Chapter CLXXII). In another passage it is said of this same god: “He is

the divine matter which produced the Two Companies of Gods, every god

came into being through him, God One alone, 𓌡𓐰𓏤𓐰𓂝𓌡𓐰𓏤𓐰𓂝𓏲𓐰𓏭𓀭. He made what

is when the earth began in primeval time, his births are hidden, his

transformations are multitudinous, and his similitude cannot be known.”

It has been argued that the Egyptian idea of the Oneness of a god is

a totally different thing from =Monotheism=, but, taking the facts as

they stand, we are justified in saying that when the Egyptian declared

that his god was One, _neter uā_ 𓊹𓀭𓌡𓐰𓏤𓐰𓂝, his meaning was identical with

that expressed by the Hebrew in the words, “The Lord our God _is_ one”

(Deuteronomy vi, 4), and by the Arab in his declaration, “God, He is one”

(Kur’ân, _Surah_ cxii).

The principal religious beliefs of the Egyptians may be summarized thus:

The =Creation=.—In the beginning there existed an immense mass of water

wherein lived the god Nu. He felt the desire to create this universe, and

his heart, or intelligence, who was called Thoth, spake a word expressing

this desire, and the world came into being. The first act of creation

was the appearance of the sun from out of the water; the light separated

the heavens from the earth, and the sky was placed upon four pillars

𓉽𓉽𓉽𓉽, which marked the cardinal points.

[Illustration: The god Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter’s wheel which

he works with his foot. Behind stands Thoth, marking the years of his

life on a notched palm branch.]

=Creation of gods.=—According to the priests of On, the god Kheperȧ, a

form of Rā, who was self-begotten and self-produced, fashioned a god

and a goddess out of the matter of his own body, and these became the

parents of a number of other gods and goddesses, _e.g._, Osiris and

Isis, Set and Nephthys, Horus and Anubis, etc. The priests of Hermopolis

declared that Thoth was the primeval god, and that the gods he created

were Nu and Nut, Ḥeḥu and Ḥeḥut, Kekui and Kekuit, Ḳerḥ and Ḳerḥit.

The first pair represent the watery mass out of which everything came;

the second, indefinite time, or eternity; the third, darkness; and the

fourth, night. The priests of Saïs taught that their goddess Net (Neith)

was self-begotten and self-produced, that she was the mother of Rā, the

Sun-god, and at the same time a virgin-goddess.

=Creation of men.=—According to a very old legend, mankind was divided

into four races: 1. RETH, or REMT, _i.e._, “Men,” 𓂋𓐰𓍿𓀀𓁐𓏪; these were the

Egyptians. 2. ĀAMU 𓌙𓅓𓅱𓏪, or the peoples of the Eastern Desert. 3. THEMEḤU

𓍿𓐰𓎖𓅱𓏪, _i.e._, the Libyans. 4. NEḤESU 𓅘𓎛𓋴𓅱𓏪, _i.e._, the black and brown

peoples, and Negroes and Negroids, of the Sûdân. The Egyptians or “Men,”

were formed out of the tears which fell from the Eye of Rā; these dropped

upon the members of his body and then turned into men and women. The

Libyans came into being through some act of the Sun-god in connection

with his Eye, and the Āamu and the Neḥesu were descended irregularly from

Rā. Another legend declared that man was made out of potters’ mud on a

wheel by Khnemu, the ram-headed god of Philae.

=Destruction of mankind.=—After Rā had been reigning for a considerable

time, men and women began to speak contemptuously of him, and to

blaspheme him. Rā assembled the gods and took counsel with them, and,

as the result, he sent forth his Eye among mankind in the form of the

goddess Hathor, who destroyed men from off the earth with the exception

of a small company. The goddess Sekhet assisted in the slaughter, and

for several days wandered about Egypt wading in pools of men’s blood.

At length Rā was appeased, and he stopped the work of slaughter; but

he was weary of man, and determined to withdraw himself from the

management of his affairs. After taking further counsel with the gods he

retreated to a newly-constituted portion of heaven, and created there the

=Sekhet-ḥetepet=, or =Elysian Fields=.

According to another legend preserved in the CLXXVth Chapter of the

Book of the Dead (Papyrus of Ani, No. 10,470), a general destruction of

mankind was caused by =the Flood=, which was brought upon the world by

the god Temu, who announced his intention of destroying everything in it,

and of covering the earth with the waters of the primeval ocean Nu. The

flood appears to have begun at Ḥenensu, in Upper Egypt, the Khânês of

Isaiah xxx, 4, and the Herakleopolis of the Greeks, and to have submerged

all Egypt. All life was destroyed, and the only beings who survived were

those who were in the “Boat of Millions of Years,” _i.e._, the Ark of the

Sun-god, with the god Temu. The mutilated state of a large portion of

the text makes it impossible to piece the details together, but it seems

that, after the earth was covered by the Flood, Temu sailed over the

waters to the Island of Flame, and took up his abode there. Subsequently

he was succeeded by Osiris, whose authority was disputed by Set, the god

of evil; but eventually Set was overthrown, and Osiris ruled triumphantly.

The =Legend of Horus and Set=.—In very early times legends were current

concerning the great fight which took place between Horus the Great, the

Sun-god, the god of day, light, life, and of all physical and moral good,

and Set, the god of night, darkness, death, and of all physical and moral

evil. Set succeeded in carrying off the Eye of Horus, _i.e._, the Sun,

and tried to devour it, but the Eye of Horus inflicted a deadly wound on

Set, and cut off and carried away one of his thighs. At length Thoth,

the intelligence of Rā, interfered, and made an arrangement between the

two combatant gods, whereby the day (Horus) was to be a certain length,

and the night (Set) likewise, and neither was to destroy the other.

Because of this decision Thoth was called “Ȧp reḥui,” or “Judge of the

Combatants.” Now the moon was the second, or left, eye of Horus the

Great, and it was much persecuted by Set during fourteen nights of every

month. Each night Set succeeded in cutting off a piece from it, and at

length no moon was left. Thoth, however, made new moons, which he placed

in the sky month by month, and thus frustrated the evil deeds of Set. On

one occasion Set was wandering about the sky in the evening and found

there the crescent, or new moon, which he immediately swallowed, but he

was eventually made to disgorge it by Thoth, who was watching over it.

At a later period, when the moon was identified with Osiris, the enmity

of Set was transferred to Osiris, and the legend entered upon a new

phase; Osiris became the symbol of moral good, and Set of moral evil and

wickedness.

The views held by the Egyptians about Osiris from about B.C. 3800 to

the Roman Period may be thus summarized:—=Legend of Osiris.=—Osiris, in

Egyptian ȦSȦR 𓁹𓐰𓊨, was once a king who reigned in the south of Egypt; his

sister-wife was called =Isis=, in Egyptian ȦST 𓊨𓏏, and their son Horus,

in Egyptian ḤERU 𓅃. He did great good to all his people, and taught them

the arts of agriculture, and made good laws for them, and ruled them

justly. Now Osiris had a twin brother called =Set= 𓊃𓐰𓏏𓐱𓈜, the SÊTH of

Plutarch, who was very jealous of him, and who lost no opportunity of

undermining his authority and reviling him, for he wished to see Osiris

removed from his path, so that he might seize his brother’s throne and

wife. At length, by a stratagem, he managed to kill Osiris, by drowning

him in the Nile. The river, however, carried the dead body of Osiris to

the papyrus swamps in the Delta, where the waters deposited it on the

lower branches of an acacia tree, which grew up round it and concealed

it. Isis discovered, by magical means, where her husband’s body was, and

went to the place and took possession of it. Wishing to visit her son

Horus, so that she might urge him to take vengeance on Set, she hid the

body in a secret spot, and went off to the city of Buto to Horus. During

her absence, Set found the body one night when he was out hunting, and

recognizing it, he tore it into fourteen pieces, which he scattered about

the country. Isis, having heard what Set had done, set out and collected

the portions of the body of Osiris, and wherever she found one of them

she buried it, and built a shrine over it.

[Illustration: Osiris rising from the sarcophagus with “life” in each

hand. On each side are two of the children of Horus.]

Now Isis was a great enchantress, and she learned from Thoth the

knowledge of magical ceremonies and of most potent words of power. She

was able to transform herself into any kind of creature, and to travel

through earth, air, fire, or water with equal ease. Instructed by his

mother, Horus, with the assistance of a number of his “followers,”

performed a series of ceremonies connected with the burial of his father,

which had the effect of raising Osiris from the dead, and of establishing

him as king in Ȧmenti, _i.e._, the “Hidden Place,” or the Other World.

When this was done, Osiris appeared to Horus and urged him to avenge him

on Set, and shortly afterwards a great fight between Horus and Set took

place. Set was defeated and, according to the XVIIth Chapter of the Book

of the Dead, mutilated by Horus, who suffered no injury whatsoever. The

great fight took place near the modern city of Asyûṭ, and lasted three

days; each god fought in the form of a wolf or bear. (Fourth Sallier

Papyrus in the British Museum.)

The cult of Osiris is as old as Dynastic Egyptian civilization, and, from

the earliest to the latest times, he was regarded as the god-man who

suffered, died, rose again, and reigned eternally in heaven. He was the

“King of eternity, lord of the everlastingness, the prince of gods and

men, the god of gods, king of kings, lord of lords, prince of princes,

the governor of the world, whose existence is everlasting” (Papyrus of

Ani, Plate I). To the Egyptians Osiris was the god who “made men and

women to be born again,” 𓄠𓋴𓏏𓐰𓍃𓰮𓅱𓀀𓁐𓏪𓰮𓄙𓰮, who made them to rise from the

dead, and bestowed upon them everlasting life; he was, in all times, the

cause of their resurrection, and was also the =resurrection= itself. He

was both god and man, and could sympathize with them in sickness and

death, and the idea of his human personality brought them comfort. The

confidence with which men looked to him as a being who knew neither

decay nor corruption is best expressed in the words of a text on coffin

No. 22,940 (Wall-case No. 40, First Egyptian Room). “Homage to thee,

O my father Osiris! Thy flesh suffered no decay, worms touched thee

not, thou didst not moulder away, withering came not on thee, and thou

didst not suffer corruption; and I shall possess my flesh for ever and

ever, I shall not crumble away, I shall not wither, I shall not become

corruption.”

The =Kingdom of Osiris= was situated in Sekhet-ḥetep 𓇏𓏏𓐰𓏭𓈇𓐰𓏤𓊵𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊪𓊖,

_i.e._, the “Field of Peace,” a division of Sekhet-Ȧaru, or the “Field of

Reeds.” From the pictures of this region given in papyri we see that it

was surrounded by a stream of water, and intersected by numerous canals,

and, judging by the descriptions given in these pictures, it must have

been considered to be a very fertile place. The wheat and the barley

there grew to a great height, and plants, vegetables, and fruit trees

abounded. The idea of the Sekhet-ḥetep was no doubt suggested by the

fertile regions of the Delta and the Oases in the Western Desert.

[Illustration: Osiris in his shrine.]

[Illustration: Thoth in the form of an ape weighing the heart in the

presence of Osiris.]

[Illustration: The goddess Maāt weighing the heart in the presence of the

ape of Thoth. By her side is the Eater of the Dead.]

[Illustration: The Judgment of Osiris, from the Book of Gates.

=A= Osiris seated on a throne with nine steps.

=B= The scales in which the hearts of the dead were weighed.

=C= The pig, symbol of evil, in a boat under the charge of an ape, the

companion of Thoth.

=D= Anubis, the god of the tomb.

=E= Heads of gazelle, typical of the enemies of Osiris.]

In one part of this kingdom was placed the =Judgment Hall of Osiris=,

and there sat the great judge of the dead. The soul of every man was

brought there and weighed in the “Great Balance” in his presence, by

Thoth, the scribe of the gods. The soul was represented by the heart

𓄣, and was weighed against the feather 𓆄, symbolic of righteousness

(_maāt_). If the heart failed to counterbalance the feather it was cast

to an animal monster called Ām-mit, _i.e._, “Eater of the Dead,” which

was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus. When the heart and

the feather balanced exactly Thoth announced the fact to the gods of his

company, and then the soul of the deceased was taken by Horus into the

presence of Osiris, who rewarded him according to his deserts. Before the

weighing of the heart took place the deceased was obliged, presumably,

to pass along the Hall of Osiris, and to make the =Negative Confession=

before the Two and Forty Assessors of the Dead, “who tried sinners, and

fed upon their blood, on the day when the lives of men are reckoned up in

the presence of the Good Being” (Osiris). Apparently each of these beings

asked him the question: “Hast thou committed such and such a sin”? For

his answers, as given in the Book of the Dead (Chapter CXXV), take these

forms:—

“Hail, Long-strider, coming from Ȧnnu, I have not committed

iniquity.

“Hail, Eater of shades, coming from Qerti, I have not stolen.

“Hail, Bad-face, coming from Re-stau, I have killed neither man

nor woman.

“Hail, Flame, advancing and retreating, I have not robbed God.

“Hail, Uamemti, coming from the house of slaughter, I have not

committed adultery.

“Hail, Two-horns, coming from Saïs, I have not multiplied words

overmuch.”

The =forty-two sins= enumerated in the Negative Confession represent the

chief sins abominated by the Egyptians under the XVIIIth dynasty.

The texts connected with the examination of the dead show that the

Egyptian =idea of sin= was different from that of Western nations. With

the Egyptian the commission of sin was regarded merely as a breach of

the ritual law, or of the law of the community, and could be atoned for

by the payment of goods or possessions; this payment once made, the

law-breaker considered that he was free from all obligation, real or

moral. The idea of =repentance= finds no expression in Egyptian texts,

and, curiously enough, there is no word in Coptic for “repentance.” The

translators of the New Testament from Greek into Coptic were obliged to

use the Greek word μετάνοια. From the earliest times the Egyptians appear

to have believed firmly that the righteous would be rewarded in the

Other World, and the wicked punished, but there is no definite statement

on this point in the texts until the XIXth dynasty, when the =doctrine

of retribution= is clearly expressed. In the Second Part of the “Book

of Gates” a number of beings are described as “those who worshipped Rā

upon earth, who spake words of power against the Evil One (Āpep), who

made offerings to Rā, and burnt incense to their own gods.” Other beings

are described as “those who spake truth upon earth, and who did not

approach false gods” 𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐰𓂋𓇌𓅪𓐰𓏥. In return for this Rā gave to them food

and drink which should never fail, and decreed that their souls should

never be hacked in pieces. Close by, in the same section of the work, are

mentioned the “rebels against Rā, who blasphemed the god when they were

upon earth, who thrust aside right, and cursed the god of the horizon.”

As punishment for these deeds Rā decreed that they should be bound in

chains, that their bodies should be cut in pieces, and their souls

destroyed.

The =rewards of the righteous= were, moreover, graduated, for when

Osiris decreed that such and such a soul was to receive an estate in his

kingdom, the land measurers of heaven took their measuring ropes with

them, and going into the Elysian Fields measured out for those who were

deemed righteous plots, which varied in size according to their merits.

According to another view the blessed lived always with the Sun-god in

his boat, and travelled with him across the sky day by day. The “gods”

in heaven spent their lives in ministering to their god Osiris, or Rā,

and in performing his commands, and the duty of a certain number of them

consisted in singing to him and praising him at dawn and at sunset. The

spirits and souls of the righteous, in their glorified bodies, became

“beings and messengers” of God, and they sat on the great throne by

his side. They wore the finest raiment, and white linen garments and

sandals, they ate of the “tree of life” 𓆱𓐰𓐍𓐱𓏤𓆱𓈖𓋹𓈖𓐰𓐍, and sat with the

great gods by the side of the Great Lake in the Field of Peace, their

bread and drink never grew stale, they neither thirsted nor hungered, and

they enjoyed celestial figs and wine. In one portion of the kingdom of

Osiris the blessed cultivated the divine plant Maāt, whereon both they

and Osiris lived, and eating the same food they became one with him,

and shared with him his attributes of divinity, incorruptibility, and

immortality.

[Illustration: The holy Ape-gods singing hymns of praise to Rā at

sunrise.]

[Illustration: The Jackal-gods and the Hawk-gods singing hymns of praise

to Rā at sunset.]

=The wicked= who were in the Other World consisted of two classes: 1. The

=enemies of Rā=, the Sun-god. 2. The =enemies of Osiris=, _i.e._, the

souls of sinful men and women. The former were gathered together each

night and did their utmost to prevent the sun rising morning by morning,

but they were always seized by the angels of Rā and dragged by them to

the eastern portion of the sky, where they were cast into the fiery

caldrons of the god and consumed in their flames. The heavy mists and

clouds of the morning represented the smoke of these caldrons, and the

red glare of dawn was the reflection of their flames. Opinions differed

as to the way in which the enemies of Osiris were disposed of. According

to some, those who were condemned in the Judgment were devoured by the

monster =Ām-mit=, the “=Eater of the Dead=”; but others held that they

were dragged to the divine block of doom 𓌩, where they were beheaded by

the headsman of Osiris, called =Shesmu= 𓈚𓐰𓊃𓅓𓅱𓀭. Sometimes their bodies

were hacked limb from limb by him, and sometimes they were seized upon by

the “Watchers,” who “carry slaughtering knives, and have cruel fingers,”

and cut the dead into pieces, which were thrown down into pits of fire,

or into the great Lake of Fire. Here at one corner sat a monster who

swallowed hearts and ate up the dead, himself remaining invisible; his

name was “Devourer for millions of years.”

The =judgment of souls= took place at midnight, and the righteous were

rewarded, and the condemned punished before a new day began. The souls

of all those who had died during the day were judged that day, and their

cases disposed of finally; =eternal happiness= was decreed for the

blessed, and =annihilation, not everlasting punishment=, for the wicked.

In late times there are passages in the texts which suggest that certain

souls who set out from this world for the kingdom of Osiris failed to

reach it, either because the amulets which were buried with their bodies

were not sufficiently powerful, or because their offerings to the gods

were too few when they were on earth. There is no evidence that such

souls were believed to suffer, or that the portion of the Other World

beyond which they had been unable to proceed was a sort of =purgatory=.

