Formerly administered as part of the
British Crown Colony of Mauritius, the British Indian Ocean
Territory (BIOT) was established as an overseas territory of the UK
in 1965. A number of the islands of the territory were later
transferred to the Seychelles when it attained independence in 1976.
Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groups
comprising the Chagos Archipelago. The largest and most southerly of
the islands, Diego Garcia, contains a joint UK-US naval support
facility. All of the remaining islands are uninhabited. Between 1967
and 1973, former agricultural workers, earlier residents in the
islands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius, but also to the
Seychelles. Negotiations between 1971 and 1982 resulted in the
establishment of a trust fund by the British Government as
compensation for the displaced islanders, known as Chagossians.
Beginning in 1998, the islanders pursued a series of lawsuits
against the British Government seeking further compensation and the
right to return to the territory. In 2006 and 2007, British court
rulings invalidated the immigration policies contained in the 2004
BIOT Constitution Order that had excluded the islanders from the
archipelago, but upheld the special military status of Diego Garcia.
In 2008, the House of Lords, as the final court of appeal in the UK,
ruled in favor of the British Government by overturning the lower
court rulings and finding no right of return on the part of the
Chagossians.
British Virgin Islands
First inhabited by Arawak and later by Carib
Indians, the Virgin Islands were settled by the Dutch in 1648 and
then annexed by the English in 1672. The islands were part of the
British colony of the Leeward Islands from 1872-1960; they were
granted autonomy in 1967. The economy is closely tied to the larger
and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is
the legal currency.
Brunei
The Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15th
and 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas of
northwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequently
entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal
succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In
1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence was
achieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over six
centuries. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gas
fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in Asia.
Bulgaria
The Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with the
local Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the first
Bulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled with
the Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by the
end of the 14th century the country was overrun by the Ottoman
Turks. Northern Bulgaria attained autonomy in 1878 and all of
Bulgaria became independent from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Having
fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within
the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in
1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held its
first multiparty election since World War II and began the
contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a
market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,
and crime. The country joined NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007.
Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achieved
independence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the
1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early
1990s. Current President Blaise COMPAORE came to power in a 1987
military coup and has won every election since then. Burkina Faso's
high population density and limited natural resources result in poor
economic prospects for the majority of its citizens. Recent unrest
in Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana has hindered the ability of
several hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabe farm workers to find
employment in neighboring countries. In January 2008, Burkina Faso
assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the
2008-09 term.
Burma
Britain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)
and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administered
as a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,
self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth was
attained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to
1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, and
later as political kingpin. In September 1988, the military deposed
NE WIN and established a new ruling junta. Despite multiparty
legislative elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition
party - the National League for Democracy (NLD) - winning a
landslide victory, the junta refused to hand over power. NLD leader
and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was under
house arrest from 1989 to 1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned in
May 2003 and subsequently transferred to house arrest. After the
ruling junta in August 2007 unexpectedly increased fuel prices, tens
of thousands of Burmese marched in protest, led by prodemocracy
activists and Buddhist monks. In late September 2007, the government
brutally suppressed the protests, killing at least 13 people and
arresting thousands for participating in the demonstrations. Since
then, the regime has continued to raid homes and monasteries and
arrest persons suspected of participating in the pro-democracy
protests. The junta appointed Labor Minister AUNG KYI in October
2007 as liaison to AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who remains under house arrest
and virtually incommunicado with her party and supporters. Burma in
early May 2008 was struck by Cyclone Nargis which official estimates
claimed left over 80,000 dead and 50,000 injured. Despite this
tragedy, the junta proceeded with its May constitutional referendum,
the first vote in Burma since 1990, setting the stage for the 2010
parliamentary elections.
Burundi
Burundi's first democratically elected president was
assassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,
triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi
factions. More than 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflict
that spanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands of
Burundians were internally displaced or became refugees in
neighboring countries. An internationally brokered power-sharing
agreement between the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebels
in 2003 paved the way for a transition process that led to an
integrated defense force, established a new constitution in 2005,
and elected a majority Hutu government in 2005. The new government,
led by President Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokered
ceasefire with the country's last rebel group in September of 2006
but still faces many challenges.
Cambodia
Most Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,
descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much of
Southeast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13th
centuries. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)
weakened the empire, ushering in a long period of decline. The king
placed the country under French protection in 1863 and it became
part of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation in
World War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.
