100;
Elk, 125;
Ferret, fertility of, 12, 102;
Fox, 82, 173, 181;
Galeopithecus, 131 _n._;
Giraffe, fossil, 177;
--tail, 128 _n._;
Goat, run wild at Tahiti, 172;
Guanaco, 175;
Guinea-pig, 69;
Hare, S. American, 158 _n._;
Hedgehog, 82 _n._;
Horse, 67, 113, 115, 148, 149;
--checks to increase, 148, 149;
--increase in S. America, 90;
--malconformations and lameness inherited, 58;
--parentage, 71, 72;
--stripes on, 107;
--young of cart-horse and racehorse resembling each other, 43;
Hyena, fossil, 177;
Jaguar, catching fish, 132;
Lemur, flying, 131 _n._;
Macrauchenia, 137;
Marsupials, fossil in Europe, 175 _n._, 177;
--pouch bones, 232, 237;
Mastodon, 177;
Mouse, 153, 155;
--enormous rate of increase, 89, 90;
Mule, occasionally breeding, 97, 102;
Musk-deer, fossil, 177;
_Mustela vison_, 128 _n._, 132 _n._;
Mydas, 170;
Mydaus, 170;
Nutria, _see_ Otter;
Otter, 131, 132, 170;
--marsupial, 199, 205, 211;
Pachydermata, 137;
Phascolomys, 203, 212;
Pig, 115, 217;
--in oceanic islands, 70;
--run wild at St Helena, 172;
Pole-cat, aquatic, 128 _n._, 132 _n._;
Porpoise, paddle of, 38, 214;
Rabbit, 74, 113, 236;
Rat, Norway, 153;
Reindeer, 125;
Rhinoceros, 148;
--abortive teeth of, 45, 231;
--three oriental species of, 48, 249;
Ruminantia, 137 and _n._;
Seal, 93 _n._, 131;
Sheep, 68, 78, 117, 205;
--Ancon variety, 59, 66, 73;
--inherited habit of returning home to lamb, 115;
--transandantes of Spain, their migratory instinct, 114, 117,
124 _n._;
Squirrel, flying, 131;
Tapir, 135, 136;
Tuco-tuco, blindness of, 46, 236;
Whale, rudimentary teeth, 45, 229;
Wolf, 71, 72, 82;
Yak, 72
Metamorphosis, literal not metaphorical, 41, 217
Metamorphosis, _e.g._ leaves into petals, 215
Migrants to new land, struggle among, 33, 185
Migration, taking the place of variation, 188
Monstrosities, as starting-points of breeds, 49, 59;
their relation to rudimentary organs, 46, 234
Morphology, 38, 215;
terminology of, no longer metaphorically used, 41, 217
Mutation, _see_ Sports
Natural selection, _see_ Selection
Nest, bird's, _see_ Instinct
Ocean, depth of, and fossils, 25, 195
Organisms, gradual introduction of new, 23, 144;
extinct related to, existing in the same manner as representative
existing ones to each other, 33, 192;
introduced, beating indigenes, 153;
dependent on other organisms rather than on physical surroundings, 185;
graduated complexity in the great classes, 227;
immature, how subject to natural selection, 42, 220, 228;
all descended from a few parent-forms, 52, 252
Organs, perfect, objection to their evolution, 15, 128;
distinct in adult life, indistinguishable in embryo, 42, 218;
rudimentary, 45, 231, 232, 233;
rudimentary, compared to monstrosities, 46, 234;
rudimentary, caused by disuse, 46, 235;
rudimentary, adapted to new ends, 47, 237
Orthogenesis, 241 _n._
Oscillation of level in relation to continents, 33, 34 _n._, 189
Pallas, on parentage of domestic animals, 71
Pampas, imaginary case of farmer on, 32, 184
Perfection, no inherent tendency towards, 227
Plants, _see also_ Flora;
fertilisation, 70;
migration of, to arctic and antarctic regions, 167;
alpine and arctic, migration of, 31, 166;
alpine, characters common to, 162;
alpine, sterility of, 13, 101
PLANTS, NAMES OF:--AEgilops, 58 _n._;
Artichoke (Jerusalem), 79;
Ash, weeping, seeds of, 61;
Asparagus, 79;
Azalea, 13, 59, 97;
Cabbage, 109, 135, 204;
Calceolaria, 11, 99;
Cardoon, 153;
Carrot, variation of, 58 _n._;
Chrysanthemum, 59;
Crinum, 11, 99;
Crocus, 96, 99 _n._;
Cucubalus, crossing, 232;
Dahlia, 21, 59, 63, 69, 74, 110;
Foxglove, 82;
Gentian, colour of flower, 107 _n._;
Geranium, 102;
Gladiolus, crossed, ancestry of, 11;
Grass, abortive flowers, 233;
Heath, sterility, 96;
Hyacinth, colours of, 106;
--feather-hyacinth, 229;
Juniperus, hybridised, 97;
Laburnum, peculiar hybrid, 108;
Lilac, sterility of, 13, 100;
Marigold, style of, 47, 233, 237;
Mistletoe, 6, 86, 87, 90 _n._;
Nectarines on peach trees, 59;
Oxalis, colour of flowers of, 107 _n._;
Phaseolus, cultivated form suffers from frost, 109;
Pine-apple, 207;
Poppy, Mexican, 154;
Potato, 69, 74, 110;
Rhododendron, 97, 99;
Rose, moss, 59;
--Scotch, 69;
Seakale, 79;
Sweet-william, 59;
Syringa, persica and chinensis, _see_ Lilac;
Teazle, 129;
Thuja, hybridised, 97;
Tulips, "breaking" of, 58;
Turnip, Swedish and common, 205;
Vine, peculiar hybrid, 108;
Yew, weeping, seeds of, 61
Plasticity, produced by domestication, 1, 63
Plesiosaurus, loss of unity of type in, 41, 217
Pteropods, embryology, 218
Quadrupeds, extinction of large, 147
Quinary System, 202
Race, the word used as equivalent to variety, 94