They dwelt in darkness during the greater part of each day, but the

Sun-god passed among them each night, and spake words on which they lived

until the next night; when he departed they wept as the doors of their

abode closed on them, and shut him from their sight.

The views of the Egyptians about the position of =heaven= PET 𓊪𓐱𓏏𓐰𓇯, and

the Other World changed in different periods.

In the earliest times heaven was believed to be situated above the large,

flat rectangular slab of iron (or alabaster?) which formed the sky. This

slab was supported on four pillars, which were kept in position and

presided over by the four sons of Horus, Mesthȧ, Ḥāpi, Ṭuamutef, and

Qebḥsennuf. These four gods sat on pillars, which, subsequently, were

regarded as the =four cardinal points=. The stars were believed to be

hung from the slab by hooks through holes, 𓻊, like lamps from a ceiling.

The righteous ascended to this heaven by means of a ladder. Osiris

himself was obliged to use a ladder, and Horus and Set held each one side

of the ladder [glyph not in Unicode], and assisted him to mount with

their fingers. The models of ladders and of the two forefingers which are

found in tombs commemorate this event.

The name given to the =Other World= was =Ṭuat= 𓇼𓄿𓏏𓐰𓉐. This region was

not _under_ the earth, or deep in it, but ran parallel with Egypt, which

formed one side of it. A river flowed through the whole length of it. On

the other side of the river was a range of mountains, and outside this

was the great celestial ocean which surrounded the world. The Ṭuat was a

valley which in the XIXth dynasty was believed to begin near Thebes, at

Manu, the Mountain of Sunset, and, stretching northwards as far as Saïs,

bent round towards the east until it reached the region of Ȧnnu (On),

when it turned to the south and continued until it ended at Bakhet, the

Mountain of Sunrise. The Ṭuat was divided into ten sections, and had a

vestibule at each end of it, and in the XIXth dynasty it included the

local kingdoms of the dead of Thebes, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Memphis,

Saïs, Bubastis, and Ȧnnu. Each section was guarded by a massive gate,

with battlements, but its door flew open before the Sun-god as he

traversed the Ṭuat nightly in his boat. According to one legend there

was a small passage at Abydos called “Peka,” _i.e._, the =Gap=, which

connected this world with the Ṭuat; and according to another there was

a similar passage at Thebes. Be this as it may, the souls of all those

who had died during the day assembled in the passage each evening and

endeavoured to obtain a seat in the solar bark as the god passed by. In

its passage the boat passed the kingdom of Osiris; those who preferred a

material heaven disembarked at that spot, and those who desired to become

like Rā and to be with him remained in their places in the boat. For all

souls, however, there was an examination of their credentials, and those

who were not provided with amulets, and with formulas and words of power,

were ejected.

=Recognition of Friends.=—From the statements made in papyri and on

coffins there is no doubt that the Egyptians believed that they would

know and recognize each other in the Other World, and would enjoy

intercourse with their relatives and friends. In the Papyrus of Ȧnhai

(B.C. 1040), we see this lady meeting her father and mother in the

Sekhet-ḥetep, or Elysian Fields, and sailing with her husband in a boat

on one of the canals; in the Papyrus of Ani (B.C. 1500) we see the

deceased seated with his wife Thuthu playing draughts; and the scribe

Nebseni (B.C. 1550) says: “I have seen the Osiris (_i.e._, his father),

and I have recognized my mother.” In the Book of the Dead (Chapter LII)

the deceased prays: “May my ancestors, and my father and mother be given

unto me as guardians of my door, and for the ordering of my territory,”

and in Chapter LXVIII he declares that he shall have authority over his

workmen and workwomen just as he had upon earth. On a coffin of the XIth

dynasty (B.C. 2600) at Cairo the gods Rā, Tem, Seb, and Nut are implored

to grant the “gathering together of the ancestors and kinsfolk of Sepȧ in

the Other World,” in the following words: “Let him traverse heaven, and

earth, and the waters, let him meet his ancestors, and his father, and

his mother, and his sons and daughters, and his brethren and his sisters,

and his friends both male and female, and those who have been as parents

to him (_i.e._, uncles and aunts), and his kinsfolk (_i.e._, cousins or

connexions), and those who have worked for him on earth, both male and

female, and the woman whom he hath loved and known.”[22] In the second

portion of the text it is declared that all these shall come forth to

meet Sepȧ on his arrival in the Other World, and that they shall bear in

their hands their staves, and their mattocks, and their ploughshares, and

their clubs, so that in the event of any attack being made upon him by

any hostile god, they may deliver their kinsman forthwith.

The use of =amulets= played a very large part in the Egyptian religion.

They were generally made of stones and other materials believed to

possess magical properties, which their wearers were supposed to acquire.

A fine collection of Egyptian amulets is exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian

Room (Table-case F), where examples of every authorized shape and kind

will be found. In connexion with these the unrivalled =collection of

scarabs= should be examined (Table-cases D, E, G, I).

[Illustration: Flint amulets of the Predynastic Period.

The Oryx. The Crocodile. A Fish. Hippopotamus.

[See Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]

The following are the principal amulets mentioned in funerary texts

or found in tombs with, or on, the bodies of the dead: The =scarab=,

or =beetle=, _kheprer_ 𓆣𓂋𓐰𓂋𓅬, was the symbol of the god Kheperȧ, and

represented generation, new life, virility, and resurrection. The

=Heart=, _ȧb_ 𓄣, symbol of the seat of life in the bodies of gods,

animals, and men, and emblem of the conscience; it brought to the wearer

the protection of both Osiris and Rā. The heart was associated with the

scarab, and the same _ḥekau_, or words of power, were written on both.

The importance of this amulet is shown by the fact that in the Book of

the Dead six chapters are devoted to formulas for the protection of the

heart. The =Girdle of Isis=, _thet_ 𓎬, assured the wearer of the divine

protection of the holy blood of the goddess. The =Ṭeṭ= 𓊽, a fetish, the

original significance of which is unknown. In later times it symbolized

the tree trunk in which the body of Osiris was hidden by Isis, and also

the upright, consolidated back-bone of the god. Its general meaning is

stability. The =Pillow= 𓊫 typified the raising up and preservation of

the head. The =Vulture= 𓅐 brought with it the protection of the great

“Mother” Isis. The =Collar= 𔆈 gave strength and power to the breast,

heart, and lungs, and symbolized the dominion of the wearer over all

Egypt. The =Papyrus Sceptre= 𓇅 represented the strength, vigour, and

virility of youth, and abundance of every kind.

The =human-headed Hawk= 𓳕 ensured to the deceased the power of uniting

his body, soul and spirit at will. The =Ladder= [glyph not in unicode]

symbolized the ladder by which Osiris ascended from the earth to heaven.

Models of this were buried with the dead in the tombs, and when the

deceased needed a ladder he uttered the Chapter of the Ladder, and the

model ladder became as long as he wanted. The =Two Fingers= [glyph not in

unicode] index and medius, represent the fingers which Horus used when he

helped his father Osiris up the ladder which reached from earth to heaven.

The =Utchat= 𓂀 typified the strength and power of the Eye of Horus, or

Rā, _i.e._, the Sun-god, the two eyes 𓂀𓑀𓂀 gave to the wearer the strength

and protection both of the Sun and Moon. The =Ānkh= 𓋹, or symbol of

“life.” What object this amulet represented is unknown. The =Nefer= 𓄤,

or lute, signified “happiness, good luck,” etc. The =Serpent’s Head= 𓵊

protected its wearer when alive against snake bite, and when dead against

the attacks of worms and serpents in the tomb. The =Menȧt= 𓋧 represented

nutrition, and the union of the male and female powers of nature,

generation, etc. The =Sma= 𓄥 symbolized animal pleasure. The =Shen= 𓍶

was the emblem of the orbit of the sun in heaven. King Besh, of the IInd

dynasty, wrote his name within this circle, which in an elongated form 𓍷

became the cartouche of the later kings. The _shen_ was the symbol of the

eternal protection of the name by Rā.

The =Steps= 𓊍 symbolized the throne of Osiris, and procured for the

wearer “exaltation” to and in heaven. The =Plumes= 𓴥 symbolized Isis

and Nephthys, who had their seat on the forehead of Rā, and the Maāti

goddesses, or goddesses of Right and Truth. The =Frog= 𓆏 was typical of

teeming life and the resurrection. It was the symbol of the goddess Ḥeqt,

the wife of Khnemu, who made the first man on a potter’s wheel, and when

laid on a dead person transferred to him the new life which was in the

body of the goddess. The =Pesesh-Kef= 𔊉 suggests the idea of second birth

in connexion with the ceremonies of Opening the Mouth. The mouth of

the mummy, or of a statue, was touched with this amulet, or instrument,

whilst the priest recited words of power; as a result of that the mouth

was “opened,” _i.e._, the deceased could henceforth talk, think, walk,

eat, drink, etc., in the Other World. A fine example of this amulet in

flint (Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room) of the Neolithic Period proves

that the idea of “opening the mouth” is older than the dynasties of

Egypt. The =Solar Disk= on the horizon 𓈌 symbolizes life which renews

itself, resurrection, virility, strength, etc. The =Neterui= 𓊋𓑀𓊋𓑀, or 𓊹𓊹,

represent the two iron instruments used in the ceremony of “opening the

mouth”; their presence among the swathings of the mummy, or in the tomb,

secured for the deceased the protection of the gods of the South and the

North.

On rare occasions all the amulets mentioned above have been found

in one tomb, or on a single body. A good example of a collection of

amulets found on a single body is No. 4 (Table-case K, Fourth Egyptian

Room). Here will be seen uraei, the _menȧt_, the _utchat_, the scarab,

the _shen_, the triad of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpokrates: the papyrus

sceptre, the heart, the plumes, the two fingers, ṭeṭs, etc.; the places

on the body on which they were found are indicated by the labels. Another

class of amulets is represented by the figures of gods, goddesses, and

sacred animals, which were either worn as pendants to necklaces, etc.,

during life, or placed among the swathings of the mummified body. Of

these the British Museum possesses very large collections, and the finest

examples of them will be found in Wall-cases Nos. 119-132, in the Third

Egyptian Room. A very remarkable group of amulets or objects, which were

intended to give protection to the tomb of the priestess for whom they

were made, is exhibited in the Second Egyptian Room (Wall-case No. 73).

It consists of a Ṭeṭ 𓊽, a human figure 𓀾, a jackal 𓃣, and a reed, and

each object stands on a small inscribed brick of Nile mud. The ceremony

in which these were used is described in the Book of the Dead (Chapter

CXXXVII). The text is only found in the Papyrus of Nu (No. 10,477), and

the group of objects which illustrates it appears to be unique.

In connexion with the numerous ceremonies which found a prominent place

in the cult of Osiris must be mentioned two classes of =magical figures=.

It has already been said that the righteous who lived in the kingdom of

Osiris were employed in the cultivation of the _Maāt_ wheat, on which

both they and Osiris lived. Now, before this wheat could be grown, it

was assumed that the land of the celestial fields had to be prepared

and watered, and renewed with top-dressing, just like the fields on

earth. These laborious agricultural works were performed by a celestial

_corvée_, which was under the general control of the “Ḥenbiu,” or gods of

the Celestial Domain Lands. These gods provided estates for the blessed,

and carefully watched the land measurers to see that they carried out

their orders. They also provided gangs of beings to work these fields,

and set taskmasters (Tchatchaiu) and time-keepers (Kheru āḥāu) over them,

so that they might make them toil their appointed time. Why these beings

were condemned to forced labour cannot be explained, for not a word is

said which would suggest that they were sinners, and that their work was

a punishment. The Egyptian theologians appear to have been incapable of

conceiving a heaven in which there was no _corvée_ to perform menial

tasks, and equally incapable of imagining the existence of a _corvée_

which did not need the constant supervision of time-keepers and gangers.

Be this as it may, the Egyptians, as a people, hated forced labour, and

the priests found a way for them to escape from it. The means chosen was

the =Shabti=, or =Ushabti figure=.[23] The meaning of the word Ushabti is

unknown. Some associate the name with that of the persea tree (=shab=,

or =shabt=), but others connect it with the word =ushab=, “to answer,”

and think the figure was called =Ushabti=, because in the text cut upon

it the figure “answers” and says: “Verily I am there,” etc. The Ushabti

figure was a figure made of wood, stone, porcelain, metal, etc., which

was intended to represent the person on whose behalf it was fashioned,

and it was supposed to carry a digging tool and a basket in which to

remove earth or sand from one place to another. In short, the Ushabti

figure is a model of a farm labourer or _fallâḥ_. On the figure it was

customary to cut a formula which was supposed to be said by the deceased

in the Other World, to this effect: “In the event of my being condemned

to spread dust (_i.e._, _sebakh_ or top-dressing) on the fields in the

Ṭuat, or to fill the water-courses with water from the river, or to reap

the harvest, such work shall be performed for me by thee, and no obstacle

shall be put in thy way.” Below this formula were cut the words with

which the figure was supposed to answer: “Verily I am there, wheresoever

thou mayest speak” (or call me). When the deceased found himself in the

Other World, and condemned to work in the celestial _corvée_, he was

supposed to utter the words rendered above, and if they had been spoken

in a correct tone of voice, the figure would change into a full-grown

man, who was provided with a digging tool and basket, and who was capable

of performing field labours.

The dread of forced labour in the minds of the Egyptians resulted in the

production of the immense numbers of Ushabti figures which are seen in

all great museums. The number found in some tombs is very large; thus,

Seti I caused 700 to be buried with him, and, at the present time, there

are 149 figures in the Ushabti-box of Ānkh-f-en-Khensu in Wall-case 116,

in the Third Egyptian Room. The collection of Ushabti figures in the

British Museum (Second Egyptian Room) is unrivalled, and contains fine

specimens of every period from about B.C. 2600 to B.C. 600. Worthy of

note are the limestone figure of Ȧāḥmes I, the fine diorite figure of

king Ȧmen-ḥetep II, the granite figure of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, the porcelain

and wooden figures of Seti I, and the figures of Rameses III, Rameses V,

Psammetichus I, and Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā (Pharaoh Ḥophra).

Other figures which were highly esteemed as possessing magical

powers were those to which the name of Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr, or

=Ptaḥ-Socharis-Osiris=, has been given (see Second Egyptian Room,

Wall-cases 89-92). Ptaḥ was the creator of the world, according to the

doctrine of Memphis; Seker was the god of the Other World of Memphis;

and Ȧsȧr, or Osiris, has already been discussed; these three gods were

united in the later theology, and the resultant god was regarded as the

lord of Heaven, Earth, and the Other World. Figures of this triune god

were made of wood, painted or gilded, and fixed on a rectangular stand,

in which two cavities were usually hollowed out, one in front of the

figure and one at one side. In the cavity in front a little piece of the

body of the deceased was placed, and a cover was fitted over it, with a

figure of the hawk of Seker 𓅌 upon it; in the cavity in the side of the

pedestal a small roll of papyrus inscribed with prayers was inserted.

The figure and pedestal were often inscribed with formulas in which the

triune god Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr was invoked, and it was believed that so long

as the portion of the dead body that was in the pedestal of the figure

was preserved, the body in the tomb would be kept in its integrity and

everlasting life would be assured for the soul. Typical examples of these

figures are Nos. 9870 and 9736 (Wall-cases 90 and 91, Second Egyptian

Room). Originally the figure on the pedestal was that of Osiris himself,

standing upon the symbol of Maāt, or Truth 𓐙; a good example is No.

20,868, which is hollow; it contained the fine copy of the Book of the

Dead of the priestess Ȧnhai, which is in the British Museum (No. 10,472,

Wall-case 90, Second Egyptian Room).

We have already seen that, after the murder and mutilation of the body of

Osiris, the Man-god of the primitive Egyptians, by Set, the god of evil,

Horus the son of Osiris, assisted by a number of beings who are called

the =Followers of Horus=, performed a number of magical ceremonies,

whereby the rejoining of the limbs of the god was effected, and the

preservation of his body was secured for ever. The Egyptians argued:

Certain ceremonies were performed by Horus on the dead body of Osiris,

and he was mummified, and as a result he rose from the dead; we therefore

will have the ceremonies which were performed over Osiris performed over

our dead bodies, which shall be mummified, as was the body of Osiris, and

we also shall rise from the dead. Every Egyptian from the time of the

IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3600, believed that his existence in the Other

World depended upon the =mummification= of his body in this world, and

during his lifetime he made provision for his embalmment, and, when his

means permitted, prepared a tomb in which his mummified body should be

placed. Now the Egyptian had several reasons for mummifying the dead: 1.

He wished the souls of the dead to enjoy everlasting life. 2. He wished

to maintain dwelling places for the Kau or “doubles” of the dead, so that

they might not be obliged to wander about in the deserts in search of

food. 3. He wished the dead to form a bond of union between the gods and

himself. 4. He believed that the soul came back to the body from time to

time. 5. He believed in the resurrection of the material body itself,

and that at some future time it would be united to its soul for all

eternity. This last was the chief reason why he preserved the body with

spices, unguents, bitumen, etc., and, in spite of the very high state of

civilization to which the Egyptians attained, the belief in the supreme

importance of mummification was never wholly eradicated from the minds of

ordinary folk, even after they had embraced Christianity.

In the most primitive times the dead were mutilated to prevent their

returning to their native places to live upon the food needed for the

living, but in the Dynastic Period the utmost care was taken to prevent

the mutilation of the body, and to preserve it from destruction caused

by damp, dry rot, or worms. The texts state plainly that after the

resurrection the body was to live upon earth, whilst the soul dwelt in

heaven. In the Vth dynasty it was written: “The soul belongeth to heaven,

and the body to earth,” and in the VIth dynasty it is said to king Pepi:

“Thy essence belongeth to heaven, and thy body belongeth to earth.” The

same idea occurs in all dynasties down to the Ptolemaïc Period, when we

find in the “Lamentations of Isis” the words addressed to the deceased,

who is identified with Osiris: “Heaven hath thy soul, and earth hath thy

body.”

