1851
Revolutionary activities continue throughout the world. President Fillmore
warns American and foreign adventurers against developing plots or
enterprises in this country in connection with Cuba and Mexico.
Notwithstanding this, Lopez projects his second expedition against Cuba,
and meets with overwhelming defeat; his trial, conviction, and execution
follow. Slavery agitation becomes more and more marked; the question is
not yet the existence of slavery within the States, but its admission into
the Territories. The Federal enforcement of the unpopular Fugitive Slave
Law produces riots in the North. Work begun upon the extensive wings of
the National Capitol, the laying of the foundation stone being the
occasion of one of the last great patriotic orations of Daniel Webster,
Secretary of State.
Webster's tilt of the preceding year with Austrian diplomats in the matter
of our alleged "interference" in the struggle of Hungary for freedom had
further aroused American patriotism. It had also increased sympathy for
the brave people from whom success had been plucked by the intervention of
Russian arms in behalf of Austria. By authority of Congress, Louis
Kossuth, Hungarian patriot chief, is given an asylum on an American war
vessel. He visits England and later the United States, and is received
with great distinction and respect by the President and all officers of
the government, acting unofficially.
Founding of the Congressional Library at Washington, and of the University
of Wisconsin at Madison. United States begins soundings for an Atlantic
cable. The New York _Times_ and New York _Ledger_ appear. Death of J.F.
Cooper, American novelist, and J.J. Audubon, American naturalist.
In England, the year opens with great excitement due to the discovery of
gold in Australia. The first great World's Fair is opened in London, in
Hyde Park, and is a great success; exhibition building subsequently
removed to Sydenham, and known as the "Crystal Palace." American yacht
America wins international prize cup at the Cowes Regatta in a match
around the Isle of Wight. The English colonists wage fierce warfare with
Kafir and Hottentot natives in South Africa. France and England are
connected by telegraphic cable. Invention of the opthalmoscope by
Helmholtz. Death of Oersted, discoverer of relation between electricity
and magnetism.
In France, on the night between December 2 and 3, the president, Louis
Napoleon, successfully plans and executes his famous _coup d'etat_, making
himself practically a dictator. Officers of the government and leaders
opposing him are quietly arrested and locked up; later many are banished,
including M. Thiers. The legislative assembly is dissolved and universal
suffrage proclaimed. Paris being declared in a state of siege, there are
barricades and sanguinary conflicts. On the 21st an election throughout
France confirms Napoleon as president of the republic for ten years. In
England, Lord Palmerston is dismissed from the ministry because of
official indiscretion in expressing congratulations over events in France
(see 1852). Death of Thomas Moore, Irish poet; in France, of Daguerre,
inventor of first photographic process.
=POPULATION--Washington, D.C., 40,001; Chicago, 29,963; New York, 515,547;
London, 2,362,236; United States (census of 1850), 23,191,876; Great
Britain and Ireland, 27,368,736.=
=RULERS--United States, Millard Fillmore, President; Great Britain,
Victoria; France, Louis Napoleon, President; Spain, Isabella II; Prussia,
Frederick William IV; Russia, Nicholas I; Austria, Francis Joseph; Pope,
Pius IX.=
1852
In France, on New Year's Day, the prince-president is installed with
impressive ceremony at Notre Dame, and takes up his official residence at
the Tuileries. He exiles opponents, reorganizes the National Guard,
promulgates a new constitution, and restores titles of nobility abolished
in the Revolution of 1848. The birthday of Napoleon I, August 15, is
proclaimed a fete day. Meanwhile public sentiment develops in favor of the
restoration of the empire and the Bonaparte dynasty. In November a
national election results overwhelmingly in favor of imperial government.
On December 2, anniversary of his _coup d'etat_ and of the battle of
Austerlitz, Napoleon is crowned Emperor of the French under the title of
Napoleon III. English colonial conquest is extended in South Africa, and
in India the province of Pegu is wrested from the Burmese.
Death of the Duke of Wellington and his interment in St. Paul's Cathedral;
in Austria, of the premier, Prince Schwarzenberg; in America, of Daniel
Webster and Henry Clay.
