Dr. W.H. Schofield (_The First Riddle of Cynewulf_ and _Signy's
Lament_. Baltimore: The Modern Language Association of America. 1902)
it is suggested that the so-called First Riddle in the Exeter Book
is in reality an Anglo-Saxon translation of a Norse "Complaint"
spoken by the Volsung Signy. Evidence from metre and form is all in
favour of this view, and the poem bears the interpretation without any
straining of the meaning. Dr. Schofield's second contention, that the
poem thus interpreted is evidence for the theory of a British origin
for the Eddie poems, is not equally convincing. The existence in
Anglo-Saxon of a translation from the Norse is no proof that any
of the Eddie poems, or even the original Norse "Signy's Lament"
postulated by Dr. Schofield, were composed in the West.
It seems unnecessary to suppose, with Dr. Schofield, an influence of
British legend on the Volsung story. The points in which the story
of Sigmund resembles that of Arthur and differs from that of Theseus
prove nothing in the face of equally strong points of correspondence
between Arthur and Theseus which are absent from the Volsung story.
_Sinfjötli's Death_. (Page 14.)
Munch (_Nordmændenes Gudelære_, Christiania, 1847) ingeniously
identified the old man with Odin, come in person to conduct Sinfjötli
to Valhalla, since he would otherwise have gone to Hel, not having
fallen in battle; a stratagem quite in harmony with Odin's traditional
character.
_Sigmund and Sinfjötli_. (Page 15.)
It seems probable, on the evidence of _Beowulf_, that Sigmund and
Sinfjötli represent the Pan-Germanic stage of the national-hero, and
Sigurd or Siegfried the Continental stage. Possibly Helgi may then be
the Norse race-hero. Sigurd was certainly foreign to Scandinavia; hence
the epithet Hunnish, constantly applied to him, and the localising
of the legend by the Rhine. The possibility suggests itself that the
Brynhild part of the story, on the other hand, is of Scandinavian
origin, and thence passed to Germany. It is at least curious that
the _Nibelungen Lied_ places Prunhilt in Iceland.
_Wagner and the Volsung Cycle_. (Page 26.)
Wagner's _Ring des Nibelungen_ is remarkable not only for the way
in which it reproduces the spirit of both the Sinfjötli and the
Sigurd traditions, but also for the wonderful instinct which chooses
the best and most primitive features of both Norse and Continental
versions. Thus he keeps the dragon of the Norse, the Nibelungs of
the German; preserves the wildness of the old Sigmund tale, and
substitutes the German Hagen for his paler Norse namesake; restores
the original balance between the parts of Brynhild and Gudrun; gives
the latter character, and an active instead of a passive function
in the story, by assigning to her her mother's share in the action;
and by substituting for the slaying of the otter the bargain with
the Giants for the building of Valhalla, makes the cause worthy of
the catastrophe.
_Ermanric_. (Page 27.)
For examples of legend becoming attached to historical names, see
Tylor's _Primitive Culture_.
_The Helgi Lays_. (Page 29.)
The Helgi Lays stand before the Volsung set in the MS.; I treat them
later for the sake of greater clearness.
_Helgi and Kara_. (Page 30.)
_Hromundar Saga Gripssonar_, in which this story is given, is worthless
as literature, and has not been recently edited. P.E. Müller's
_Sagabibliothek_, in which it was published, is out of print. Latin and
Swedish translations may be found in Björner's _Nordiske Kåmpa Dater_
(Stockholm, 1737), also out of print.
_Rebirth_. (Page 31.)
Dr. Storm has an interesting article on the Norse belief in Re-birth in
the _Arkiv for Nordisk Filologi_, ix. He collects instances, and among
other arguments points out the Norse custom of naming a posthumous
child after its dead father as a probable relic of the belief. The
inheritance of luck may perhaps be another survival; a notable instance
occurs in _Viga-Glums Saga_, where the warrior Vigfus bequeaths his
luck to his favourite grandson, Glum. In the _Waterdale Saga_ there
are two instances in which it is stated that the luck of the dead
grandfather will pass to the grandson who receives his name. Scholars
do not, however, agree as to the place of the rebirth idea in the Helgi
poems, some holding the view that it is an essential part of the story.
_Hunding_. (Page 32.)
It is possible that the werwolf story is a totem survival. If so,
the Hunding feud might easily belong to it: dogs are the natural
enemies of wolves. It is curious that the Irish werwolf Cormac has
a feud with MacCon (_i.e._, Son of a Dog), which means the same as
Hunding. This story, which has not been printed, will be found in
the Bodleian MS. Laud, 610.
_Thorgerd Holgabrud_. (Page 33.)
Told in Saxo, Book ii. Snorri has a bare allusion to it.