Races, domestic, classification of, 204
Rarity, 28, 148;
and extinction, 28, 149, 210
Recapitulation theory, 42, 219, 230, 239
Record, geological, imperfection of, 26, 140
Regions, geographical, of the world, 29, 152, 174;
formerly less distinct as judged by fossils, 177
Resemblance, analogical, 36, 199
Reversion, 3, 64, 69, 74
"Roguing," 65
Rudimentary organs, _see_ Organs
Savages, domestic animals of, 67, 68, 96
Selection, human, 3, 63;
references to the practice of, in past times, 67;
great effect produced by, 3, 91;
necessary for the formation of breeds, 64;
methodical, effects of, 3, 65;
unconscious, 3, 67
Selection, natural, xvi, 7, 87;
natural compared to human, 85, 94, 224;
of instincts, 19, 120;
difficulty of believing, 15, 121, 128
Selection, sexual, two types of, 10, 92
Silk-worms, variation in larval state, 44 _n._, 223
Skull, morphology of, 39, 215
Species, representative, seen in going from N. to S. in a continent,
31 _n._, 156;
representative in archipelagoes, 187;
wide-ranging, 34 _n._, 146;
and varieties, difficulty of distinguishing, 4, 81, 197;
sterility of crosses between, supposed to be criterion, 11, 134;
gradual appearance and disappearance of, 23, 144;
survival of a few among many extinct, 146
Species, not created more than once, 168, 171, 191;
evolution of, compared to birth of individuals, 150, 198, 253;
small number in New Zealand as compared to the Cape, 171, 191;
persistence of, unchanged, 192, 199
Sports, 1, 58, 59, 64, 74, 95, 129, 186, 206, 224
Sterility, due to captivity, 12, 77 _n._, 100;
of various plants, 13, 101;
of species when crossed, 11, 23, 96, 99, 103;
produced by conditions, compared to sterility due to crossing, 101, 102
Struggle for life, 7, 91, 92, 148, 241
Subsidence, importance of, in relation to fossils, 25, 35 _n._, 195;
of continent leading to isolation of organisms, 190;
not favourable to birth of new species, 196
Swimming bladder, 16, 129
System, natural, is genealogical, 36, 208
Telegony, 108
Tibia and fibula, 48, 137
Time, enormous lapse of, in geological epochs, 25, 140
Tortoise, 146
Transitional forms, _see_ Forms
Trigonia, 147 _n._, 199
Tree-frogs in treeless regions, 131
Type, unity of, 38, 214;
uniformity of, lost in Plesiosaurus, 217;
persistence of, in continents, 158, 178
Uniformitarian views of Lyell, bearing on evolution, 249
Use, inherited effects of, _see_ Characters, acquired
Variability, as specific character, 83;
produced by change and also by crossing, 105
Variation, by Sports, _see_ Sports;
under domestication, 1, 57, 63, 78;
due to causes acting on reproductive system, _see_ Variation, germinal;
--germinal, 2, 43, 62, 222;
individual, 57 _n._;
causes of, 1, 4, 57, 61;
due to crossing, 68, 69;
limits of, 74, 75, 82, 109;
small in state of nature, 4, 59 _n._, 81, 83;
results of _without_ selection, 84;
--minute, value of, 91;
analogous in species of same genus, 107;
of mental attributes, 17, 112;
in mature life, 59, 224, 225
Varieties, minute, in birds, 82;
resemblance of to species, 81 _n._, 82, 105
Vertebrate skull, morphology of, 215
Wildness, hereditary, 113, 119
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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| Transcriber's Notes & Errata |
| |
| Inline transcriber's notes are enclosed in curly brackets. |
| |
| Footnote anchors and labels are enclosed in curly brackets. |
| |
| The footnotes have been renumbered consecutively. |
| |
| Because of this, the changed footnote numbers are appended |
| in curly brackets to the internal cross-references. |
| |
| Superscript letters are denoted by a preceding caret e.g., |
| d^o |
| |
| 'oe' ligatures have been rendered as separate letters. |
| |
| The following typographical errors have been corrected. |
| |
| |simplication |simplification | |
| |care |case | |
| |apparant |apparent | |
| |
| The following words were found in both hyphenated and |
| unhyphenated forms. The figures in parentheses are the |
| number of instances of each. |
| |
| |after-thought (1) |afterthought (2) | |
| |blood-hound (2) |bloodhound (1) | |
| |bull-dog (7) |bulldog (2) | |
| |co-descendants (1) |codescendants (1) | |
| |feather-hyacinth (2) |feather hyacinth (1) | |
| |grey-hound (2) |greyhound (10) | |
| |high-lands (3) |highlands (2) | |
| |long-legged (2) |long legged (1) | |
| |race-horse (2) |racehorse (4) | |
| |shepherd-dog (3) |shepherd dog (1) | |
| |sub-divisions (3) |subdivisions (4) | |
| |table-land (2) |tableland (1) | |
| |
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