In England, great uneasiness develops as to Napoleon's further designs,
despite his proclamation that "the empire is peace." To allay panic, the
government undertakes a bill to revive the militia--local only. Palmerston
proposes an amendment to constitute not a local but regular militia that
may be sent anywhere in any emergency. His success in carrying his
resolution to that effect is a defeat for the government. New government
is formed under Lord Derby, whose offer of a place to Palmerston is
declined; Disraeli becomes chancellor of the exchequer; the navy is
strengthened, and militia bill passed. This government is defeated in turn
on account of its protectionist principles. Lord Aberdeen forms a
coalition government out of the chiefs of the Whig party and followers of
Sir Robert Peel; Gladstone becomes chancellor of the exchequer, and
Palmerston home secretary. Free-trade principles gain rapid ascendency.
Some friction with America over the fisheries question.
In the United States, great excitement follows the publication of "Uncle
Tom's Cabin"; sales reach one million copies within a year. First
institution for the co-education of the sexes incorporated in Ohio (Yellow
Springs). Public library at Boston founded. The United States undertakes
the enterprise of breaking the historic isolation of Japan, and Commodore
M.C. Perry is entrusted with the mission (see 1853). Yellow fever virulent
in New Orleans, eleven thousand deaths occurring in two months. Five
hundred and seventy-six thousand Englishwomen, headed by the Duchess of
Sutherland, adopt an address to the "women of America" in reference to
slavery. Third National Woman's Rights Convention held at Syracuse, New
York; Susan B. Anthony's first public appearance.
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year, except that in France the
President becomes the Emperor Napoleon III.=
1853
Revolution in Mexico again establishes General Santa Anna as president of
the Mexican Republic (see 1855). In the United States, Franklin Pierce is
inaugurated as fourteenth President, and reiterates the Monroe Doctrine.
The expedition to Japan under Commodore Perry enters the Bay of Yeddo,
producing wild excitement and alarm (see 1854). Second Grinnell arctic
expedition, under the leadership of Dr. Kane, starts in search of Sir John
Franklin (see 1855). Congress debates the feasibility of a Pacific
railroad, and makes appropriation for exploration of possible routes.
Territorial expansion through acquisition of remainder of Arizona from
Mexico, under the Gadsden Purchase; sum paid, ten million dollars. The new
Territory of Washington organized in the far Northwest. Yellow fever
epidemic in Gulf States, and cholera in Europe. Controversy with Austria
over case of Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee who had taken out initial
papers of American citizenship; having been seized and imprisoned on an
Austrian brig in the harbor of Smyrna, he is summarily released under
menace of guns of an American war-ship. Another "foreign incident" is a
duel at Madrid between Pierre Soule, American minister to Spain, and M.
Turgot; the latter crippled for life.
In France, Napoleon III marries the beautiful Countess Eugenie de Montijo,
daughter of a grandee of Spain. Czar Nicholas I proclaims protectorate
over the Greek Christians in Turkey; resistance of Turkey sustained by
England and France. Russia promptly invades the Danubian principalities of
Wallachia and Moldavia, whereupon Turkish troops move across the Danube,
the allied fleets sweep through the Dardanelles, and the great Crimean War
begins (1853-1855).
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year, except that Franklin Pierce
becomes President of the United States.=
1854
Commodore Perry concludes a commercial treaty between Japan and the United
States. England and other countries hasten to secure similar treaties, and
Japan joins the family of nations. The United States and Great Britain
effect a reciprocity treaty respecting Newfoundland fishing,
international trade, etc. Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, which
abolishes the terms of the Missouri Compromise and gives these new
Territories the option of deciding whether they will have slavery or not;
alarm and dissatisfaction throughout the North; strengthening of forces
opposed to slavery. Republican party formed. Astor Library opened in New
York under bequest of John J. Astor.
Revolution started in Spain by O'Donnell; Espartero becomes prime
minister, and O'Donnell secretary of war; Queen Isabella's sovereignty is
unaffected.