_Holger Danske, or Ogier Le Danois_. (Page 33.)
See _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, vol. i. p. cxxx., and No. 10 of this
series. The Norse version of the story (Helgi Thorisson) is told in
the Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, and is summarised by Dr. Rydberg in the
_Teutonic Mythology_, and by Mr. Nutt in the _Voyage of Bran_.
_Ballads_. (Page 36.)
Professor Child is perhaps hasty in regarding the two parts of _Clerk
Saunders_ as independent. The first part, though unlike the Helgi
story in circumstance, seems to preserve the tradition of the hero's
hostility to his bride's kindred, and his death at their hands.
The Helgi story, in all its variants, is as familiar in Danish as in
Border ballads. The distribution of the material in Iceland, Denmark,
England and Scotland is strongly in favour of the presumption that
Scandinavian legend influenced England and Scotland, and against the
presumption that the poems in question passed from the British Isles
to Iceland. The evidence of the Danish ballads should be conclusive
on this point. There is an English translation of the latter by
R.C.A. Prior (_Ancient Danish Ballads_, London, 1860).
_The Everlasting Battle_. (Page 39.)
The Skald Bragi (before 850 A.D.) has a poem on this subject,
given with a translation in the _Corpus_, vol. ii. Saxo's version
is in the fifth book of his History. According to Bragi, Hild has a
necklace, which has caused comparison of this story with that of the
Greek Eriphyle. Irish legendary history describes a similar battle
in which the slain revive each night and renew the fight daily, as
occurring in the wanderings of the Tuatha De Danann before they reached
Ireland. According to Keating, they learnt the art of necromancy in
the East, and taught it to the Danes.
The latest edition of the _Gudrun_ is by Ernst Martin (second edition,
Halle, 1902). There is a modern German translation by Simrock.
_Angantyr_. (Page 42.)
The poems of this cycle are four in number--(1) _Hjalmar's
Death-song_: (2) _Angantyr and Hervör_; (3) _Heidrek's Riddle-Poem_:
(4) _Angantyr the Younger and Hlod_. All are given in the first volume
of the _Corpus_, with translations.
_Herrarar Saga_ was published by Rafn (Copenhagen, 1829-30) in
_Fornaldar Sögur_, vol. i., now out of print. It has been more recently
edited by Dr. Bugge, together with _Völsunga_ and others. Petersen
(Copenhagen, 1847) edited it with a Danish translation. Munch's
_Nordmuendenes Gudelære_ (out of print) contains a short abstract.
_Death of Angantyr_. (Page 43.)
Angantyr's death is related by Saxo, Book v., with entire exclusion
of all mythical interest.
_Transmission of Legends_. (Page 47.)
Müllenhoff's views are given in the _Zeitschrift für deutsches
Altertum_, vol. x.; Maurer's in the _Zeitschrift für deutsche
Philologie_, vol. ii. For Golther's views on the Volsung cycle see
_Germania_, 33.
_The Dragon Myth_. (Page 49.)
See also Hartland, _Science of Fairy-Tales_.
The eating of the dragon's heart (see p. 19) may possibly be a survival
of the custom of eating a slain enemy's heart to obtain courage,
of which Dr. Frazer gives examples in the _Golden Bough_.
_Alien Wives_. (Page 49.)
For the theory of alien wives as a means of transmission, see Lang,
_Custom and Myth_ (London, 1893).
_The Sister's Son_. (Page 51.)
See Mr. Gummere's article in the _English Miscellany_; and Professor
Rhys' Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section of the
British Association, 1900. The double relationship between Sigmund
and Sinfjötli (not uncommon in heroic tales; compare Conchobhar and
Cuchulainn, Arthur and Mordred) seems in this case due to the same
cause as the custom which prevailed in the dynasty of the Ptolemies,
where the king often married his sister, that his heir might be of
the pure royal blood.
_Swanmaids_. (Page 51.)
See Hartland, _Science of Fairy-Tales._
_The Waverlowe_. (Page 51.)
Dr. Frazer (_Golden Bough_) gives instances of ritual marriages
connected with the midsummer fires. For _Svipdag and Menglad_, see
Study No. 12 of this series. If Rydberg, as seems very probable, is
right in identifying Menglad and Svipdag with Freyja and the mortal
lover who wins her and whom she afterwards loses, the story would
be a parallel to those of Venus and Adonis, Ishtar and Tammuz, &c.,
which Frazer derives from the ritual marriage of human sacrifices to
the Goddess of fertility. The reason given in the Edda for Brynhild's
sleep, and her connexion with Odin, are secondary, arising from the
Valhalla myth.
Printed by _Ballantyne, Hanson & Co_
London & Edinburgh