Before an account of the process of mummification is given, it will

be well to note briefly the views which the Egyptians held as to the

relationship of the component parts of the material and spiritual man.

Most peoples have divided man into three parts, =body=, =soul=, and

=spirit=; but the Egyptian system of the human economy was more complex.

The material part of a man was the =khat= 𓷓𓐳𓏏𓐎, or =body=. Through

mummification, and the prayers which were recited over it after that

process, the body obtained a degree of knowledge, and power, and glory,

whereby it became henceforth lasting and incorruptible. This =glorified

body= was called a =Sāḥu= 𓊃𓐰𓂝𓎛𓅱𓋩. When a man was born into the world

there was also born with him an abstract individuality, or personality,

which remained with him all the days of his life, and could only be

separated permanently from him by death. To this personality is given

the name =Ka= 𓂓𓐰𓏤, a word which has been translated by “double, genius,

image, character, person, self,” etc.

When the Ka left the body at death it was necessary for the living to

find a habitation, and to provide meat, and drink, and shelter for it.

Otherwise it would be obliged to wander about in search of food, and if

it failed to find it, would return and wreak vengeance on the living.

Provision was therefore made for the Ka in the tomb of the dead person

of whom it had once formed a part. First a statue was made in stone, or

wood, and fashioned to represent the deceased. Over this a long series

of ceremonies was performed, and at the end of them the deceased was

declared to have obtained the powers of talking, thinking, walking, etc.,

and the statue was supposed to be in a fit state to receive the Ka should

it be pleased to enter into it and dwell there. A special chamber was set

apart in the tomb for the statue, and through an opening in one of the

walls which communicated with the hall of the tomb wherein the offerings

were made, the Ka inhabiting this statue was able to enjoy the smell of

the incense, meat, wine, and other offerings. It had power to leave the

statue and to wander about at will on earth and in the Other World; and

there are suggestions in the texts that it might take up its abode in the

body of a living man from which his Ka had temporarily gone forth for

some purpose of its own.

With the Ka was closely connected the =Ȧb= 𓄣𓐰𓏤, or =heart=, which was

regarded as the seat of life and the source of the emotions; it possessed

two phases, one material and the other spiritual. It corresponds with

the “dual soul” of many tribes in the Sûdân at the present day. The

spiritual heart could be stolen from a man by the exercise of magical

powers; and this belief survives among certain peoples in Central Africa

at the present day. Another attribute of a man was the =Sekhem= 𓋴𓐍𓅓𓌂, or

=vital power=, which was intimately connected with the Ka, and seems to

have possessed a form similar to it. The mental and spiritual attributes

of man were grouped in the =Khu= 𓐍𓅜𓅱, the exact meaning of which it is

very hard to define. The Khu seems to have been a shining, translucent,

transparent, intangible essence of a man, and the word is on the whole

perhaps best rendered by =spirit=. The Khu escaped from the tomb and

made its way to heaven, where it joined the “imperishable spirits” who

lived with Rā. It is probable that the Sāḥu, Ȧb, Sekhem, and Khu were all

attributes of the Ka.

That part of a man which was, beyond all doubt, believed to be

everlasting and to enjoy eternal existence in heaven in a state of glory,

was the =Ba= 𓅡𓐴𓏤, or =soul=; it was associated with the Ka, and, like

the heart, appears to have possessed a dual nature. It could live in a

state of invisibility, and yet could take form at pleasure; it is often

depicted as a human-headed hawk, 𓳕𓐴𓏤. The object of all the ceremonies

which were performed over the mummy or the statue in the tomb was to

bring back the soul from heaven to the body in which it dwelt on earth,

and when the priest told the kinsfolk of the deceased that “Horus had

recovered his eye,” _i.e._, that the soul had returned to the body, they

felt that everlasting life and happiness were secured for him. The souls

of the blessed lived with the “spirits” in the heaven of Rā, and when

they appeared in the sky they did so under the form of stars.

The soul was usually accompanied by the =Khaibit= 𓋼𓐰𓏤𓐱𓏏, or =shadow=,

which may be compared with the σκία of the Greeks, and the _umbra_ of the

Romans. It had an independent existence, and was able to separate itself

from the body at will, but hostile fiends might attack it, and therefore

the deceased prays in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XCII): “Let not be

shut in my soul, let not be fettered my shadow, let a way be opened for

my soul and for my shadow, and let them see the Great God.” It is very

difficult to know where the functions of each of these parts of a man

began and ended, for even the Egyptians became confused in dealing with

them, and the texts often contradict each other. The main facts are,

however, quite clear. The Egyptians believed in the existence of body,

double, spirit, soul, and shadow, at all periods, and the views which

they held about each are best understood by reference to the religious

beliefs which exist at the present time among the A-Zandê, or Nyam-Nyam,

the Bantu, the Mañbattu, and cognate tribes in Central Africa. Under

the influence of foreigners the primitive views became modified as time

went on, but in all essentials the Egyptians who served under the Romans

believed what their ancestors believed 5,000 years before.

CHAPTER VIII.

EMBALMING. THE EGYPTIAN TOMB.

=Mummy= is the name given to the body of a human being, or creature,

which has been preserved from decay by means of spices, gums, natron,

bitumen, etc.; strictly speaking it should only be given to the body

preserved by _bitumen_, for “mummy” is derived from a word which appears

in Arabic under the form _mûmîâ_, and means “bitumen.” The oldest

preserved bodies known were prepared with salt and soda, and bitumen was

certainly not used on a large scale for embalming purposes before the

XXIInd dynasty, about B.C. 900. The embalmed body, swathed in linen, was

called by the Egyptians _qes_ 𓈎𓐰𓊃𓀾, 𓈎𓐰𓊃𓌟𓍱, or _qesȧu_ 𓈎𓐰𓊃𓇋𓅱𓀿𓑀𓐰𓍱, which

has passed into Coptic under the form _kôs_. The word “mummy” is not of

Egyptian origin.

In the latter part of the Neolithic Period the Egyptians, in some places

at least, decapitated and dismembered the dead, but subsequently,

probably as a result of change in religious thought, they took steps to

preserve them. At first bodies were merely dried in the sun, and then

placed in a hole in the ground, in a sitting position, just as they

are to this day by the A-Zandê; later they were laid on one side, with

the legs bent upwards, and their knees near the chin. Evisceration of

some kind appears to have been practised, but not of a very elaborate

character. The finest and most complete example of the class of preserved

bodies which were buried in a crouching position is exhibited in the

First Egyptian Room, Case A. Here we see, lying on his left side, a

Predynastic Egyptian, with hair of a reddish tint; the knees are bent

to a level with the top of the breast, and the hands are placed before

the face. He was dolichocephalic, or =long-headed=, and he was both

physically and mentally entirely different from the Dynastic Egyptians,

whose skulls, in respect of measurements, occupy a middle position

between the dolichocephalic and the brachycephalic, or =short-headed=.

Round about the body are vessels which held food, flint weapons, etc. At

this period the body was sometimes wrapped in the skin of some animal, or

rolled up in a reed mat.

Soon after the beginning of the Dynastic Period, probably as the result

of the growth and development of the cult of Osiris, the Egyptians began

to devote more care to the preservation of the bodies of the dead, and

the earliest known examples prove that the brain and viscerae were

removed, and that the placing of bodies in a crouching position in graves

was abandoned, at all events among the ruling classes. The doctrine of

Osiris taught that the human body was a precious thing, and men took care

to embalm it and swathe it in linen, so that it might be ready for the

return of the soul to it, when it would begin a new life in the kingdom

of Osiris.

The Egyptian texts supply no details of the methods employed in

embalmment, but classical writers describe the processes at some length,

and the mummies which have been unrolled and examined prove that their

statements are on the whole correct. According to Herodotus (ii, 85)

there were =three methods of embalming= in use in his time. In the

=first= or most expensive =way=, the brains and viscerae were removed

from the body, which was carefully washed with palm wine, and then

sprinkled with powdered spices. The cavities in the head and body were

next filled with pounded myrrh, cassia, etc., and the opening in the

abdomen through which the viscerae were taken out was sewed up. A tank

containing a solution of salt, or soda, was prepared, and the body was

steeped in it for seventy days. At the end of this period it was taken

out of the solution, dried, and anointed with sweet-smelling unguents;

then the swathing with linen strips was begun. Sometimes, in the case

of women, the cheeks and lips were painted, the eye-lids smeared with

eye-paint, and other attempts made to give to the face the semblance of

life before swathing. The fingers and toes were each swathed separately,

then the legs and arms, and finally, when pads and wads of linen had

been fixed in various places to keep the swathings in position, and to

give to the mummy the traditional form of the mummy of Osiris, the body

and head were wrapped up in large sheets of linen, which were held in

place by stout bands. As each swathing was placed on the body, a priest

who was specially appointed said the formula which applied to it, and in

cases where a large number of amulets were used, these objects, which

were intended to give to the mummy the protection of the various gods,

were inserted, under his directions, in their proper places between the

swathings. When the swathing of the body was ended, the name of the

deceased was usually written in ink on one of the outer coverings.

In the =second method= of embalming, the viscerae were removed by

means of oil of cedar, and the flesh was dissolved off the bones by

a preparation of soda; mummies which were prepared by this process

consist of nothing but skin and bone. The =third method= was used almost

exclusively for the poor; the body was steeped in a preparation of soda

for a period of seventy days, and then handed over to the relatives for

burial. The period which elapsed between death and burial varied in

length. From the inscriptions we learn that in one case the embalming

lasted 16 days, the swathing in linen 35 days, and the burial 70 days,

_i.e._, 121 days in all. In another, the embalming occupied 66 days, the

preparations for burial 4 days, and the burial 26 days, in all 96 days.

According to the Bible (Genesis l, 3), the embalming of Jacob occupied

40 days, but the period of mourning was 70 days. Certain stelae in the

British Museum[24] mention 70 days, and we may assume that this period

was commonly observed, at all events, in Graeco-Roman times.

=Cost of embalming.=—According to Diodorus, who lived about B.C. 40, the

methods of embalming were three in number; the first cost one talent of

silver, about £250; the second, twenty minae, about £60; and the third

very little indeed. In the description of the first method given both

by Herodotus and Diodorus, it is said that the intestines were removed

from the body previous to embalming, but neither writer says what was

done with them afterwards. We know, however, that they were cleansed,

and wrapped in linen with powdered spices, salt, etc., and placed in a

series of four jars, or vases, to which modern writers have given the

name =Canopic Jars=. They were thus named by the early Egyptologists, who

believed that in them they saw some confirmation of the legend handed

down by certain ancient writers to the effect that Canopus, the pilot

of Menelaus, who is said to have been buried at Canopus, in Egypt, was

worshipped there under the form of a jar with small feet, a thin neck, a

swollen body, and a round back. Each “Canopic” jar was dedicated to one

of the =four sons of Horus=, or sons of Osiris, who were also the gods of

the =four cardinal points=; and each jar was provided with a lid made in

the shape of the head of the deity to whom it was dedicated. The names of

the four gods were:—

1. =Mesthȧ= 𓅓𓋴𓍘𓇋𓀭, or ȦMSET 𓇋𓅓𓋴𓏏𓀭; he was man-headed.

2. =Ḥāpi= 𓐑𓊪𓇌𓀭; he was dog-headed.

3. =Ṭuamutef= 𓇼𓅐𓏏𓐰𓆑𓀭; he was jackal-headed.

4. =Qebḥsennuf= 𓈎𓃀𓎛𓏁𓈗𓌣𓌣𓌣𓆑𓀭; he was hawk-headed.

These gods represented the south, north, east, and west respectively, and

the goddesses with whom they were associated were Isis, Nephthys, Neith,

and Serqet. Mesthȧ protected the stomach and large intestines; Ḥāpi, the

small intestines; Ṭuamutef the lungs and heart; and Qebḥsennuf the liver

and gall bladder. The custom of mummifying the intestines separately

is as old as the VIth dynasty at least, and the gods of the cardinal

points who presided over them are mentioned several times in the texts of

Unȧs, Pepi, and other kings of the Vth and VIth dynasties. The four jars

were usually placed in a coffer, or chest, specially prepared for the

purpose; and this is frequently depicted in representations of funeral

processions. The Ani Papyrus shows the four sons of Horus standing by

the coffer containing the mummified intestines of the deceased, and his

renewed body rising through the cover of it, holding “life” 𓋹 in each

hand (see page 138). Among the fine collection of “Canopic” jars in the

British Museum may be specially mentioned the set made for Ḳua-ṭep, XIth

dynasty, No. 30,838 (Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 112), and the

sets Nos. 22,374-7, and 9562-5, of the later period, in Wall-cases Nos.

74 and 75 (Second Egyptian Room).

The custom of mummifying the dead appears to have been unknown in the

Predynastic Period. In the earliest attempts made to preserve the

body, the plan followed was to remove the intestines, and then to dry

it in the sun, or to rub it with salt. The skulls found in the tombs

are usually empty, a fact which proves that the embalmers were able to

remove the brain and membranes without injury to the bridge of the

nose; sometimes they contain bitumen, or some kind of resin, which must

have been introduced into them by the way through which the brains were

extracted, _i.e._, through the nostrils. Mummies cured with unguents

and spices do not last long when unrolled; the skin of those cured with

natron, _i.e._, a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda,

is hard, and comparatively durable, but it hangs loosely from the bones,

which are white and somewhat friable; bodies from which the intestines

have been removed, and which have been preserved by being filled with

bitumen, are quite black and hard, and practically speaking, last for

ever. The dead poor were sometimes merely salted and laid in a common pit

or cave. At one period the dead were embalmed in honey: the treatment

of the child who was found in a sealed jar of honey, mentioned by the

Muḥammadan writer ʿAbd al-Laṭîf, and the body of Alexander the Great

being well-known instances of the custom.

Under, or soon after the XXVIth dynasty, the Egyptians began to place

their mummified dead in brightly painted =cartonnage cases=, decorated

with inscriptions containing the pedigree of the deceased, religious

texts, figures of gods, etc., and to set them upright in the halls of

their houses. The faces were painted to resemble those of the dead, and

attempts were made to reproduce the natural colour of their skins, hair,

and eyes, and even to represent small physical peculiarities. A man’s

immediate ancestors formed a part of his household.

About the beginning of the Graeco-Roman Period, or in the first century

after Christ, it became the custom among the ruling class in Egypt to

insert =painted portraits= of the dead in the linen swathings over

their faces. Specimens of such portraits may be seen in Case Y in the

Second Egyptian Room, and in Wall-cases Nos. 70 and 71. A century or two

later further attempts were made to abolish from mummies the funerary

swathings, etc., and the dead were placed in =papyrus cases=, which were

moulded to their forms, and were painted with coloured representations of

their clothes and ornaments. Very fine examples of such painted papyrus

cases are exhibited in Wall-cases 64 and 65 in the First Egyptian Room,

and they are of special interest as showing what kinds of garments and

jewellery were worn by the Graeco-Egyptian ladies of Egypt, and how they

were decorated. In the case of men, painted portraits were inserted

over the faces, and the rest of the mummy was covered with plaster,

usually coloured pink or red, and ornamented with faulty imitations of

the scenes found on the old cartonnage cases. The best example of this

kind of mummy is that of Artemidorus, exhibited in Wall-case 63 in the

First Egyptian Room. The figures of the gods, etc., are painted in gold,

and the mistakes in them prove that the artist did not understand the

signification of the scenes which he was copying. The old theology of

Egypt was forgotten, the meanings of the old funerary texts and scenes

were lost, and the artist found himself obliged to use the form of

address to the dead customary among the Greeks, _i.e._, “O Artemidorus,

farewell!”

The Egyptians, even after their conversion to Christianity, continued for

a time to mummify their dead, and to bury them with the old ceremonies;

but before the end of the third century A.D. the art of embalmment had

fallen into general disuse. The pagan Egyptian embalmed his dead because

he believed that the “perfect soul” would return to the body after

death, and that it would enter upon a new life in it; he therefore took

pains to preserve the body against the corruption of the grave. The

Christian Egyptian believed that at the Resurrection he would receive

back his body, changed and incorruptible, and that it was unnecessary

for him to preserve by means of spices and unguents that which he would

obtain, without any trouble on his part, by faith through Christ. Little

by little, as a result of this belief, the observance of the old pagan

ceremonies ceased, and with them embalmment in the Egyptian fashion. The

views which Anthony the “Father of the Monks of the Egyptian desert”

(A.D. 250-355), held on this matter are of importance. According to

Athanasius: “The Egyptians were in the habit of taking the dead bodies

of righteous men, and especially those of the blessed martyrs, and of

embalming them and placing them, not in graves, but on biers in their

houses, for they thought that by so doing they were paying honour to

them.” Anthony besought the Bishops to preach to the people, and to

command them to cease from this habit, and he showed “That it was a

transgression of a command for a man not to hide in the ground the bodies

of those who were dead, even though they were righteous men. Therefore

many hearkened and were persuaded not to do so, and they laid their dead

in the ground, and buried them therein.” When he was dying he entreated

his monks, saying: “Permit no man to take my body and carry it into

Egypt, lest according to the custom which they have, they embalm me

and lay me up in their houses.... And ye know that I have continually

made exhortation concerning this thing and begged that it should not be

done, and ye well know how much I have blamed those who observed this

custom. Dig a grave then, and bury me therein, and hide my body under the

earth, and let these my words be observed carefully by you, and tell ye

no man where ye lay me until the Resurrection of the Dead, when I shall

receive this body without corruption from the Saviour.” (See _The Life of

Anthony, by Athanasius_, in Migne _Patrologiae_, Ser. Graec., tom. XXVI,

col. 972.)