A Russian army under Paskievitch crosses the Danube to invade Turkey,
whereupon France and Great Britain declare war against Russia (March 28).
A British and French expedition lands in the Crimea, defeats the Russians
at the Alma, and moves upon Sebastopol, the Czar's chief naval port and
fortress on the Black Sea. The battles of Balaklava--famous for the charge
of the Light Brigade--and Inkerman are fought without decisive result, and
the allies, suffering terribly from the severe climate and from their lack
of supplies, settle down to the siege of Sebastopol.
Meanwhile Paskievitch, having vainly attacked Silistria, retreats across
the Danube. The British and French fleets in the Baltic are equally
unsuccessful, and accomplish nothing by an ineffective bombardment of
Kronstadt.
In England, consent given for the establishment of the Orange River Free
State in South Africa. Cholera in London. Commander McClure arrives,
accomplishing the Northwest Passage after imprisonment in the ice for
three years.
In Brazil, the first railway opens. In the same month, April, San Salvador
is destroyed by an earthquake with property loss in one minute of four
million dollars; earthquakes in Japan result in great destruction and loss
of life. Slaves emancipated in Venezuela. The steamer San Francisco
founders, two hundred and forty United States troops being drowned.
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year.=
1855
In Kansas occur great election riots and bloodshed incidental to a bitter
struggle for supremacy between pro-slavery and anti-slavery partisans. War
with the Sioux and other Indian tribes. The Niagara Railway Suspension
Bridge is completed. Dissatisfaction over rapidly increasing immigration
develops the new "American" or "Know Nothing" party; riots and
disturbances occur. Relief expedition rescues Dr. Kane, the arctic
explorer.
In Nicaragua, General Walker's American filibustering expedition effects a
conquest, and a republic is established with Walker as president (see
1856). In Mexico, Santa Anna is finally overthrown by the party of Alvarez
and Comonfort, and goes into exile; Alvarez resigns government to
Comonfort. In Panama, a railway across the isthmus is opened.
In England, the mismanagement of the Crimean campaign brings a storm of
indignation upon the Aberdeen ministry. Anticipating a motion for a
committee of inquiry, Lord John Russell tenders his resignation, which is
followed by overwhelming defeat of the government. Lord Palmerston, now
over seventy years of age, is called upon to form a cabinet. Except for
one brief interval, Palmerston remains prime minister through the rest of
his life. Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, joins in the war against
Russia; notable rise and influence of his great minister, Cavour (see
1859). Fall of Sebastopol, and negotiations for peace (see 1856). Great
international exhibition opened at Paris. Two attempts made upon life of
Napoleon. In England, Captain McClure receives a reward of five thousand
pounds and knighthood for discovering the Northwest Passage. Meanwhile, in
Africa, Livingstone is pushing steadily across the Dark Continent, and
discovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. Severe earthquakes at Tokyo,
in Japan, and at Broussa, in Asiatic Turkey.
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year, except that Nicholas I is
succeeded by his son, Alexander II, as Czar of all the Russias.=
1856
THE Treaty of Paris terminates the Crimean War; terms, free navigation of
the Danube and neutrality of the Black Sea; guarantee of independence of
the Ottoman Empire; Russia renounces protectorate over the Danubian
principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia (now forming Rumania), and cedes
a portion of Bessarabia. Great Britain, France, and Austria form treaty
guaranteeing integrity of the Turkish Empire. Turkey places Christians on
equality with Moslems.
In France, great rejoicing and strengthening of Napoleonic dynasty owing
to birth of an imperial prince; amnesty granted to one thousand political
prisoners.
In England, Dr. Livingstone, African explorer, arrives on a visit and is
enthusiastically welcomed and honored. Beginning of second war with
Chinese as punishment for frequent attacks upon foreigners and persistent
violation of treaties. British and French cooperate in this war; Canton is
bombarded and partially destroyed. The Persians having taken Herat, the
"key to Afghanistan," in violation of treaty, and Afghanistan being
England's northwestern gate to India, war is declared against Persia;
British prevail, and Bushire taken. Lord Canning made Governor-General of
India. The annexation of Oude (northern India) completes British
subjugation of the Indian peninsula from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya
Mountains. Great Britain and France remonstrate against the tyrannical
policy of the King of Naples, and withdraw their ministers.