In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rouge
forces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. At
least 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,
or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. A
December 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the
countryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched off
almost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandated
democratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respected
by the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore
some semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factional
fighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a second
round of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of another
coalition government and renewed political stability. The remaining
elements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of the
surviving Khmer Rouge leaders are awaiting trial by a UN-sponsored
tribunal for crimes against humanity. Elections in July 2003 were
relatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations between
contending political parties before a coalition government was
formed. In October 2004, King Norodom SIHANOUK abdicated the throne
and his son, Prince Norodom SIHAMONI, was selected to succeed him.
Local elections were held in Cambodia in April 2007, and there was
little in the way of pre-election violence that preceded prior
elections. National elections in July 2008 were relatively peaceful.
Cameroon
The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon
merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally
enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of
agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.
Despite a slow movement toward democratic reform, political power
remains firmly in the hands of President Paul BIYA.
Canada
A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada
became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the
British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has
developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across
an unfortified border. Canada faces the political challenges of
meeting public demands for quality improvements in health care and
education services, as well as responding to separatist concerns in
predominantly francophone Quebec. Canada also aims to develop its
diverse energy resources while maintaining its commitment to the
environment.
Cape Verde
The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by
the Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became a
trading center for African slaves and later an important coaling and
resupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Following
independence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification with
Guinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintained
until multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continues
to exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.
Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century caused
significant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,
Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.
Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.
Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the
British during the 18th and 19th centuries and were administered by
Jamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory within
the Federation of the West Indies. When the Federation dissolved in
1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.
Central African Republic
The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari
became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After
three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments
- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.
President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued by
unrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led by
General Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.
Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groups
and the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested the
municipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March and
May of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. The
government still does not fully control the countryside, where
pockets of lawlessness persist. Unrest in neighboring nations, Chad,
Sudan, and the DRC, continues to affect stability in the Central
African Republic as well.
Chad
Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured
three decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya before
a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The government
eventually drafted a democratic constitution, and held flawed
presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion broke
out in northern Chad, which has sporadically flared up despite
several peace agreements between the government and the rebels. In
2005, new rebel groups emerged in western Sudan and made probing
attacks into eastern Chad, despite signing peace agreements in
December 2006 and October 2007. Power remains in the hands of an
ethnic minority. In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held a
referendum successfully removing constitutional term limits and won
another controversial election in 2006. Sporadic rebel campaigns
continued throughout 2006 and 2007, and the capital experienced a
significant rebel threat in early 2008.
Chile
Prior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,
northern Chile was under Inca rule while the indigenous Mapuche
inhabited central and southern Chile. Although Chile declared its
independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was not
achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile
defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern regions. It
was not until the 1880s that the Mapuche Indians were completely
subjugated. After a series of elected governments, a three-year-old
Marxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrown in 1973 by a
military coup led by Augusto PINOCHET, who ruled until a freely
elected president was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies,
maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady
growth, reduced poverty rates by over half, and have helped secure
the country's commitment to democratic and representative
government. Chile has increasingly assumed regional and
international leadership roles befitting its status as a stable,
democratic nation.
China
For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing
the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and
early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, major
famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War
II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocratic
socialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed
strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of
millions of people. After 1978, MAO's successor DENG Xiaoping and
other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by
2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, living
standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal
choice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight.
Christmas Island
Named in 1643 for the day of its discovery, the
island was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphate
mining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty to
Australia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declared
a national park.
Clipperton Island
This isolated island was named for John
CLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18th
century. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.
Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which took
possession in 1935.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
There are 27 coral islands in the group.
Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but they
remained uninhabited until the 19th century. From the 1820s to 1978,
members of the CLUNIE-ROSS family controlled the islands and the
copra produced from local coconuts. Annexed by the UK in 1857, the
Cocos Islands were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.
The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split
between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on
Home Island.
Colombia
Colombia was one of the three countries that emerged from
the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador and
Venezuela). A four-decade long conflict between government forces
and anti-government insurgent groups, principally the Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) heavily funded by the drug trade,
escalated during the 1990s. The insurgents lack the military or
popular support necessary to overthrow the government and violence
has been decreasing since about 2002, but insurgents continue
attacks against civilians and large areas of the countryside are
under guerrilla influence or are contested by security forces. More
than 31,000 former paramilitaries had demobilized by the end of 2006
and the United Self Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) as a formal
organization had ceased to function. In the wake of the paramilitary
demobilization, emerging criminal groups arose, whose members
include some former paramilitaries. The Colombian Government has
stepped up efforts to reassert government control throughout the
country, and now has a presence in every one of its administrative
departments. However, neighboring countries worry about the violence
spilling over their borders.