The linen =mummy swathings= must now be mentioned. These were made from

=flax=, and were of various thicknesses. Surviving examples vary in

length from a few inches to about 15 feet, and in width from 2 to 10

inches; some are made with fringe at each end. Mummies are often found

wrapped in linen sheets, several feet square, and the outside covering

of all is sometimes of a purple or salmon colour. Under the Ancient

Empire, mummy swathings were quite plain, but under the Middle Empire,

blue stripes occasionally appear at the ends, and the sheets in which

the mummies of kings were wrapped, _e.g._, Ȧmenḥetep III and Thothmes

III, were covered with hieroglyphic texts from the Book of the Dead. At

a later period texts in the hieratic character appear on the swathings,

accompanied by vignettes drawn in outline. The principal seat of the

linen industry in Egypt was Panopolis, the modern Akhmîm, and, at a very

early period, the weavers attained to such skill, that in a square inch

540 threads may be counted in the warp and 110 in the woof. About the

third century of our era, the mummies of wealthy people were wrapped in

“royal cloth” made wholly of silk and decorated with figures of gods,

animals, etc. The visitor will find a large collection of mummy swathings

and sheets exhibited in Table-case E, in the Third Egyptian Room. Here

are the fringed linen =winding-sheet= of Teḥuti-sat, a singing woman of

Queen Ȧāḥmes-nefert-ȧri, B.C. 1550 (No. 1); two swathings inscribed with

texts from the Book of the Dead (Nos. 11, 12); a roll of linen inscribed

with the names of Piānkhi Seneferef-Rā, B.C. 700 (No. 13); grave shirts

from Akhmîm (Nos. 18-27); and specimens of =embroidered linen=, with

figures of saints, etc. (No. 39 ff.); a portion of a =Coptic stole=

embroidered with scenes from the life of Christ, and squares of linen

worked with coloured figures of birds (doves?), and the Cross and symbol

of “life” 𓋹 within wreaths (Nos. 40-51).

In the same case is a good general collection of =reels=, =spindles= and

spindle whorls, and carding instruments, etc., used by workers in linen.

In Table-case J is a fine collection of pieces of linen ornamented with

patterns and designs woven in coloured threads, or worked in wools,

from the tombs of Egyptian Christians, dating from A.D. 300 to 900. Of

special interest are the squares with figures of Adam and Eve (No. 4),

St. George slaying the Dragon (No. 18), and God the Father among the

Seraphim (Nos. 21-24). The fine pieces of yellow silk, one with arabesque

designs and an Arabic inscription in the Kûfî character, are remarkable

(Nos. 25-27). Of =bier-cloths=, the finest example in Europe is probably

that seen in Wall-cases 70 and 71, in the Second Egyptian Room. This

cloth is embroidered in coloured wools, with a frieze of cherubs holding

necklaces, baskets of fruit, flowers, etc. In the centre two cherubs are

supporting a crown, within which is worked a cross, and the rest of the

cloth is ornamented with doves, vases of fruit and flowers, rosettes,

etc. It belongs to the period after A.D. 350.

The =Egyptian Tomb=.—The care taken by the Egyptians to preserve the

bodies of their dead would have been in vain if they had not provided

secure hiding places for their mummies. The mummy had to be guarded

against the attacks of thieves and of wild animals, and placed beyond

the reach of the waters of the Inundation. In primitive times the dead

of all classes were buried in graves which were dug on the skirts of

the desert, in the sandy or rocky soil; this custom was dictated by

economical considerations, for the mud soil of the country, every yard of

which was cultivated, was too valuable to the living to be devoted to the

dead. The graves were usually oval in shape, and comparatively shallow,

and they were covered over with slabs and layers of sand (see Case A,

First Egyptian Room); it is probable that they were marked by some kind

of stone or stake driven into the ground near the head of the grave.

The graves, in which bodies were buried in a sitting position, were,

of course, deeper than those in which they were laid on their sides.

Over the graves of chiefs, huts made of reeds and grass were built, and

offerings of food and drink were probably placed in them, as well as in

the graves. At a later period mud houses took the place of the reed huts,

and, still later, such houses were built of stone. In the Archaïc Period

the buildings over the graves of the kings were rectangular in form, and

they contained many chambers, wherein, no doubt, the ceremonies connected

with the burial of kings were performed, and stores of provisions of

all kinds for the use of the deceased were placed. At this time men and

women of lower rank were buried in shallow graves, the sides of which

were protected with crude bricks, and the poorest folk of all were buried

together in pits, which belonged to the community.

[Illustration: The Step Pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah.]

[Illustration: PLATE XIV.

False door from the Maṣṭaba tomb of Ȧsȧ-ānkh, a high official, who

flourished in the reign of King Ȧssȧ, about B.C. 3400.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 53.]]

In the IIIrd dynasty, king Tcheser 𓍹𓐼𓧲𓐰𓂋𓐽𓍺, whose name a late tradition

coupled with a very severe Seven Years’ Famine, built himself, at

Ṣaḳḳârah, a magnificent tomb in the form of an oblong pyramidal building

with six steps, to which the name of =Step Pyramid= has been given. Its

total height is about 197 feet, and the length of its sides at the base

is: south and north 352 feet, east and west 396 feet. A common name for

the tomb is _Pa tchetta_ 𓉐𓐰𓏤𓆓𓐳𓐷𓏏𓐰𓇾𓐸, “House of eternity,” and tombs were

endowed with estates by wealthy folk in perpetuity. The commonest form of

tomb made for royal personages and nobles at this time, and for several

centuries afterwards, was the heavy, massive building of rectangular

oblong shape, the four sides of which were four walls symmetrically

inclined towards their common centre. To this building the name of

=maṣṭaba=, _i.e._, “bench,” has been given. It was thus called by the

Arabs, because all the examples with which they were familiar, being more

than half buried in sand, resembled the long low seats which are common

in oriental houses. The exterior surfaces of the maṣṭaba are not flat,

for the face of each course of masonry, formed of stones laid vertically,

is a little behind the one beneath it, and if these recesses were a

little deeper, the external appearance of each side of the building would

resemble a flight of steps. The height of the maṣṭaba varies from 13

feet to 30 feet, the length from 26 feet to 170 feet, and the width from

20 feet to 86 feet. The plan of the maṣṭaba is an oblong rectangle, and

the greater axis of the rectangle is usually in the direction from south

to north. Maṣṭabas were arranged in rows symmetrically on all sides of

the Pyramids at Gîzah. The maṣṭabas at Ṣaḳḳârah are built of stone and

brick. The entrance to the maṣṭaba is usually on the east side. Near the

north-east corner is sometimes found a series of long vertical grooves,

or a “false door” (see =Plate XIV=), which is sometimes called the stele.

Near the south-east corner is generally another opening, but larger

and more carefully made; in this is sometimes found a fine inscribed

limestone false door, and sometimes a small architectural façade, in the

centre of which is a door. The top of the maṣṭaba is quite flat.

[Illustration: A group of Maṣṭaba tombs at Ṣaḳḳârah.]

[Illustration: Tablet for offerings, or altar, of Ḥeru-sa-Ȧst, a scribe.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 14, No. 1034.]]

[Illustration: An Egyptian tomb of the maṣṭaba class.

=A.=—The hall of the tomb in which offerings were made.

=B, C.=—The pit, or shaft, leading to the mummy chamber.

=D.=—A small corridor.

=E.=—The mummy chamber.]

[Illustration: The soul, in the form of a human-headed bird, descending

the pit of the tomb to visit the mummy in the mummy chamber.]

The interior of the complete maṣṭaba consists of: 1. A chamber. 2. The

Serdâb. 3. A pit. 4. A mummy-chamber. The walls of the =maṣṭaba chamber=

may be ornamented with sculptures or not. In it, facing the east, is a

false door, which is usually inscribed. At the foot of the false door, on

the bare ground, is often seen a =tablet for offerings=, made of granite,

alabaster, limestone, etc., on which are sculptured figures of meat and

drink offerings—cakes, loaves of bread, geese, a haunch of beef, vases of

unguents, fruit, vegetables, flowers, etc. In many tablets for offerings

small tanks, or hollows, with channels, are cut, and in these libations

of wine were supposed to be poured. A large collection of such tablets

for offerings of all periods, from the IVth dynasty to the Roman Period,

is exhibited in the Egyptian Gallery, Bays 14 and 16. Sometimes a pair of

stands for offerings, made of stone, is found by the stele; examples of

these are exhibited in Wall-case No. 200, in the Fourth Egyptian Room.

In the south or north wall of the maṣṭaba chamber is usually a narrow

chamber built of large stones, partly hidden in the masonry, to which the

name of =Serdâb=[25] has been given. Sometimes the serdâb is isolated

from the chamber, but usually it is connected with it by means of a

rectangular passage, or slit, so narrow that the hand can be inserted

in it with difficulty. Inside the serdâb the statue of the deceased,

which was intended to serve as a dwelling-place for the Ka, or double,

was placed, and the passage was made in order to conduct to it the smoke

and smell of the burning incense and offerings. The serdâb is sometimes

called the “Ka-chapel,” and persons of means and position generally

appointed a “priest of the Ka” to offer up offerings morning and evening.

The =pit=, or =shaft=, of the maṣṭaba was rectangular, square, or oblong,

but never round, and it varied in depth from 40 to 80 feet. It led to

the chamber below the ground where the mummy was laid. At the bottom

of the pit, on the south side, was an opening into a passage from 4 to

5 feet high; this passage led obliquely to the south-east, in the same

direction as the upper chamber, and then expanded on all sides and became

the sarcophagus chamber, or =mummy chamber=. When the dried or mummified

body had been placed in the sarcophagus, and the cover of the sarcophagus

had been sealed, the pit was filled with stones, mud, and sand, and the

deceased was thus preserved from all ordinary chances of disturbance.

The =ornamentation of the maṣṭaba= consisted of sculptured scenes of

three classes: 1. Biographical. 2. Sepulchral. 3. Those referring to

the cult of the dead and funerary gifts. In them we see the deceased

hunting, fishing, making pleasure excursions by water, listening to

music and watching women dance, overseeing building operations, or the

work of ploughing, sowing and reaping on his estate, the management of

cattle, the bringing of offerings to his tomb, etc. The reader will

gain a good idea of the general arrangement of the false doors inside

the maṣṭaba chamber, and the painted decorations and sculptures of an

ordinary maṣṭaba, by examining the complete monument exhibited in the

Assyrian Saloon. This was built originally on the side of a small spur

of the mountain near Ṣaḳḳârah for Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ, a royal scribe and

councillor who flourished in the reign of Pepi II Nefer-ka-Rā, about

B.C. 3100. It is interesting to note that two “false doors” are found on

the south wall of this maṣṭaba, one for Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ and one for his

wife Khent-kaut-s, and that the former contains a list of names of about

ninety canonical offerings. The decorations of maṣṭabas never include

figures of gods, or the emblems which at a later period were considered

sacred.

The next form of the tomb was the =pyramid=,[26] which is to all intents

and purposes merely a maṣṭaba built on a square base, with the greater

part of it above the surface of the ground. It contained a long passage,

with a sarcophagus chamber, or mummy chamber, at the end of it. The

place of the maṣṭaba chamber was taken by a small temple, or chapel,

built outside the pyramid, in which funerary gifts and offerings were

made; the pit of the maṣṭaba was represented by a long passage, which

sloped either upwards or downwards; and the mummy-chamber in each case

was substantially the same. The principal pyramids of Egypt are those of

Abû Roâsh, Gîzah, Zâwyet al-ʿAryân, Abû-Ṣîr, Ṣaḳḳârah, Lisht, Dahshûr,

Al-Lâhûn, Ḥawârah, and Kulla. In the Egyptian Sûdân there are pyramids at

Kurrû, Zûma, Tanḳâsi, Gebel Barkal, Nûrî, and Bagrawîr, but all these are

inferior in design and construction to the pyramids of Egypt. The latest

of the pyramid tombs in the Sûdân were built probably during the first

or second century A.D. by a series of native queens, each of whom bore

the name of “Candace.” A great many theories, chiefly of an astronomical

character, have been formulated about the Pyramids of Gîzah: but it is

now generally thought that they were tombs and nothing else, and there is

no evidence to justify us in believing that they were built by any of

the Hebrew patriarchs, or that they were the “Granaries of Joseph,” or

that they contain chambers filled with gold and precious stones, which

have not yet been discovered or cleared out. The kings of the XIIth

dynasty followed the example of their predecessors of the Vth and VIth

dynasties, and built pyramids for their tombs, but they were on a much

smaller scale. The pyramids of Ȧmenemḥāt I and Usertsen I were at Lisht,

those of Ȧmenemḥāt II and Usertsen III were at Dahshûr, the pyramid of

Usertsen II was at Al-Lâhûn, and that of Ȧmenemḥāt III was at Ḥawârah.

Nobles and high officials built pyramidal tombs, usually about 30 feet

high, which were supposed to contain the three essential parts of the

tomb, the upper chamber, the pit, or shaft, and the mummy chamber; but

as a matter of fact, the body was buried in the brickwork which formed

the base of such a pyramid; there was no pit, and the pyramid itself

represented the upper chamber.

[Illustration: A section of the Second Pyramid of Gîzah, built by

Khāfrā (Chephren), showing a piece of the original casing at the top,

underground passage, and mummy chamber.]

[Illustration: Entrance to the tomb of Khnemu-ḥetep, an official, at Beni

Hasan.

XIIth dynasty.]

[Illustration: PLATE XV.

View of a painted chamber in the tomb of the scribe Nekht.

XVIIIth dynasty, about B.C. 1450.]

[Illustration: PLATE XVI.

Wall-painting from a tomb.

_Scene_: Payment of tribute. Sûdânî men bearing rings of gold, logs of

ebony, panther-skins, apes, etc.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 13, No. 520.]]

=Rock-hewn tombs.=—The pyramid tomb was suitable for regions where the

ground was flat, but the Egyptians who dwelt in places near mountains

began at an early period of history to hew tombs in them. Thus at Aswân

(Syene) the mountains on the west bank of the Nile contain three tiers

of tombs, the oldest being those of nobles and governors of Elephantine

under the VIth and VIIth dynasties. These are approached by means of a

staircase cut in the slope of the hill, down the middle of which a smooth

path was made for the purpose of drawing up the coffins and sarcophagi

of the dead. At the top of the staircase the hill was scarped, and here

the chambers of the tombs were hewn. The “false doors” were cut in the

solid rock, and were above the mouth of the shaft, or pit, at the bottom

of which, in chambers made for the purpose, the mummies were placed. Some

of the tombs of the XIIth dynasty on the north side of the hill have long

corridors leading to the mouths of the pits, and above these are the

“false doors,” before which statues were sometimes placed.

[Illustration: Entrance to a royal tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the

Kings.]

[Illustration: I. Ground Plan of the Tomb of Seti I, B.C. 1366.

II. Section of the Tomb of Seti I.

(From Lepsius, _Denkmäler_, Abth. I, Bl. 96.)]

[Illustration: Wall-painting from a tomb.

_Scene_: Servants of a high official bearing offerings to the tomb.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 517.]]

Under the XVIIIth dynasty rock-hewn tombs of great size were made, and

the finest examples of these are undoubtedly the =Tombs of the Kings=

at Thebes. The annexed plan and section of the tomb of Seti I will give

an idea of the extent of the largest of them. A is a flight of steps, B

a corridor, C a second flight of steps, D a corridor, E, F, and G are

rectangular chambers, H and I corridors, K an ante-chamber, L the large

six-pillared hall in which stood the king’s sarcophagus and mummy, and

M, N, O, P, Q are chambers in which funerary ceremonies were performed.

Under the sarcophagus is another staircase, which leads to an unfinished

passage, its entrance being about 150 feet below the entrance to the

first staircase; the total length of the tomb is about 700 feet. The

walls of the corridors and of most of the chambers are decorated with

hieroglyphic texts and vignettes which illustrate mythological legends

and the funerary ceremonies, all painted in bright colours, and on the

roof of the great hall are painted lists of the thirty-six Dekans and

other stars, and several figures of solar and stellar gods. The Tombs

of the Kings were all built on practically one and the same plan; the

modifications which are found in the details are due partly to structural

difficulties, and partly to the variation in the length of the time which

was devoted to their making. They cover a period of about 550 years,

_i.e._, B.C. 1600-1050. At the entrances to some of the tombs of nobles

and high officials gardens were laid out and trees planted, and these

were, of course, maintained out of the endowments of the tombs. Under

the XXVIth dynasty attempts were made to reproduce tombs after the plans

of the XIXth dynasty, and a few very remarkable tombs, _e.g._, that of

Peṭā-Ȧmen-ȧpt at Thebes, were the result. The decoration was, however,

inferior, and the scribes who drafted the texts for the walls contented

themselves with making extracts from the old funerary compositions, and

invented few that were wholly new.

[Illustration: Limestone coffin of Ḥes-Peṭān-Ȧst.

Ptolemaïc Period.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 26, No. 968.]]

The poor were buried in shallow graves made in the desert, or in caves

and hollows in the mountains. Some of the caves in the Theban hills are

literally filled with skulls and bones and the remains of badly made

mummies, and the same may be said of several “mummy pits,” in many parts

of Egypt, which were the common property of the neighbouring towns. Among

such remains are found cheap porcelain scarabs and poorly moulded figures

of the gods, and sometimes coarse papyrus sandals, which prove that the

equipment of the poor for their journey to the Other World was cheap and

meagre.