Heine, famous German poet; Hugh Miller, Scottish geologist; Sir W.
Hamilton, Scottish philosopher; Delaroche, French painter; Thierry, French
historian; and Schumann, German composer, died.
In Spain, Espartero is superseded by O'Donnell as prime minister;
insurrections occur in Madrid and Barcelona due to latter's dictatorial
measures; Narvaez in turn succeeds.
In Central America, war is waged against President Walker by confederation
of states led by Costa Rica; Walker defeats three thousand Costa Ricans at
Rivas. In Mexico, General Comonfort is elected president. In China, a
United States squadron destroys barrier forts near Canton because of an
attack on an American boat.
In the United States, civil war wages in Kansas; great political struggle
continues there between Free Soil and Slavery factions, and is reflected
in Congress; a speech of Senator Sumner, of Massachusetts, provokes
violent personal assault by Representative Brooks, of South Carolina. Nine
weeks' contest for Speaker of the House of Representatives. Resolution
against slave-trade passed by the House. Congress passes an act to aid in
the laying of the Atlantic cable. Dispute with England on the construction
of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty and alleged violation of the neutrality laws.
Mr. Crampton, the British minister, receives his passports, and the
consuls at New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati are dismissed. Later in
the year the matter is satisfactorily adjusted and articles agreed upon
for settlement of Central American questions. American whalers, having
brought into port the British arctic relief-ship Resolute, a derelict,
Congress purchases it, refits it, and sends it to Queen Victoria as token
of American good-will.
First bridge over the Mississippi is built at Minneapolis. Beginning of
experiments with the Bessemer process for the production of steel.
Condensed milk is patented. James Buchanan, Democrat, elected President of
the United States, and J.C. Breckinridge, Vice-President; defeated
candidates: John C. Fremont, Republican, and Millard Fillmore, American or
"Know-Nothing."
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year.=
1857
In India, outbreak of mutiny among the Sepoys or native soldiers.
Rebellion spreads rapidly under Nana Sahib and other hostile chiefs.
Savage cruelties upon Europeans are perpetrated by Sepoys at Meerut,
Delhi, and particularly at Cawnpore, where four hundred and fifty men,
women, and children are massacred; all central India in revolt. Cawnpore
and Delhi recovered by British; garrison at Lucknow besieged and relieved
by Havelock, who in turn is besieged and relieved by Sir Colin Campbell.
British defeat Persians at Khooshab, and treaty of peace ends Persian War.
English, aided by French, continue punitive war against China. The Mont
Cenis tunnel through the Alps is begun. Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie
pay visit to Queen Victoria. Commercial panic in England.
Death of Douglas Jerrold, English novelist and dramatist; Comte, French
speculative philosopher; Eugene Sue, French novelist; and Beranger, French
poet.
In the United States, a great commercial panic occurs, commencing in New
York with suspension of the Ohio Life & Mutual Trust Co. Panic spreads
throughout the country, causing general suspension of banks; failures in
the United States and Canada, five thousand one hundred and twenty-three;
liabilities two hundred and ninety-nine million eight hundred thousand
dollars. Completion of the Atlantic cable; messages received from London;
public excitement and rejoicing in New York; cable fails after a few
messages. People of Oregon Territory adopt a constitution prohibiting
slavery.
The "Dred Scott" decision by the Supreme Court nullifies the terms of the
Missouri Compromise and similar measures, changing the status of the negro
in the free States, as well as denying him all civic rights. This excites
great indignation and consternation in the free States, further increasing
the feeling against slavery. In Utah Territory the Mormons rebel against
Federal authority; the President despatches troops under command of
Colonel A.S. Johnston to enforce authority; most of the supply-teams
attacked and destroyed by Brigham Young's Rangers, leaving the Federal
forces exposed to the desert winter (see 1858).