Comoros
Comoros has endured more than 20 coups or attempted coups
since gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands
of Anjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,
military chief Col. AZALI seized power in a bloodless coup, and
helped negotiate the 2000 Fomboni Accords power-sharing agreement in
which the federal presidency rotates among the three islands, and
each island maintains its own local government. AZALI won the 2002
Presidential election, and each island in the archipelago elected
its own president. AZALI stepped down in 2006 and President SAMBI
was elected to office. In 2007, BACAR effected Anjouan's de-facto
secession from the Union, refusing to step down in favor of fresh
Anjouanais elections when Comoros' other islands held legitimate
elections in July. The African Union (AU) initially attempted to
resolve the political crisis by applying sanctions and a naval
blockade on Anjouan, but in March 2008, AU and Comoran soldiers
seized the island. The move was generally welcomed by the island's
inhabitants.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Established as a Belgian colony in
1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but
its early years were marred by political and social instability.
Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a
November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU
Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU
retained his position for 32 years through several sham elections,
as well as through the use of brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil
war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from
fighting in Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of
the MOBUTU regime by a rebellion backed by Rwanda and Uganda and
fronted by Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was
itself challenged by a second insurrection again backed by Rwanda
and Uganda. Troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe
intervened to support KABILA's regime. A cease-fire was signed in
July 1999 by the DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia,
Rwanda, Uganda, and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued.
Laurent KABILA was assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph
KABILA, was named head of state. In October 2002, the new president
was successful in negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces
occupying eastern Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was
signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and
establish a government of national unity. A transitional government
was set up in July 2003. Joseph KABILA as president and four vice
presidents represented the former government, former rebel groups,
the political opposition, and civil society. The transitional
government held a successful constitutional referendum in December
2005 and elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and
provincial legislatures in 2006. KABILA was inaugurated president in
December 2006. The National Assembly was installed in September
2006. Its president, Vital KAMERHE, was chosen in December.
Provincial assemblies were constituted in early 2007, and elected
governors and national senators in January 2007.
Congo, Republic of the
Upon independence in 1960, the former French
region of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quarter
century of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and a
democratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civil
war in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,
and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.
Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March
2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present a
humanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa's
largest petroleum producers, but with declining production it will
need new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earnings over the
long term.
Cook Islands
Named after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, the
islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,
administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965,
residents chose self-government in free association with New
Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and
government deficits are continuing problems.
Coral Sea Islands
Scattered over more than three-quarters of a
million square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands were
declared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabited
except for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.
Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy many
other islands and reefs.
Costa Rica
Although explored by the Spanish early in the 16th
century, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica proved
unsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: disease
from mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,
and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlement
of Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.
The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In
1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provinces
that jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years later
it joined the United Provinces of Central America, but this
federation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Rica
proclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19th
century, only two brief periods of violence have marred the
country's democratic development. Although it still maintains a
large agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy to
include strong technology and tourism industries. The standard of
living is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread. In January
2008, Costa Rica assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security
Council for the 2008-09 term.
Cote d'Ivoire
Close ties to France since independence in 1960, the
development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment
made Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the West African
states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. In December
1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history -
overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEI blatantly rigged
elections held in late 2000 and declared himself the winner. Popular
protest forced him to step aside and brought Laurent GBAGBO into
power. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of the military
launched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebel forces
claimed the northern half of the country, and in January 2003 were
granted ministerial positions in a unity government under the
auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President GBAGBO and
rebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December
2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked the
civil war, such as land reform and grounds for citizenship, remained
unresolved. In March 2007 President GBAGBO and former New Force
rebel leader Guillaume SORO signed the Ouagadougou Political
Agreement. As a result of the agreement, SORO joined GBAGBO's
government as Prime Minister and the two agreed to reunite the
country by dismantling the zone of confidence separating North from
South, integrate rebel forces into the national armed forces, and
hold elections. Several thousand French and UN troops remain in Cote
d'Ivoire to help the parties implement their commitments and to
support the peace process.