=Tomb Equipment.=—To describe here in detail all the varieties of objects

which may be fittingly grouped under this head is impossible, but

the principal requirements of the dead of well-to-do folk may be thus

enumerated: =1.= =Coffin=, or coffins, painted and decorated according

to the means of the relatives. A fine collection of coffins, which

illustrates all the important varieties between B.C. 2600 and A.D. 300

is exhibited in the First and Second Egyptian Rooms. Fine =sarcophagi=

in wood and stone will be found in the Second Egyptian Room and in the

Southern Egyptian Gallery (see =Plates XVII= and =XVIII=). =2.= A stele,

or =sepulchral tablet=, recording the name and pedigree of the deceased,

and containing usually a prayer to certain gods for sepulchral offerings

(see =Plate XIX=). Examples of almost every kind of sepulchral tablet

in stone will be found on the shelves in the Egyptian Galleries, and

brightly painted wooden tablets are exhibited in the Third Egyptian Room

(Wall-cases Nos. 99-113). =3.= A set of =Canopic Jars= (see above page

160). =4.= A =statue=, or figure, seated or standing, usually inscribed,

which was intended to form a dwelling place for the “double” (Ka) of the

deceased, and to receive the offerings of his friends and relatives. (See

the double statue of Ka-ṭep and Ḥetep-ḥeres from their maṣṭaba at Gîzah,

and Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case 99 ff.) =5.= A =ushabti figure=,

_i.e._, a figure which was supposed to transform itself into a living man

in the Other World at the command of the deceased, and to perform any

agricultural work which he might be condemned to do. In some tombs scores

of _ushabtiu_ have been found, and when a large number was buried in a

tomb, a special box to hold them was provided. (For examples see Second

Egyptian Room, Wall-cases Nos. 77-82.) =6.= A =Heart-scarab=, _i.e._,

a model of a beetle (of the _Goliath_ species?) usually in hard green

stone, which was either inserted in the breast of the deceased, where

it was intended to take the place of his heart which had been removed

during the process of mummification, or was fastened on the breast over

the heart. It was inscribed with the text of Chapter XXXB of the Book of

the Dead, in which the deceased prays that his heart may be victorious

in the judgment, that no hostile or lying witnesses may appear against

him, etc. This prayer is very old, and a Rubric to the LXIVth Chapter

proves that it was in existence early in the IVth dynasty. Frequently

the heart-scarab was inserted in a rectangular temple-shaped plaque, or

pectoral (see Table-case I, in the Fourth Egyptian Room). =7.= A copy of

some religious text or texts (=Book of the Dead=), written upon stone,

wood, or papyrus. In the Vth dynasty such texts were cut on the walls of

pyramid chambers, corridors, etc. In the XIth dynasty they were traced in

ink on the stone mummy chambers and on the sides of wooden sarcophagi.

(See the coffin of Āmamu in the First Egyptian Room, Case C.) In the

XVIIIth-XXVIth dynasties they were written on rolls of papyrus which were

placed in the coffin with the mummy, or between the legs of the mummy,

or in a niche in the wall of the tomb. Sometimes the mummy was wrapped

wholly in inscribed papyrus, and sometimes the texts were written on the

linen swathings. =8.= A =set of vessels= (bowls, jars, vases, bottles,

etc.) for holding unguents, oils, astringent liquids, etc., for use in

the Other World. These were made of granite, diorite, breccia, alabaster,

etc., and their shapes are often exceedingly graceful. A very complete

collection of them will be seen in the Fourth Egyptian Room; the oldest

date from the Archaïc Period, and the series continues to the XXVIth

dynasty at least. =9.= Royal ladies and priestesses were usually provided

with a =toilet box= containing combs, mirror, hair-pins, hair-tweezers,

sandals, tubes of eye-paint, flasks of sweet unguent, etc.; for an

example see Standard-case L, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. =10.= A

=Pillow= made of wood, ivory, alabaster, etc.

[Illustration: Painted limestone figures of Ka-ṭep and his wife

Ḥetep-ḥeres.

IVth dynasty, B.C. 3750.

[Vestibule, East Doorway, No. 14.]]

The tombs of the wealthy were provided with chairs, tables, couches,

stools, boxes, painted and inlaid to hold jewellery, scents, etc., and

many articles which the Egyptians used daily in their professions. The

sistrum, cymbals, and bells which the priestess used in the temple

were buried with her; the bow and arrows of the hunter, the favourite

inscribed staff of authority of the official, the spear, dagger and axe

of the warrior, the palette and colour-pots of the artist, the sceptre

or symbol of office of the governor, children’s toys and dolls, dice,

draughts, and counters used in games—all these things went to form the

equipment for the tomb in individual cases, and examples of them are to

be seen in the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms.

Of =personal ornaments= of the dead the variety is endless, but a very

good general idea of them may be obtained from the collections in the

Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room. In =Case F=, one side is filled

with amulets, many of which were worn for decorative purposes during

life by their owners, and the other side contains a collection of

=necklaces= and =beads= belonging to various periods between B.C. 1700

and A.D. 100. The beads are made of gold, amethyst, garnet, carnelian,

mother-of-emerald, lapis-lazuli, agate, topaz, glass, etc., all which

materials were believed to possess magical properties, and the pendants

were intended to bring luck, long life, health, etc., to their wearers.

The necklaces of the early period will be found in =Case J=, some of

which belong to the period of the Early Empire; the porcelain beads and

necklaces are in =Case B=. At one period unpierced, round and conical

beads were made in Egypt. (See Table-case L, Second Egyptian Room.)

They were found placed in semi-circular rows on a layer of clay, which

was intended to serve as a necklace or breastplate for a mummy. A fine

display of =gold rings=, =pendants=, =bracelets=, etc., will be found in

=Table-case J= in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Worthy of special note are:

the gold =bracelets= of =Nemareth= (Nos. 134, 135), the gold uraeus (No.

105), the “heart-scarab” in massive gold setting (No. 132), the hawk of

gold (No. 133), gold pendant (No. 137), gold pectoral (No. 138), =gold

bangle= with figures in gold and silver alternately (No. 140), gold lion

(No. 175), =Scarab of Sebekemsaf=, a king of the XIVth dynasty (No.

195), =gold rings= inscribed with the names of Thothmes III, Ḥātshepset,

Shishak I, Ȧmen-ḥetep III, and Ptolemy III (Nos. 198, 201, 217, 237,

266), =silver rings= inscribed with the names of Ȧmen-ḥetep IV, Shishak,

and Psammetichus (Nos. 390, 392), and a very fine collection of 64

scarabs in agate, onyx, lapis-lazuli, etc., from the tomb of a princess

of the XIIth dynasty, about B.C. 2400 (No. 382).

[Illustration: PLATE XVII.

General view of the Sarcophagus of King Nekht-Ḥeru-ḥebt, B.C. 378,

engraved with scenes and texts from the Book of What is in the Other

World, and selections from the Book of the Praises of Rā.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 923.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XVIII.

Granite sarcophagus of Nes-Qeṭiu, a prince, chancellor, and scribe of

Ȧmen-Rā.

XXVIth dynasty, or later.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 26, No. 825.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XIX.

Sepulchral tablet of Ban-āa, a scribe.

XVIIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 9, No. 474.]]

CHAPTER IX.

NUMBERS CARDINAL AND ORDINAL. DIVISIONS OF TIME: THE CALENDAR, SOTHIC

PERIOD. CHRONOLOGY.

=Numbers.=—The numbers =1 to 9= are expressed by short perpendicular

strokes, _e.g._, 𓏺 = 1, 𓏻 = 2, 𓏼 = 3, 𓏻𓐰𓏻 = 4, 𓏾 = 5, 𓏿 = 6, 𓐀 = 7, 𓐁 =

8, and 𓐂 = 9. The number =10= is expressed by 𓎆, =100= by 𓍢, =1,000= by

𓆼, =10,000= by 𓂭, =100,000= by 𓆏, =1,000,000= by 𓁨, and =10,000,000= by

𓍶; =tens= up to 90 are expressed by repeating the sign for ten, 𓎆, so

many times; hundreds up to 900 by repeating the sign for hundred, 𓍢, so

many times; thousands up to 9,000 by repeating the sign for thousand, 𓆼,

so many times; and so on. The following extract will illustrate the use

of these signs:—

I.

Ru geese 𓆾𓆾𓍩𓎆𓎆 = 6,820

Khet-āa geese 𓆼𓍣𓐰𓍣𓎆 = 1,410

Turpu geese 𓆼𓍢𓍣𓐰𓍣𓎆𓎆𓎆𓏻𓐰𓏻 = 1,534

Tchau geese 𓍢𓎊 = 150

Mest geese 𓆿𓎋 = 4,060

Water fowl 𓂮𓇀𓎆𓎆 = 25,020

Menāt birds 𓂭𓂭𓂭𓂭𓂭𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓆼𓍩𓎆 = 57,810

Paṭ birds 𓂮𓆼𓍢𓍧 = 21,700

Paāsh birds 𓆼𓍣𓎉 = 1,240

Birds 𓆾𓆾𓍢𓍣𓐰𓍣𓎆 = 6,510

-------------------------------------------

Total No. of birds: 𓆏𓐰𓏤𓂮𓆾𓆾𓍣𓎆𓎉𓏻𓐰𓏻 = 126,254

===========================================

II.

𓅧𓈎𓐰𔏇𓐰𓏥𓉻𓐰𓏛 𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓆏𓂯𓂯𓂯𓆽𓍧𓍢𓎊

Large loaves 992,750.

=Fractions= 𓂋𓐰𓏥 = ⅓, 𓐝 = ½, 𓦕 = ⅔, 𓂋𓐰𓎆 = ⅟₁₀, 𓂋𓐰𓍢 = ⅟₁₀₀, 𓂋𓐰𓆼 = ⅟₁₀₀₀,

𓂋𓐰𓎆𓐱𓎆𓐱𓎆𓐱𓎆𓐰𓐃 = ⅟₄₅, etc. =Ordinal numbers= are indicated by 𓎖 placed

before the figure, or by 𓏌 placed after it; _e.g._ 𓎖𓏿 = “sixth,” 𓐀𓏌 =

“seventh.”

Divisions of =Time=.—The smallest fraction was the _ȧnt_, 𓁻𓐰𓈖𓏏𓐰𓇳, =one

third of a second=, or “the twinkling of an eye.” Then came the _ḥat_

𓇉𓄿𓏏𓐰𓇳, =second=; the _at_ 𓄁𓏏𓐰𓇳, =minute=; and the _unnut_ 𓃹𓐰𓈖𓏌𓐱𓏏𓐰𓇳𔋵

=hour=. Twenty-four hours made one =day=, _hru_ 𓉔𓐰𓂋𓅱𓇳𓐰𓏤, ten days made

one =week=, and thirty days one =calendar month=, 𓇺𓐰𓂧𓐰𓇼𓐱𓇳. Twelve months

plus the five epagomenal days made one vague or =calendar year=, _renpit_

𓂋𓐰𓈖𓐰𓊪𓐱𓏭𓏏𓆳𓇳. Longer periods of time were:—

=Seṭ= period 𓋴𓂧𓐰𓈅𓉳 = 30 years.

=Two-Ḥenti= period 𓎨𓎨𓇳𓐰𓇳 = 120 ”

=Ḥeḥ= 𓎛𓇳𓎛 = An Age.

=Tchetta= 𓆓𓐳𓐷𓏏𓐰𓇾𓐸 = Eternity.

We also have:—

𓟯𓟸 = Millions of years.

𓸥𓸥𓸥 = 10,000,000 years.

𓟱 = 1,000,000,000,000 years.

[glyph not in unicode] = 10,000,000,000,000 years.

[glyph not in unicode] = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 years.

In late times the =Sothic Period= and the =Phoenix Period= were used by

the Greeks, but there is no evidence that either was known to the Ancient

Egyptians.

=Chronology=, and the =ancient Egyptian Year=. The Calendars of Lucky

and Unlucky Days indicate that in very early times the Egyptian Year

consisted of 12 months each of 30 days, _i.e._, that the primitive year

contained 360 days. Whether the Egyptians ever tried to use the lunar

year of 354 days there is no evidence to show. Now the progress of the

seasons would, in a few years, soon convince those who used the =year=

of =360 days= that their year did not agree with the solar year, and

that it was too short, and they would be obliged to add to its days in

some way. The inscriptions prove that even at so early a period as the

reign of Pepi II of the VIth dynasty, the Egyptians were in the habit of

adding =five days= each year to their year of 360 days, and that before

B.C. 3000 the year in common use contained =365 days=. These “five days”

are known as “the days over the year” 𓆳𓁷𓐰𓂋𓅱𓇳𓐰𓐃, or 𓇳𓐰𓏦𓏾𓁷𓐰𓂋𓅱𓇯𓐰𓏥𓆳𓏏𓐰𓏤,

or “the =five epagomenal days=,” and they were said to be the days on

which Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis, and Nephthys respectively were born. The

primitive year of 360 days was divided into =three seasons=. The first

season was =Shat=, or =Akhet=, 𓆷𓏏𓐰𓇳; it began about July 19 and ended

about November 15, and corresponded practically with the period of the

Inundation. The second season was =Pert= 𓉐𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐱𓇳; it began about November

15 and ended about March 15. The third season was =Shemu= 𓈚𓐰𓈗; it began

about March 15 and ended about July 13. These seasons to the Egyptians

represented roughly =Winter=, =Spring=, and =Summer=. Each season

contained =four months=, which were in early times called the first,

second, third, and fourth month of that season; in later times a name was

given to each month. The following was the early calendar:—

COPTIC NAME.[27]

𓇺𓐰𓏺𓆷𓏏𓐰𓇳, 1st Month of sowing THOTH. ⎫

𓇺𓐰𓏻𓆷𓏏𓐰𓇳, 2nd ” ” PAOPHI. ⎪ Inundation time

𓇺𓐰𓏼𓆷𓏏𓐰𓇳, 3rd ” ” ATHYR. ⎪ and Winter.

𓇺𓐰𓏽𓆷𓏏𓐰𓇳, 4th ” ” CHOIAK. ⎭

𓇺𓐰𓏺𓉐𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐱𓇳, 1st Month of growing TYBI. ⎫

𓇺𓐰𓏻𓉐𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐱𓇳, 2nd ” ” MECHIR. ⎪ Spring.

𓇺𓐰𓏼𓉐𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐱𓇳, 3rd ” ” PHAMENOTH. ⎪

𓇺𓐰𓏽𓉐𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐱𓇳, 4th ” ” PHARMUTHI. ⎭

𓇺𓐰𓏺𓈚𓐰𓈗[28], 1st Month of inundation PACHONS. ⎫

𓇺𓐰𓏻𓈚𓐰𓈗, 2nd ” ” PAYNI. ⎪ Summer.

𓇺𓐰𓏼𓈚𓐰𓈗, 3rd ” ” EPIPHI. ⎪

𓇺𓐰𓏽𓈚𓐰𓈗, 4th ” ” MESORE. ⎭

To these twelve months, as already said, five days were added, and the

year thus formed is generally known as the “=vague= (or wandering)

=year=,” and the “=calendar year=.” Now it is clear that since this vague

year of 365 days was shorter than the true year, or “=solar year=,” of

365¼, by nearly a quarter of a day, every fourth vague year would be

shorter than the true year by nearly a whole day. Moreover, given a

sufficient number of years, the vague year would work backward through

all the months of the year, until at length the first day of the vague

year would coincide with the first day of the solar year. Thus, supposing

the first day of the vague and solar years to have coincided on January

1, B.C. 2000, two hundred years later the first day of the vague year

would have worked back about 50 days; and five hundred years later,

_i.e._, about B.C. 1300, the first day of the vague year would fall in

the height of the summer instead of in the depth of winter. This defect

in their year of 365 days would soon become apparent, and we may be

sure that they were not long in discovering some means for correcting

it. According to some authorities the Egyptians knew the length of the

true, or solar, year with considerable exactitude, and if this be so they

were well able to plan their farming operations without any reference

to the vague year. According to others the Egyptians were ignorant of

the solar year, but were acquainted with a =Sothic year=, which is so

called because it began on the day when the star =Sepṭ= (or =Sirius=,

or =Sothis=, or the =Dog Star=) rose heliacally, that is to say, with

the sun. This happened on July 19 or 20, and as this date was very near

the time when the Inundation began, the Egyptians considered it most

convenient for their year and the Inundation to begin at the same time.

The =Sothic year= contained practically 365¼ days, _i.e._, a few minutes

more than the true, or solar, year; and the =Sothic Period=, _i.e._,

the length of the time which must elapse between two risings of Sothis

heliacally, contained 1,460 Sothic years, or 1,461 vague, or calendar,

years.

It has now to be considered how the above facts bear upon Egyptian

=chronology=. To make a complete scheme of Egyptian chronology we need

a complete list of the kings of Egypt, and to know the order in which

each succeeded, and the number of years which each reigned. Now, such a

list does not exist, for the lists we have only contain selections of

kings’ names; and of many a king neither the order of his succession nor

the length of his reign is known. The facts at present available do not

permit the making of a complete detailed scheme of chronology, but one

which is =approximately correct= in many parts of it can be framed. As

authorities for the names of the kings there are:—1. The =Royal Papyrus

of Turin=, which, when complete, contained over 300 royal names. 2. The

=Tablet of Abydos=,[29] made for Seti I, containing seventy-six names.

3. The =Tablet of Ṣaḳḳârah=, containing fifty names. 4. The =Egyptian

monuments= of all periods. 5. The King List of =Manetho=.[30] The Turin

Papyrus, which was compiled about B.C. 1500, gave the lengths of the

reigns of the kings, but unfortunately most of them are broken. Manetho

compiled his King List, it is said for Ptolemy II Philadelphus, in the

first half of the third century B.C., but, as the work in which it

appeared is lost, we only know it by the copies which have come down to

us in the =Chronicle of Julius Africanus= (third century A.D.), in the

=Chronicle of Eusebius=, Bishop of Caesarea, who died about A.D. 340, and

in the =Chronography of George the Monk= (eighth century A.D.). Eusebius

himself also compiled a King List, but his results differ materially from

those of Manetho as given by Africanus. Manetho divided the kings of

Egypt into thirty dynasties, which he arranged in three groups: Dynasties

I-XI, XII-XIX, and XX-XXX. He also gave the lengths of the reigns of the

kings, and the cities of their origin, Memphis, Elephantine, Thebes, etc.