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year, except that in Prussia, the
Prince of Prussia (afterward William I), becomes regent during the
incapacity of Frederick William IV; and in the United States James
Buchanan is inaugurated as President.=
1858
In the United States, the Mormons submit to Federal authority and allow
Federal troops to be quartered in Utah Valley (withdrawn 1860). Minnesota
is admitted to statehood (free State). Valuable commercial treaty made
with China, by which travelers with passports are protected, foreign
ministers recognized, new ports opened, Christianity tolerated, and
missionaries protected. Discovery of gold at Pike's Peak, Colorado.
Massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah. Rising prominence of
Abraham Lincoln; he wins national reputation in struggle and debates with
Douglas in Illinois in contest for the Senate. Kansas finally rejects the
Lecompton Constitution, which had provided for safeguarding slavery.
In Mexico, Comonfort retires as president; the clerical and reactionary
party elects General Zuloaga. Juarez, Liberal, organizes a rival
provisional government (see 1859).
In France, a third attempt is made to assassinate the emperor--this time
by Orsini, an Italian; it appearing that the plot had been hatched in
England, great indignation prevails in France, and a remonstrance is
addressed to the British government, urging it to make stricter laws
against political refugees. Lord Palmerston introduces a bill for this
purpose, and upon its rejection by the House of Commons he tenders his
resignation. The Derby ministry is installed. The Livingstone expedition
sails from England for Africa. The Princess Royal is married to the Crown
Prince of Prussia, afterward Emperor Frederick III. Property qualification
of members of Parliament abolished. End of the Indian Mutiny; the
government of India transferred from the East India Company to the crown.
Death of Robert Owen, English philanthropist and social reformer.
Launching of the Great Eastern, largest steamship constructed prior to
the Celtic, 1901. John Speke, English explorer in Africa, discovers
Victoria Nyanza, a vast lake of nearly the area of Scotland, and principal
source of the White Nile. The Danubian principalities of Wallachia and
Moldavia effect a personal union (see 1861). The Italian astronomer,
Donati, discovers a comet surpassing in brilliancy all others seen since
1811. Passage of an act removing the disabilities of Jews in Great
Britain.
In Italy, violent eruption of Vesuvius. In China, the treaty of Tientsin
with Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States checks the
allies' advance on Peking. However, owing to Chinese violation of treaty,
war is really not concluded until 1860 (see 1860). China cedes to Russia
the widely extended but sparsely populated Amur country.
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year.=
1859
In the United States, Oregon is admitted to the Union as a free State.
Petroleum oil obtained in Pennsylvania by method of boring wells. Silver
discovered in Nevada. Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and United States arsenal
captured by a force under leadership of John Brown, his purpose being to
hold the place as a refuge for fugitive slaves. Brown is besieged by
citizens, State militia, and Federal marines; makes stout defense, but is
captured, tried for treason, and executed. Sympathy mingled with
reprobation in the North and alarm in the South over John Brown's act; his
execution arouses indignation among the abolitionists and helps to
precipitate approaching national conflict over slavery.
Washington Irving, American author and diplomat, the first to win foreign
recognition for American literature; Prescott, American historian; Rufus
Choate, American lawyer and orator; and Horace Mann, American educator and
statesman, died.
In Europe, Austria, distrustful of the rapid strengthening of the Italian
kingdom of Sardinia, issues an ultimatum demanding its disarmament.
Sardinia promptly replies with a formal declaration of war; following
this, Austria receives a declaration of war from Napoleon III, who has
been secretly cooperating with Sardinia. Austrians defeated in battles of
Montebello, Palestro, Magenta, and Melegnano. The entry of Napoleon and
Victor Emmanuel into Milan is followed by the battle of Solferino, in
which the Austrians, being again defeated, are compelled to sue for
peace. Lombardy restored to Sardinia. Later in the year the Treaty of
Zuerich was signed by Sardinia, France, and Austria. In this war splendid
service is rendered by the patriot Garibaldi and his "Chasseurs of the
Alps." In Naples, Ferdinand II ("Bomba"), notorious for his abuses, dies
and is succeeded by his son, Francis II. Death of the Austrian diplomatist
and statesman, Prince Metternich, and of Alexander von Humboldt, German
philosopher and traveler.