Now, although a great many credible facts are to be gathered from the

above authorities from which we are justified in making the general

deduction that the period of dynastic civilization lasted between four

and five thousand years, they none of them help to fix an exact date

for the reign of the first dynastic king of Egypt, who, by general

consent, is said to have been =Menȧ= or =Menes=. If Manetho’s List

were trustworthy, the difficulty would be settled, but unfortunately

one version of it makes 561 kings reign in 5,524 years, whilst another

gives the number of the kings as 361, and their total reigns as 4,480 or

4,780 years. Many Egyptologists have accepted Manetho’s statements with

modifications, but others have tried to work out more accurate results,

astronomically, by the use of the =Sothic Period=. It has already been

said that the Sothic Period of 1,460 years is equal to 1,461 vague, or

calendar, years, and it is argued that, if we can find mentions of the

risings of Sothis (Sirius, or the Dog-star) expressed in terms of the

vague year, and if we can also fix a date for the beginning or end of a

Sothic Period, it will be possible to arrive at fixed points in Egyptian

chronology. Fortunately some three or four mentions of the rising of

Sothis are known in the inscriptions, and thanks to =Censorinus=, who

wrote his work (_De Die Natali_) A.D. 238, it is known that a Sothic

Period came to an end A.D. 139.[31] If this be so, it is clear that the

Sothic Period to which he refers began in B.C. 1321, the one before that

in B.C. 2781, the one previous in B.C. 4241, and so on. The next step is

to work out the mentions of the risings of Sothis which are expressed in

terms of the vague, or calendar, year, and, provided that the statement

of Censorinus be trustworthy and the calculations of modern investigators

be correct, it is possible to assign a date in ordinary Julian years to

such risings of Sirius.

Want of space renders it impossible to discuss here the various systems

of chronology which have been formulated by Egyptologists and others, but

the dates proposed by the principal authorities for some of the dynasties

may be thus grouped:—

DYNASTY. DATES PROPOSED.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

I 5869 5702 5613 5004 4400 3315

III 5318 5147 5058 4449 3966 2895

VI 4426 4402 4310 3703 3300 2540

XII 3703 3404 3315 2851 2466 2000

XVIII 1822 1655 1796 1703 1700 1580

XIX 1473 1326 1404 1462 1400 1320

XX 1279 1183 1195 1288 1200 1200

Of these systems the one proposed by the late Dr. H. Brugsch (No. 5)

agrees best with the general evidence of the monuments as to the length

of the period of Dynastic civilization; it is therefore used, with some

modification of the dates of the XVIIIth dynasty, in this book. It has

been declared that the intervals which he placed between the VIth and the

XIIth, and the XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties are too long, but, on the

other hand, many objections can be urged against the reductions recently

suggested. It is proposed to reduce the date given by Brugsch for Menes,

B.C. 4400, to B.C. 3315; but there is no evidence in support of the

reduction. The view has been steadily growing for years that some of

the dates proposed by Brugsch for the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty must

be reduced, and as this view is supported by the evidence derived from

the recently published Babylonian Chronicles, and the general testimony

of recently excavated monuments, the dates of the reigns of the early

kings of that dynasty may well be brought down nearly one hundred years.

The other evidence on the point, being of an astronomical character,

can only be dealt with by experts. Egyptian chronology is a difficult

subject, chiefly because of an insufficiency of facts about the reigns

of the kings of the VIIth-XIth, and the XIIIth-XVIIth dynasties. Every

year, however, witnesses the removal of a certain number of difficulties,

and as long as excavations are made in Egypt a steady increase in the

knowledge of the subject may reasonably be hoped for.

CHAPTER X.

THE HISTORY OF EGYPT.

Palaeolithic Period.

The only remains of this Period in the British Museum are =flint axes=,

borers, scrapers, etc., typical examples of which are exhibited in

Table-case M in the Third Egyptian Room.

Neolithic Period.

Towards the end of this Period Egypt was divided into =two kingdoms=,

of the South and of the North; of the kings of the latter a few names

are known from the Palermo Stele, _e.g._, =Seka=, =Khaȧu=, =Tȧu=, =Thesh

Neheb=, =Uatch-nār= or =Uatch-ȧnt=, =Mekha=, etc. No date can be assigned

to the rule of these kings, but they probably all reigned before B.C.

4500. Whilst Egypt was divided into two kingdoms the country was invaded,

probably more than once, by a people who made their way thither from the

East, or South-East, and settled as conquerors in the Nile Valley and

Delta. They brought with them a civilization superior to the African, and

appear to have introduced wheat, barley, the sheep, the art of writing,

a superior kind of brickmaking, etc. After a time, length unknown, there

arose a king who succeeded in uniting the Kingdoms of the North and South

under his sway; that king was =Menȧ= or =Menes=.

DYNASTIC PERIOD—ANCIENT EMPIRE.

First Dynasty. From the city of This.

_About_ B.C. 4400.

=Menȧ=, the Menes of the Greeks, was the first dynastic king of Egypt,

and has been identified by some with king =Āḥa= 𓂚, whose tomb was

discovered in 1897 at Abydos. Nothing is known of his reign from the

monuments, but a tradition preserved by Greek writers declared that he

altered the course of the Nile, and so redeemed from the river a large

tract upon which he built the first city of Memphis. Among the objects in

the British Museum bearing the name of =Āḥa= may be mentioned some =clay

sealings= for small wine-jars, a portion of an =ivory box=, and parts of

two =ebony tablets=. (Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room.)

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓂚𓐽𓊂 ĀḤA.

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓆢𓍋𓐽𓊂 NĀR-MER.

=Tetȧ=, or =Ȧtet=, was the successor of Menȧ, according to the King

Lists. In recent years this king has been identified by some with a king

whose name is provisionally read =Nār-mer=; others, however, take the

view that Nār-mer is one of the names of Betchau, a king of the IInd

dynasty.

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓏄𓐽𓊂 KHENT.

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓆓𓐽𓊂 TCHA.

The next two kings were =Ȧteth= and =Ȧta=, but of their reigns nothing

is known; according to some authorities we are to identify King =Khent=

with the former, and King =Tcha= with the latter. There are several

small objects in the British Museum inscribed with the name of =Tcha=

(Table-case L), and several jar-sealings (Wall-case on Landing).

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓂧𓈖𓐽𓊂 ṬEN.

The reign of the next king =Semti= 𓈉𓐰𓈉, or =Ṭen=, formerly known as

=Ḥesepti= 𓈈𓐰𓈈, was important. A legend preserved in the Book of the Dead

states that the short form of the LXIVth Chapter of that work was “found”

during his reign; and on the tablet exhibited in Table-case L, Third

Egyptian Room (No. 124), the king is represented dancing before a god,

who wears the White Crown and is seated within a shrine placed on the top

of a flight of steps. As in later texts Osiris is called “the god on the

steps,” and the White Crown is one of his most characteristic emblems,

we are probably justified in identifying the figure in the shrine with

that of Osiris. It is probable that the =worship of Osiris= assumed an

importance in the reign of Semti hitherto unknown, and that it was at

this period that the cult of this god began to displace the =worship

of ancestors=, which, up to that time, appears to have been general.

It is clear that tradition assigned to his reign a period of literary

activity. The name of Semti also occurs in connexion with a recipe in a

=book of medicine= for driving the disease _ukhedu_ out of the body. (For

objects bearing his name see Table-case L, and for wine-jar sealings see

Wall-cases on Landing.)

[Illustration: King Semti dancing before the god who wears the White

Crown.]

The sixth king of this dynasty was =Āṭȧb=, or =Ātchȧb=, otherwise known

as Merpeba, or =Merbapen=. (For a number of objects bearing his names see

Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)

The next king, according to the King Lists, was called =Semerkha=, or Ḥu,

or Nekht, or =Semsu=, the Semempses of Manetho. (For objects bearing his

name see Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓈎𓂝𓐽𓊂 QĀ.

This dynasty was brought to a close by the reign of a king called =Qebḥ=

in the later Lists; the correct form of his name is, however, =Sen=, and

his Horus name is =Qā=. (For objects bearing his name see Table-case L

and Wall-cases on Landing.)

Second Dynasty. From the city of This.

_About_ B.C. 4133.

The first king of the IInd dynasty was =Khā-Sekhemui=, 𓈍𓌂𓌂 other names

of whom were =Betchau=, Neter-baiu, and =Besh=. From the reliefs on the

statues of this king which were recovered from his tomb at Abydos, we

may assume that Besh fought many battles, and conquered his enemies.

From a design on one of his vases we learn that he was probably the

first to enclose his personal name within the _Shennu_ sign 𓍶, which

was afterwards elongated into the _cartouche_ 𓍷 when royal names became

longer. In this design we see the vulture-goddess Nekhebit uniting the

South and the North, and holding in one claw the sign 𓍶, with the name

Besh written within it thus 𓃀𓐰𓈚. Betchau, or Besh, has been identified by

some with Nār-mer. There are no objects bearing the name of Nār-mer in

the British Museum, but a good cast of a green slate shield of Betchau

is exhibited in Wall-case 10 on the Landing of the North-West Staircase.

The designs on this remarkable object are reproduced in the _Guide to

the First and Second Egyptian Rooms_, p. 40 ff. The objects found in the

tomb of Besh prove that the Egyptians were, even at this early period,

skilled in stone-cutting, statue-making, and working in metals, and that

their religious and social institutions must have been established for

many generations. (See the =copper vases= and wine-jar sealings on the

Landing, and the interesting group of objects, fragments of vases, etc.,

in Table-case L.)

Besh was followed by =Ḥetep-Sekhemui= 𓊵𓌂𓌂, of whom we have a fragment

of a stone vase (Table-case L, No. 162); and by =Rā-neb= and =En-neter=

(see the fragment of a bowl in Table-case L, No. 163). During the reign

of Rā-neb, who was also called =Ka-kau=, the worship of the =Apis Bull=

of Memphis, the =Mnevis Bull= of Heliopolis, and the =Ram of Mendes= was

either reconstituted, or additional shrines were founded or old ones

repaired. (For typical figures of these gods see Table-case H, Third

Egyptian Room.) After =Uatchnes=, of whom nothing is known, came a king

who as the representative of Horus was called =Sekhem-ȧb=, and as the

representative of Set, =Perȧbsen=. In Table-case L are a jar-sealing and

a fragment of a stone vase, and in the Wall-case on the Landing a fine,

hard grey granite stele, inscribed with his =Set name=.

[Illustration: Slab from the tomb of Sherȧ, a Priest of the Ka of Senṭ, a

king of the IInd dynasty, B.C. 4000.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 1.]]

=Senṭ= or =Senṭȧ= is mentioned in connexion with a certain medical work

which was either written or edited in the reign of Semti, the fifth king

of the Ist dynasty. Nothing is known of Senṭ’s reign, but we find from

the tomb of =Sherȧ=, a priest, that services were performed on behalf

of his Ka or “Double” and that of his predecessor Perȧbsen. Sherȧ the

priest probably lived at the end of the IInd, or at the beginning of the

IIIrd, dynasty. A fine slab from his tomb is exhibited in the Egyptian

Vestibule, No. 1.

Of the remaining kings of the IInd dynasty, =Neferkarā=, =Neferkaseker=,

=Ḥetchefa=, and =Bebi=, or =Tchatchai=, their names only have survived.

Third Dynasty. From Memphis.

_About_ B.C. 3966.

The greatest of the kings of this dynasty was =Tcheser=, or =Tcheser-sa=,

who is renowned as the builder of the famous =Step Pyramid= at Ṣaḳḳârah.

This pyramid is about 200 feet high, and has six “steps,” 38, 36, 34½,

33, 31, and 29½ feet high respectively; the lengths of its sides at the

base are: north and south, 352 feet, east and west 396 feet. A tomb of

Tcheser, who has been identified with this king, was discovered at Bêt

Khallâf in 1901. Details of his reign are wanting, but, according to a

legend preserved on a rock stele on the Island of Sâḥal in the First

Cataract, a =Seven Years’ Famine= came upon Egypt in his time, and want

and misery were universal. Greek tradition ascribed to Tcheser great

medical knowledge, and he is said to have been a patron of literature.

Among the objects of this king in the British Museum may be mentioned

the fragment of a slate vase (Table-case L, No. 169), and the very

interesting small =glazed tiles= (Nos. 208, 209, in the same case; and

see Table-case K in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 863-869), which were

found inlaid in the wall of the doorway in the pyramid of King Tcheser.

The other kings of this dynasty, =Ḥen-Nekhtor=, =Sa-Nekht=,

=Tcheser-Tetȧ=, =Setches=, and =Nefer-ka-Rā Ḥuni= were unimportant; the

last named is mentioned in the famous Book of Moral Precepts known as

the =Prisse Papyrus=, where he is said to have been the predecessor of

the great king Seneferu. With the ending of the IIIrd dynasty the period

of Egyptian History called the =Archaïc Period= closes. During these

dynasties civilization had advanced greatly in Egypt. The habitations

of the living were now built of brick, with wooden roofs supported on

pillars; and the dead were provided with stone-built tombs, called

=maṣṭabas=, in which they were laid at full length, instead of in

contracted positions. The =art= of =writing= had been introduced, and

the beginning of the hieroglyphic system invented. Sculptors and metal

workers had attained considerable skill, and potters had learned how

to apply glaze. The progress made during the Archaïc Period can be

successfully studied by the visitor from the valuable collection of

objects exhibited in Table-case L in the Second Egyptian Room, and

in the Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase. Special

attention should be given to the =green slate shields=, sculptured in

relief with hunting scenes, and to the fine display of =vases= and

=bowls=, in diorite, granite, porphyry, jasper, breccia, limestone,

alabaster, etc., in Wall-cases 137-142, 194-204, in the Fourth Egyptian

Room. To the same period probably belong:—1. The portion of a sculptured

stele, with the Horus name of a king, which was found at Wâdî Maghârah

in the Peninsula of Sinai (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =2=). 2. The very

interesting red granite statue, of a most archaïc character, of

=Betchmes=, a royal kinsman and axeman who was attached to the body-guard

of the king (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =3=). 3. The text on a limestone

slab in which the hieroglyphics are not divided by lines (Egyptian

Vestibule, No. =4=). 4. Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu (Egyptian

Vestibule, No. =5=).

[Illustration: Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu.

IIIrd or IVth dynasty, B.C. 3700.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 5.]]

Fourth Dynasty. From Memphis.

_About_ B.C. 3733.

With the accession of =Seneferu= one of the most important periods in

the history of Egypt opened, and it was marked by the =conquest of the

Sûdân= and the =Sinaitic Peninsula=, by the building of the =Pyramids=,

and by the production of bas-reliefs, sculptures, wall-paintings, etc.,

which for fidelity to nature and delicacy of execution were never

surpassed. Several of the earlier kings of Egypt had trade relations

with the natives of Sinai who worked the famous copper and turquoise

mines of Wâdî Maghârah; but Seneferu invaded the country and conquered

it, and cut reliefs on the rocks in which he is represented clubbing the

rebellious natives. He was the first to group four of the royal titles

within a cartouche thus: 𓍹𓐼𓆥𓅒𓎟𓌷𓐰𓏏𓅉𓋴𓄤𓂋𓅱𓐽𓍺. He also =raided the Sûdân=,

and captured, as we learn from the Palermo Stele, 7,000 men, _i.e._,

slaves, and 200,000 animals, _i.e._, oxen, cows, goats, etc. The men

were, no doubt, brought to Egypt and made to labour there on the king’s

works. During the reign of Seneferu, Egypt was invaded by certain Eastern

tribes by way of the desert; and the country seems to have suffered from

a famine. Seneferu was probably buried in the =Pyramid= of =Mêdûm=, which

is called the “False Pyramid,” and is of an unusual shape; it is about

115 feet high, and consists of three stages, which are 70, 20, and 25

feet high respectively. He also built a pyramid at Dahshûr. His queen was

=Mert-tefs= 𓌻𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓏏𓐰𓆑𓋴, who survived him and was living during the reigns

of Khufu and Khāfrā; a limestone false door from her tomb is exhibited in

the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =7=. The governor of Seneferu’s pyramid at

Mêdûm was Ka-nefer (for his sepulchral stele see the Egyptian Vestibule,

No. =8=), to whose memory a pious son set up the memorial tablet No. =9=.

[Illustration: King Khufu (Cheops).

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 13.]]

Seneferu was succeeded by =Khufu=, the =Cheops= of the Greeks, the son

of =Shaȧru= 𓍹𓐼𓈚𓄿𓁹𓐰𓂋𓅱𓐽𓍺, the greatest king of the dynasty; he is said to

have reigned sixty-three years. He may have been a great warrior, like

Seneferu; and a relief on the rocks at Wâdî Maghârah in the Sinaitic

Peninsula represents him in the act of clubbing a typical foe in the

presence of the ibis-headed god Thoth. He was, however, a far greater

builder, and he has been known to fame for some thousands of years as

the builder of the =Great Pyramid= (see =Plate XX=). This wonderful

building, which the Egyptians called “Khut,” 𓅜𓐍𓐰𓏏𓉴, stands on the edge

of a ledge of rock forming the “skirt” (hence the name _Gîzah_) of the

desert, on the western bank of the Nile, about 5 miles from the river,

near the village of Al-Gîzah. It covers an area of 12½ acres. It is

451 feet high, and the flat space at the top is about 30 feet square.

The length of each side at the base is 755 feet; but before the outer

layers of stone were removed and used in Cairo for building material

each side was 20 feet longer, and the pyramid itself was about 30

feet higher. It was originally covered with inscribed slabs of smooth

limestone or polished granite, and it is calculated that it at present

contains 85,000,000 cubic feet of masonry. The illustration on page 197

illustrates the general arrangement of the chambers and corridors inside

the pyramid, and the corridor and mummy chamber beneath it. The stone

used in building was quarried at Ṭura, on the eastern bank of the Nile,

about 8 or 9 miles from the pyramid site. It was rolled down to the

river on a made road, and ferried across in barges, and then rolled up

the embanked road and causeway to the rock. According to Diodorus (i,

63), the building occupied at least twenty years, and some 300,000 men

were employed in the work. Herodotus says (ii, 64) that ten years were

consumed in the quarrying of the stone, and ten more in building, and

that the men worked in gangs of ten thousand, each gang working three

months at a time. A group of three =casing stones= from the Great Pyramid

are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =10-12=, and also a plaster

cast of a =statue= of =Khufu= (No. =13=). Attached to the Great Pyramid

was a funerary temple in which commemorative services were performed;

and either towards the end of the king’s reign, or soon after his death,

one of the chief priests in it was =Ka-ṭep=, who held the office of

“Prefect of the _sa_” 𓌂𓅓𓎂, _i.e._, of the “fluid of life.” Ka-ṭep was a

“royal kinsman,” and his wife =Ḥetep-ḥeres= was a “royal kinswoman.” For

the statues of Ka-ṭep and his wife, see page 177, and for “false doors”

from his maṣṭaba tomb, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =14-17=, and for his

=censers=, see Wall-case 200 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 52, 53.

Another official who flourished about this period was =Sheshȧ=, from

whose tomb came the limestone stele in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =18=.

[Illustration: PLATE XX.

The Great Pyramid and Sphinx.]

[Illustration: Section of the Great Pyramid of Gîzah, built by Khufu

(Cheops), showing the internal passages and chambers, and the underground

corridor and sarcophagus chamber.]

During the reign of Khufu a large number of fine tombs were built round

about the Great Pyramid, and in some of them fine monolithic sarcophagi

were placed. An excellent idea of this class of monument may be gained

from an examination of the cast of the =sarcophagus of Khufu-ānkh=

(Egyptian Vestibule, No. =19=).

Here, because the monument is associated with the name of Khufu in the

inscription of Thothmes IV, must be mentioned the =Sphinx=, in Egyptian

Ḥu 𓎛𓅱𓬖. The early history of this wonderful man-headed lion is unknown,

but it seems that some work upon the rock out of which it was fashioned

was undertaken by Khufu. Under the XIIth dynasty the headdress, called

_nemmes_, was cut, and it is possible that an attempt was made to give

the face some resemblance to that of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt III, or one of his

predecessors, about the same time. At a later period the Sphinx was

identified with Rā-Harmachis, probably under the influence of an ancient

tradition which connected it with the Sun-god. It is 150 feet long and 70

feet high; the head is 30 feet long and the face 14 feet wide. Originally

the face was painted a bright red, and traces of the colour are still

visible. Traditions and superstitions have gathered about it in all ages,

and it is probable that the rock out of which it was made was regarded

with veneration in primitive times. In the Middle Ages the natives

believed that the Sphinx kept the sands of the Western Desert from

swallowing up the village of Gîzah. A portion of the painted limestone

=uraeus=, or asp, =from the forehead= and a portion of the =beard of the

Sphinx= are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =20= and =21=.

[Illustration: King Khāfrā (Chephren).]

Khufu was succeeded by =Ṭeṭ-f-Rā=, of whom nothing is known; and he again

was succeeded by =Khā-f-Rā=, the =Chephren= of the Greek writers, who is

famous chiefly as the builder of the =Second Pyramid= at Gîzah, called in

Egyptian “Ur” 𓅨𓉴, _i.e._, the “Great.” Its height is about 450 feet, the

length of each side at the base is 700 feet, and it is said to contain

about 60,000,000 cubic feet of masonry, weighing some 4,883,000 tons.

It was first opened by Belzoni (born 1778, died 1823) in 1816. It was

originally cased with polished stone, but only towards the top has the

casing been preserved. The illustration on page 171 shows the arrangement

of the corridor and sarcophagus chamber, which is very different from

that of the Great Pyramid. A funerary chapel was attached to the pyramid;

and among those who ministered in it was =Rutchek=, the chief of the

libationer priests, who calls himself a “friend of Pharaoh” 𓋴𓍋𓈖𓉐𓐰𓉻. (For

an architrave and an inscription from his tomb see Egyptian Vestibule,

Nos. =22= and =23=.) The Pyramid itself was in charge of the “royal

kinsman” =Thethȧ=, who was the royal steward, and “overseer of the

throne of Pharaoh,” and priest of Hathor and Neith. Two fine doors from

the maṣṭaba tomb of Thethȧ are exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery

(Bay 1, Nos. =24= and =25=), together with a short inscription referring

to the burial of his father and mother (No. =26=). The perfection to

which the sculptor’s art had attained at this period is well illustrated

by the casts of =statues= of =Chephren=, from the hard stone originals in

the Museum in Cairo, exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =27= and

=28=. A fragment of an alabaster vessel from the king’s tomb, bearing his

name, is in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 56.

[Illustration: King Menkaurā (Mykerinos).

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 30.]]

=Men-kau-Rā=, the Mykerinos of Greek writers, reigned, it is said,

about sixty-three years; no details of his reign are known, and he is

chiefly famous as the builder of the =Third Pyramid= at Gîzah, which the

Egyptians called “Ḥer” 𓁷𓐰𓂋𓉴. This pyramid is between 210 and 215 feet

high, and the length of each side at the base is about 350 feet. The

illustration on page 202 shows the position of the corridors and the

mummy chamber, which is 60 feet below the surface of the ground, and

also indicates the damage which was done to the pyramid by the Khalîfa

Al-Mâmûn, who, believing that it was full of gold and precious stones,

tried to demolish it. The pyramid was originally cased with slabs of

granite, many of which still remain in position. In the mummy chamber

were discovered a =stone sarcophagus=, a =wooden coffin=, the cover of

which was inscribed with the king’s names and titles and an extract from

a religious text, and the =remains= of a =mummy= wrapped in a cloth.

These were despatched by ship to England in 1838, but the ship was

wrecked, and the sarcophagus was lost; the fragments of the coffin and

the mummy were recovered, and are now exhibited in =Case B= in the First

Egyptian Room. In the reign of Men-kau-Rā certain Chapters of the Book

of the Dead were revised or composed by =Ḥeruṭāṭāf=, a son of Khufu,

or Cheops, who was renowned for his learning. A cast of a =statue= of

=Men-kau-Rā=, and a sepulchral stele of =Khennu=, a “royal kinsman” and

councillor of the king, are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos.

=30= and =31=.

In the reign of Men-kau-Rā was born a child to whom the name of

=Ptaḥ-Shepses= was given, and who was a playfellow of the princes and

princesses in the palace. In the reign of the next king, =Shepseskaf=,

he married the royal princess =Maāt-khā= 𓌷𓐰𓂝𓐰𓏏𓈍𓐰𓂝, and lived on through

the reigns of Userkaf, Saḥu-Rā, Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā, and two or three other

kings of the Vth dynasty. Under each king he filled a number of important

offices, and at his death was probably considerably more than 100 years

old. He was buried in a fine large maṣṭaba tomb at Ṣaḳḳârah, from which

the great door in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =32=, was taken. The façade

is inscribed in fine bold hieroglyphics, and the sculptured decorations

on the sides are good examples of the best funerary reliefs of the

period. The upper parts of each of the main perpendicular lines of text

contained the name of a king, but of these only two now remain.

[Illustration: Section of the Third Pyramid of Gîzah, built by Menkaurā

(Mykerinos), showing the extent of the portions removed.]

[Illustration: PLATE XXI.

An Egyptian official of the IVth dynasty. Cast of the wooden statue of

the Shêkh al-Balad, or “Shêkh of the Village.”

[Egyptian Vestibule, No. 35.]]

The beauty of the =statues of the IVth dynasty= is well illustrated by

the painted limestone portrait statue of =Ȧn-kheft-ka=, a royal kinsman,

which was found at Dahshûr (Bay 1, No. =33=), and the headless statue of

an official found at Gîzah (Vestibule, No. =34=). The standing figures

of the =Shêkh al-Balad= (see =Plate XXI=) and the =Scribe= are wonderful

examples of fidelity to nature (see the casts in the Egyptian Vestibule,

Nos. =35= and =36=). The finest bas-relief of the period is that from the

tomb of =Rā-ḥetep= at Mêdûm (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =40=); and the wall

decorations of the ordinary maṣṭaba tomb of this time are illustrated

by the sculptured slabs from the tombs of =Ȧri= (Egyptian Vestibule,

Nos. =41-43=), and =Ȧfȧ=, a steward and head-gardener (No. =44=), and

=Ānkh-ḥaf=, the scribe (No. =45=), etc.

Fifth Dynasty. From Elephantine.

_About_ B.C. 3566.

The kings of this dynasty are: =Userkaf=, =Saḥu-Rā=, =Kakaȧ=,

=Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā=, =Shepses-ka-Rā=, =Khā-nefer-Rā=, =User-en-Rā Ȧn=,

=Men-kau-Ḥeru=, =Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā Ȧssȧ=, =Unȧs=. The reigns of all these kings,

from a historical point of view, are comparatively unimportant. During

the reign of =Userkaf= a great development of the cult of Rā took

place in Egypt, and the worship of the Sun-god, according to the form

established by the priests of Heliopolis, became dominant in the land.

In the reign of Userkaf, or in that of one of his immediate successors,

the title of “son of Rā” was added to the other royal titles, and, as

the son of the Sun-god, the king took a special name. Userkaf built

at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Āb-ȧst” 𓀆𓊨𓊨𓊨𓉴. =Saḥu-Rā= appears to

have made a raid into Sinai, for he is represented in a rock-relief at

Wâdî Maghârah in the traditional attitude of clubbing a native of the

country. He built, at Abû-Ṣîr, the pyramid called “Khā-ba” 𓈍𓅡𓉴. For an

alabaster vase inscribed with the Horus name of this king, =Neb-khāu=,

see Wall-case 138, No. 58; and there is in the British Museum also a

cylinder seal inscribed with his name (No. 48,023). The next important

king of this dynasty is =User-en-Rā=, whose name, as son of Rā, was =Ȧn=.

He carried on mining operations in Sinai, and probably suppressed revolts

there among the natives; but details are wanting. He built at Abû-Ṣîr the

pyramid called “Men-ȧst” 𓏠𓐰𓈖𓊨𓊨𓊨𓉴. From this, probably, came the fine grey

granite funerary vase inscribed with his name 𓆥𓍹𓐼𓇳𓐰𓈖𓄊𓋴𓂋𓐽𓍺. (See Fourth

Egyptian Room, Wall-case 194, No. 51.) Usertsen I, a king of the XIIth

dynasty, wishing for some reason to commemorate User-en-Rā, dedicated

to him a black =granite statue=, the lower portion of which is in the

Egyptian Vestibule, No. =48=. On one side of the throne is the royal

prenomen, and on the other the nomen, which is repeated on the king’s

belt. A plaster cast of a stone statue of User-en-Rā is also exhibited in

the Vestibule, No. =49=.

[Illustration: King User-en-Rā Ȧn, B.C. 3433.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 49.]]

=Ȧssȧ=, the next king of importance, worked the quarries in Wâdî

Ḥammâmât, near the old high road which ran from Ḳena on the Nile, in

Upper Egypt, to a place near the modern Ḳuṣêr (Cosseir) on the Red Sea,

and the copper and turquoise mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. He built

at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Nefer” 𓄤𓉴. During the reign of Ȧssȧ a

development of trade between Egypt and the Sûdân ensued, and an Egyptian

official called Ba-ur-ṭeṭ succeeded in reaching the “Land of the Spirits”

and bringing thence a pygmy _ṭenḳ_ 𓂧𓐰𓈖𓎼𓐰𓄔𓁌, whom he gave to the king. The

pygmy actually came from the land of Punt, which tradition declares was

the original home of the Egyptians. He was employed to dance the “dance

of the gods” before the king. It seems to have been the custom in still

earlier times to import pygmies from the Sûdân, for skeletons of two were

found near the tomb of Semempses, a king of the Ist dynasty, at Abydos.

=Unȧs=, the last king of the Vth dynasty, the Onnos of Manetho, carried

on the usual mining operations, and, it is said, built a temple to Hathor

at Memphis. He is chiefly famous as the builder of the first of a very

remarkable series of pyramids at Ṣaḳḳârah, the corridors and chamber

walls of which were covered with series of formulae of the greatest value

for the study of the Egyptian Religion. The pyramid of Unȧs was about

60 feet high, and the length of each side at the base was 220 feet; in

front of its door stood a portico which rested on granite columns with

palm-leaf capitals. One of these columns now stands in the Egyptian

Vestibule, No. =50=. (For an alabaster vase from his mummy chamber,

inscribed with his name and titles 𓍹𓐼𓅭𓐴𓇳𓃹𓐰𓈖𓇋𓋴𓐽𓍺, see Wall-case 138 in the

Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 57.)

The funerary reliefs of the Vth dynasty are very fine. Those worthy of

note are: a “false door,” from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep=, a councillor

and libationer and an officer of the palace of =Userkaf= (Egyptian

Vestibule, No. =51=); a portion of the façade of the tomb of =Neka-ānkh=,

a priest who ministered in the tomb of =Userkaf= (No. =52=); a massive

“false door” from the tomb of =Ȧsȧ-ānkh=, from Ṣaḳḳârah (No. =53=);

a slab sculptured in low relief with a figure of the royal kinswoman

=Thethȧ= (No. =60=); and a slab from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep=, a chief

of Nekheb (No. =61=).

Sixth Dynasty. From Memphis.

_About_ B.C. 3300.

The kings of this dynasty were:—

1. =Tetȧ.=

2. =Userka-Rā.=

3. =Rā-meri Pepi I.=

4. =Mer-en-Rā.=

5. =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi II.=

6. =Mer-en-Rā Tchefau(?)-em-sa-f.=

=Tetȧ=, the first king of this dynasty, was neither a warrior nor a great

builder; and details of his reign are wanting. He built a pyramid at

Ṣaḳḳârah, the interior of the chambers and corridors of which are covered

with inscriptions of a religious character; it is commonly known as the

“Prison Pyramid.” Of the monuments of this king in the British Museum

may be mentioned a =grant of land= to the god Khenti Ȧmenti of Abydos

(Egyptian Vestibule, No. =74=); an alabaster =vase= from his pyramid,

inscribed with his name and titles (Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian

Room, Nos. 59 and 60); and a fine breccia =bull=, to which the royal

names and titles have been added in recent times (No. 61).

Rā-meri, =or Pepi I=, was probably the greatest king of this dynasty.

He worked the granite quarries at Elephantine, or Syene, and in the

Wâdî Ḥammâmât, and he established his power in the Peninsula of Sinai,

where he ruled the local tribes with a strong hand. His reign was one of

industrial progress; and trade and handicrafts flourished throughout the

country under his fostering care. Under the leadership of a favourite

official named =Unȧ=, he despatched a very large army composed of men

drawn from all parts of the Sûdân, to put down a wide-spread revolt which

had broken out among the dwellers in the Eastern Desert called “the Āamu,

who lived on the sand.” Unȧ gained a decisive victory, and was promoted

to very high honours. Pepi I built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah, the walls of

the chambers and corridors of which were covered with inscriptions of a

religious character; from this comes the fine alabaster =vase=, inscribed

with his name and titles, in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room,

No. 66. (For two fine “false doors” from the tomb of =Qarta=, a high

official of Pepi I, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =75=, =76=.)

Pepi I was succeeded by =Mer-en-Rā I Tchefau(?)-em-sa-f=, who carried

on the works begun by his father, and built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah,

from which came the fine alabaster vase in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth

Egyptian Room, No. 66. He was succeeded by =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi II=, who

according to tradition lived to the age of 100 years. During his reign

Egypt was in a state of prosperity, and there was great activity in trade

and handicrafts. At this time flourished the famous official =Ḥer-Khuf=,

who was the master of a caravan which traded between Egypt and the Sûdân,

which country he visited four times. On the last occasion he brought

back a =pygmy= from “the land of the Spirits,” which King Pepi II bade

him bring to Memphis. Detailed orders were sent to the effect that the

pygmy was to be watched during the day so that he might not fall into the

water, and his sleeping place was to be visited ten times each night by

properly qualified people, for, said the king: “I wish to see him more

than all the tributes of Sinai and Punt.” Other prominent traders in the

Sûdân on behalf of the king at this time were Pepi-nekht, Mekhu, who died

there, and whose body was brought back to Egypt by his son Sabben, etc.

Among the objects of the time of Pepi II may be mentioned a =portion=

of a =doorway= made by him at Abydos, and a sepulchral stele of

=Nefer-Sennȧ=, from his tomb at Denderah (Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =77=

and =78=). Among the priests who ministered in the chapel attached to

the pyramid of Pepi II was =Heb-peri=, whose stele is exhibited in the

Egyptian Vestibule, No. =79=. The most important monument of his reign

is the =maṣṭaba tomb= of =Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ=, a royal kinsman and scribe,

libationer, and councillor, from Ṣaḳḳârah, which has been re-built in the

=Assyrian Saloon= (No. =80=). It is a good typical example of the tomb

of noblemen and high officials of the period. The painted reliefs are

interesting, and are typical of the wall decorations of tombs towards the

close of the VIth dynasty. The inscriptions show that both Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ

and his wife were buried in the chamber beneath the maṣṭaba; the list of

offerings, some 90 in number, is exceptionally long.

Of the last king of the VIth dynasty, =Mer-en-Rā II Tchefa-em-sa-f=,

nothing is known.

The funerary art of this period is well illustrated by the stelae and

“false doors” of: =Sennu= (Bay 1, No. =81=), =Ptaḥ-ḥetep=, a priest

(No. =82=), =Erṭā-en-ānkh=, a royal kinsman and councillor (No. =83=),

=Uthenȧa=, whose “good name” was Penȧ (a very interesting relief, No.

=84=), =Ȧṭu=, a scribe and superintendent of the “Great House of the

Six” (No. =85=), =Behenu=, a priestess of Hathor (No. =88=), and a

portion of a slab from the =roof= of =a tomb=, with flutings, which are

probably intended to represent tree trunks (No. =90=). All these, with

the exception of No. 81, are in the Egyptian Vestibule. To this period

also probably belong the =libation tanks=, and =tablet for offerings= of

=Ȧntḳes=, =Khart-en-Khennu=, and =Senb= (Bay 14, Nos. =93-95=).

Besides the larger remains of this period, the =scarabs= in the

Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room should be examined. Several of

them are inscribed with names of the kings of the first six dynasties,

but it is not certain how many, or if any, of such scarabs are

contemporaneous, and for this reason they have not been described in

the preceding paragraphs. On the other hand, of the fine collection of

=scarabs of officials=, inscribed with their titles, scores certainly

belong to the period of the first half of the Ancient Empire, and are of

the greatest interest and historical value.