In England, the second Derby ministry resigns, and Lord Palmerston again
succeeds as prime minister, holding position during remainder of life.
Henry Hallam, historian and essayist; Leigh Hunt, poet, essayist, and
critic; Brunel and Stephenson, civil engineers; De Quincy, essayist; and
Lord Macaulay, historian, essayist, and poet, died. Publication of
Darwin's "Origin of Species."
In Spain, war is declared and waged successfully against Morocco for
attacking Spanish possessions on northern coast of Africa (see 1860).
Death of Ludwig Spohr, German musician. In Africa, Livingstone explores
Lake Nyassa. In Mexico, General Miramon defeats the Liberal party of
Juarez and assumes presidency. Miramon government borrows large sums in
France. Juarez declares confiscation of church property. In China, during
a river engagement between English and Chinese, the American Commodore
Tatnall assists the English, declaring that "blood is thicker than water."
Severe earthquakes at Quito, Ecuador, and at Erzeroum, Asia Minor.
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year.=
1860
In the United States, the year opens with great apprehension and tension,
owing to approaching Presidential nominations, campaign, and election. The
Prince of Wales, aged nineteen (afterward King Edward VII), visits the
United States. Central Park, in New York City, opened to the public. The
Great Eastern reaches New York on her maiden voyage.
Democratic convention in Charlestown develops irreconcilable conflict in
party; pro-slavery platform rejected; Southern delegations secede; regular
convention convenes in Baltimore, and after further secessions from ranks
nominates Stephen A. Douglas for Presidency. The seceding groups of
Democrats nominate John C. Breckinridge; the Constitutional Union
party--avoiding discussion of slavery and standing simply for preservation
of Union under the Constitution--meets at Baltimore, and nominates John
Bell. The Republican party convention at Chicago, while disavowing
intention to interfere with institutions in any State, renounces "new
dogma" in the Dred Scott decision, and demands immediate admission of
Kansas as a free State and the adoption of a protective tariff; Abraham
Lincoln, of Illinois, nominated on third ballot over William H. Seward and
Salmon P. Chase.
Election in November, with four Presidential candidates in the field;
every Northern State is carried by the Republicans except New Jersey, from
which, however, they gain four out of seven electoral votes. Douglas
secures only the electoral votes of Missouri and three from New Jersey;
Breckinridge carries the entire South, and Bell the Border States of
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Lincoln's electoral votes 180 to 103
for all other candidates. State Legislative Convention meets in
Charlestown, South Carolina, December 20, and adopts articles of
secession. Year drawn to close with breach widening between North and
South and sectional hostility straining the ties of political union.
In Italy, revolution occurs in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Sicily, Naples, and
the Papal States, and the people declare for annexation to Sardinia. With
exception of Venice (reserved to Austria by treaty of Zuerich) and a small
territory around Rome still retained by the Pope, the King of Sardinia
becomes supreme over Italy. Garibaldi directs revolution of the Two
Sicilies, and defeats and deposes Francis II, the last King of Naples.
Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi enter Naples November 7. The kingdom of
Italy is proclaimed, with Cavour president of the council. Savoy and Nice
ceded to France in accordance with former treaty.
The Chinese having violated the late Treaty of Tientsin, France and
England send new expedition, which reduces the Taku forts and advances on
Peking. Chinese emperor's summer palace sacked and burned and the capital
invested. Chinese sue for peace, and Treaty of Peking ends war. In Mexico,
the Liberal party under Degollado triumphs; Miramon defeated.
Earthquake at Mendoza, Argentine Republic, destroys seven thousand lives.
Spectrum analysis established by Bunsen and Kirchoff. Theodore Parker,
noted American preacher and abolitionist; Sir William Napier, English
historian and soldier; Baron von Bunsen, German diplomatist, theologian,
and philologist; and Schopenhauer, German philosopher, died.
=RULERS--The same as in the previous year.=
The Beginnings of Stage Careers.