The monuments prove that between the IVth and VIth dynasties the

Egyptians lived in a state of serfdom, and that they regarded their king

as the owner of both their souls and bodies. He was the very essence of

God in human form upon earth, and his power was absolute; even in the

Other World his authority was held to be equal to that of the great gods

of the dead. The Pharaohs of this period were masters of the Peninsula of

Sinai, and of the Eastern Desert between Egypt and the Red Sea; and the

memory of the raid which Seneferu made in the Sûdân probably induced the

warlike tribes of that country to permit Egyptian caravans to pass from

Syene to the Blue and White Niles unmolested.

At the close of the VIth dynasty a period of general disorder appears to

have set in, the chiefs of cities such as Suten-ḥenen (Herakleopolis),

Asyûṭ and Thebes contending among themselves for supremacy. Of the

history of this period nothing is known. According to Manetho (version of

Africanus) we have:—

Seventh Dynasty. From Memphis.

Seventy kings in seventy days.

Eighth Dynasty. From Memphis.

Twenty-seven kings in 146 years.

The Tablet of Abydos supplies after Neter-ka-Rā, the name of the last

king of the VIth dynasty, the following sixteen names, which represent,

presumably, the kings of the VIIIth dynasty:—

=1.= =Men-ka-Rā.=

=2.= =Nefer-ka-Rā.=

=3.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Nebi.=

=4.= =Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā ...=

=5.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Khenṭu.=

=6.= =Mer-en-Ḥeru.=

=7.= =Senefer-ka.=

=8.= =N-ka-Rā.=

=9.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Tererl.=

=10.= =Nefer-ka-Ḥeru.=

=11.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi senb.=

=12.= =Senefer-ka Ȧnnu.=

=13.= =... kau-Rā.=

=14.= =Nefer-kau-Rā.=

=15.= =Nefer-kau-Ḥeru.=

=16.= =Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā.=

Under the rule of these kings the princes of Herakleopolis succeeded in

gaining their independence, and thus the seat of the government of Egypt

was removed from Memphis up the river to Suten-ḥenen, the modern Ahnâs,

about 60 miles south of Cairo.

Ninth Dynasty.

Nineteen kings in 409 years.

Tenth Dynasty.

Nineteen kings in 185 years.

The Turin Papyrus contains a series of fragmentary names, which may

represent those of the kings of one or the other of these dynasties; the

fourth of these is =Khati=, whose name is also found on a rock in the

First Cataract, and on a bronze bowl in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris.

Among the kings of the =Tenth Dynasty= may be placed king =Ka-meri-Rā= in

whose reign lived =Khati=, prince of Siut, or Asyûṭ. About this time war

appears to have been going on between the princes of Herakleopolis and

the princes of Thebes, and the prince of Siut sent troops to support the

Herakleopolitans against the Thebans. For a time the Thebans were beaten,

but at length they gained the mastery over the princes of the North, and

founded a new dynasty.

Of the period represented by dynasties VII-X there are no monuments in

the British Museum, with perhaps the exception of a few scarabs.

Eleventh Dynasty. From Thebes.

_About_ B.C. 2600.

The founder of this dynasty was, most probably, =Ȧntefȧ=, a local

chief of the Thebaïd, whose titles were ERPĀ 𓂋𓐰𓊪𓐰𓂝 and ḤĀ 𓄂, and “great

prince of the nome of the Thebaïd, the satisfier of the heart of the

king, the controller of the Gates of the Cataract, the support of the

South, making the two banks of the Nile to live, chief of the Priests,

the loyal servant of the Great God, the Lord of Heaven.” He was probably

succeeded by two or three chiefs of similar name who made no claim to

the sovereignty of the Northern Kingdom, which was then in the hands

of the princes of Herakleopolis. The first of Ȧntefȧ’s successors who

claimed to be “King of the South and of the North,” and “Lord of the two

Lands,” _i.e._, all Egypt, was =Uaḥ-ānkh Ȧntef-āa=, who was succeeded

by =Nekht-neb-ṭep-nefer Ȧntef=, and he was followed by =Sānkh-ȧb-taui

Menthu-ḥetep I=. These facts are derived from the important stele of

=Ȧntef=, a priestly official, which is exhibited in the Northern Egyptian

Gallery, Bay 4, No. =99= (see =Plate XXII=). Among the officials who

flourished in the reign of Uaḥ-Ȧntef and his son was =Thethȧ=, whose

sepulchral stele, inscribed with a biographical notice, is exhibited in

the same Bay (No. =100=). From his tomb also came the inscription which

formed the façade (No. =101=), and the reliefs (Nos. =102=, =103=), on

which are represented members of the family of the deceased bearing

offerings. The order of the remaining kings of the dynasty is doubtful.

Several of them were called =Menthu-ḥetep=, and they may be distinguished

by their prenomens thus:—

=Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=

=Neb-taui-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=

=Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=

=S-ānkh-ka-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=

The first of these kings, =Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep=, probably

Menthu-ḥetep II, appears to have been an able ruler, who reigned for

about 46 years. He was a great warrior, and established his authority

from one end of Egypt to the other. Among his other achievements was the

pacifying of the Āamu, or the tribes of the Eastern Desert and Sinai.

He built a fine temple at Dêr al-Baḥarî, the remains of which have been

recently discovered and excavated. This building is unique in being

associated with a pyramid-tomb. The fragments of the painted limestone

reliefs which have been found among its ruins lack nothing in finish,

fidelity to nature, and execution, whilst in design and general treatment

they may be compared with some of the best funerary reliefs of the Vth

dynasty. In the Northern Gallery, Bay 3, an interesting collection of

such fragments is exhibited, and worthy of note are: Head of a painted

limestone statue of Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep, wearing the crown of the

South (No. =104=); portion of a painted relief, with a figure of the king

being embraced by Rā (No. =105=); relief, with a seated figure of the

king and his prenomen 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓎟𓊤𓐽𓍺 (No. =106=); relief, with a figure of a

king grasping an Āamu foe by one leg (No. =108=); relief, with a figure

of a =hippopotamus= (No. =110=); relief, with a figure of a prince called

=Menthu-ḥetep= (No. =111=); slab, inscribed =Sma-taui=, the Horus name of

the king (No. =117=); and a portion of an inscription referring to the

overthrow of the Āamu by the king (No. =118=).

[Illustration: PLATE XXII.

Tablet of Ȧntet, an official who flourished in the reigns of three kings

of the XIth dynasty, about B.C. 2600. _Scene_: A priest making offering

to the deceased and his three wives.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 99.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XXIII.

Sepulchral tablet of Sebek-āa, an overseer of transport, sculptured with

scenes representing the presentation of offerings, etc.

XIth dynasty, B.C. 2600.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 120.]]

To the period of the XIth dynasty may be attributed the following

interesting tablets and reliefs: Relief, from the tomb of =Sebek-āa= at

Ḳurnah (see =Plate XXIII=), on which are represented the preparations for

a funeral feast, the figure of the deceased lying on his bier, etc. (Bay

4, No. =120=). The cutting of the figures and design is of a most unusual

character; and for the general treatment of the subject this stele is

probably unique. Other tablets, probably somewhat later in date, are:

Tablet of =Khensu-user=, set up by his son Seḥetep-ȧb (Bay 3, No. =121=),

tablet of =Sa-Menthu= (Bay 2, No. =122=), tablet of =Menthu-ḥetep=

(Vestibule, North Wall, No. =123=), and tablet of =Mer-shesu-Ḥeru= and

his friends (Bay 2, No. =124=). The portion of a wooden coffin inscribed

in hieratic with part of the =XVIIth Chapter= of the Book of the Dead,

in Wall-case 87 in the Second Egyptian Room, belongs to this period; the

text was written for one of the =Menthu-ḥetep= kings.

During the reign of =Sānkh-ka-Rā Menthu-ḥetep=, who was probably the

last king of the dynasty, an expedition, under the command of a general,

Ḥennu, was despatched to =Punt=, by way of the Red Sea. The object of

the expedition was to obtain a supply of =ānti= 𓂝𓐰𓈖𓅂𓈒𓐰𓏦, or =myrrh=,

which was largely used for purposes of embalming. Ḥennu succeeded in

reaching Punt, and in bringing back large quantities of all the products

of that remote country. Details of the reign of Sānkh-ka-Rā are wanting,

but with, or soon after, his death the XIth dynasty and the Ancient

Empire came to an end. The length of the period which elapsed between the

close of the VIth and the close of the XIth dynasty is unknown. Some

authorities make the interval between the VIth and the XIIth dynasty to

be about 650 years, others less than 500 years, and others less still.

The following monuments probably belong to the period which immediately

preceded the rise to supreme power of Ȧmenemḥāt I, the first king

of the XIIth dynasty: Black granite seated statue of =Menthu-āa=, or

=Āa-Menthu=, an Erpā and Ḥā Prince, son of the lady Mert (Vestibule, No.

=127=); tablet of the lady =Nefert-tu=, set up in her honour by her son

Menthu-ḥetep (Bay 1, No. =128=), and the tablets of =User= (Bay 1, No.

=129=), and =Ȧqer= (Bay 1, No. =130=). The tablet of =Ȧntef=, son of the

lady Qeḥet, or Ḥeqt, and overseer of the king’s cattle and preserves

of water fowl (Vestibule, No. =133=), and the important inscription of

=Ȧntef=, the son of the lady Mait (Bay 4, No. =134=), and the Prayer of

=N-Ȧntef-ȧqer= to Ȧnpu, lord of Sepau (Vestibule, No. =135=), are all

interesting, and are characteristic productions of this period.

CHAPTER XI.

MIDDLE EMPIRE.

Twelfth Dynasty. From Thebes.

_About_ B.C. 2466.

[Sidenote: B.C. 2466.]

=Ȧmenemḥāt I=, the first king of the XIIth dynasty, appears to have

ascended the throne after a period of anarchy, and, even after his

accession, the members of his own household conspired against him.

The king tells us, in his =Instructions=, how one night, after he

had composed himself to sleep, a number of armed men burst into his

chamber and tried to murder him. Leaping from his couch he attacked his

assailants, and put them to flight. (See Sallier Papyri I and III, and

the slice of stone No. 41 in Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room.)

Ȧmenemḥāt drew up a survey of the country, and set boundaries to each

nome, or province, and he framed a set of regulations for the supply of

water for irrigation to the different towns. Work went on in the quarries

of Ḥammâmât and Ṭura, and the king restored the temples at Tanis,

Bubastis, Abydos, etc., and founded a temple to Ȧmen at Karnak. He built

the fortified palace of Thet-taui 𓎁𓇾𓐰𓇾𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊖, near Memphis, and a pyramid

tomb called “Qā” 𓈎𓀠𓉴, at Lisht. He invaded the Sûdân, conquered the four

great tribes there, viz., the =Mātchaiu=, the =Uauaiu=, the =Satiu=, and

the =Ḥeriu-shā=, and made himself master of their country as far as the

modern Korosko or Ibrîm (Primis). His reign was prosperous, and in his

time “no man went hungry or thirsty.” He associated his son Usertsen I

with him in the rule of the kingdom in the 20th year of his reign.

[Sidenote: B.C. 2433.]

=Usertsen I= was a great builder, and he rebuilt, or re-founded, the

famous temple of Ȧnnu, the =On= of the Bible and the Heliopolis of

classical writers, the sanctuary of the =Bull= Mer-ur (=Mnevis=). Before

the temple he set up two obelisks, the pyramidions of which were cased

in copper; the one now standing is 65 feet high. He set up an obelisk

at Begig in the Fayyûm, and carried on the works of restoration of

the temples which his father had begun. In the 43rd year of his reign

he invaded Nubia, and compelled the tribes to pay him tribute, which

the official Ȧmeni collected and brought safely to Egypt. Ȧmeni was

despatched twice subsequently to Nubia to bring back =gold= and other

products of the Sûdân. The name given to Nubia in the inscription which

records these facts is =Kash= 𓎡𓄿𓈚𓐰𓈉, hence the Biblical =Cush=, which

does not, however, mean Ethiopia in the modern sense of the term, but

Nubia. Usertsen I built a fort and a temple at Behen, the modern Wâdî

Ḥalfah, and appointed a “Governor of the South” to rule over Nubia,

or the Northern Sûdân. The old copper mines in the Wâdî Maghârah were

reopened, and new ones at Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim were also worked; the king

built his pyramid tomb at Lisht, and associated his son with him in the

rule of the kingdom a year before he died.

Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned: A fine red granite

stele on which are sculptured figures of Khnemu and Sati, gods of the

First Cataract, and his Horus name, from Philae (Bay 5, No. =136=); head

of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen I, wearing the Crown of the

South (Bay 1, No. =137=); and a fragment of a chalcedony vase inscribed

with the king’s prenomen 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓆣𓂓𓐽𓍺 (No. 67, Wall-case 138, Fourth Egyptian

Room). Of his officials there are the painted stele of =Ȧthi=, who died

in the 14th year of the king’s reign (Bay 3, No. =138=); the stele of

=Neferu=, the overseer of the royal water-transport at Behen, or Wâdî

Ḥalfah (Bay 3, No. =139=), and two stelae and a statue of =Ȧntef=, the

son of Sebek-unnu and the lady Sent. Ȧntef was a confidential servant of

the king and superintended the royal private apartments in the palace; he

died four years before his master, _i.e._, in the 39th year of the reign

of Usertsen I. (See Bay 1, No. =140=; Bay 3, Nos. =141= and =142=.)

[Illustration: PLATE XXIV.

Sepulchral tablet and seated portrait figure of Sa-Hathor, a mining

inspector in the Sûdân, in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II, B.C. 2400.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 143.]]

[Sidenote: B.C. 2400.]

The reign of =Ȧmenemḥāt II= was prosperous, but uneventful; and no

military expeditions of importance were necessary either in the

Peninsula of Sinai or in Nubia. There was a large colony of Egyptians at

Sarâbît al-Khâdim, and a temple was built there in this reign to Hathor,

the goddess “of the land of the turquoise.” The search for gold was

carried on actively in the Sûdân, under the direction of =Sa-Hathor=,

who tells us on his stele (Bay 1, No. =143=; see =Plate XXIV=) that he

worked in the mining districts when he was a young man, and that he made

the chiefs wash out the gold; he brought back turquoises and went to the

=Land of the Blacks=, or Sûdân, and collected the products of the country

for his master. His knowledge of stone working induced the king to send

him to superintend the hewing of the ten royal statues which he placed

before his pyramid tomb. An interesting event of this period was the

despatch of an =expedition to Punt= under the direction of Khent-khat-ur,

who returned safely with his men in the 28th year of the king’s reign.

In the third year of Ȧmenemḥāt II died the Erpā =Sa-Menthu=, a royal

scribe and overseer of works. He was born in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt I,

and was appointed scribe, etc., by Usertsen I. His sepulchral stele is

a fine example of its class (Bay 6, No. =145=). Another interesting

stele of this reign is that of =Khenti-em-semti=, a royal official, and

confidential servant and treasurer to the king; he visited Elephantine

and Abydos (Bay 1, No. =146=). The official =Khenti-em-semt-ur= was a

libationer priest who ministered in the chapel attached to the royal

pyramid called “Kherp” 𓌂𓉴𓊖𓐰𓏏𓐱𓏤 (Bay 1, No. =147=). The =door socket= (Bay

5, No. =148=), dated in the 30th year of the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II, comes

from a royal building in Lower Egypt, and the seated figure of Hathor

(Bay 1, No. =149=), dedicated to the goddess by Seneferu, the overseer

of the boats, from Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim, dates from the time of the opening

of the new mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. The three dated stelae of

=Ȧmenemḥāt= (13th year), =Seḥetepȧb= (19th year), and =Menu-Nefer= (29th

year) are valuable examples of the funerary stelae of this reign (Bay 1,

No. =150=; Bay 7, No. =151=; and Bay 5, No. =152=), and the stelae of

=Seneferu= (Bay 3, No. =153=), and =Sen-ȧtef= (Bay 1, No. =154=).

[Sidenote: B.C. 2366.]

The reign of =Usertsen II= was long and prosperous, but uneventful.

Active labour went on in the turquoise and gold mines, and the quarries

at Elephantine were worked under the direction of Sa-Renput, the Governor

of Nubia. Usertsen II built a pyramid tomb at Al-Lâhûn, of wonderful

design and construction. It seems that he developed trade in the Red

Sea, and took care to keep in check the tribes of the Eastern Desert.

Classical writers call him “Sesostris” and describe him as a great

conqueror and traveller, but up to the present the Egyptian monuments

have not justified these assertions. Among the monuments of his reign may

be mentioned the stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, the boat-builder, and =Tchaa=, a

palace official (Bay 9, No. =155=, and Bay 1, No. =156=), each of which

is dated in the 6th year of Usertsen II, and the lower portion of a black

granite figure of =Sa-Renput=, the “Great Chief in Ta-Kenset” (_i.e._,

Nubia), the “great father of the King of the South, and the great one of

the King of the North.” Sa-Renput held many high offices at Elephantine

and was one of the greatest of the feudal chiefs of his time (Vestibule,

No. =157=).

[Sidenote: B.C. 2333.]

=Usertsen III=, who was associated with his father in the rule of the

kingdom, was probably the greatest king of the XIIth dynasty. The

principal events of his reign were the conquest and occupation of all

the Northern Sûdân. As a preparation for this work, he made, or cleared

out, a canal about 250 feet long, 34½ feet wide, and 26 feet deep, in

the First Cataract, so that he might pass boats through it to the south.

In the 8th year of his reign he sailed up to Wâdî Ḥalfah, and, passing

on to one of the great “Gates” in the Second Cataract, he built two

forts, one on each bank, at the places now called Semnah (west bank) and

Kummah (east bank). He also built a fort to the north, on the Island

Gazîrat al-Malik, and others probably on the islands in the Nile to the

south. In fact, he occupied the whole of the gold-producing country of

the Northern Sûdân. He set up a stele at Semnah to mark the limit of

his kingdom on the south, and caused to be inscribed on it a decree

in which the Blacks were prohibited from entering Egyptian territory

without permission. Eight years later he set up two inscribed stelae in

which he vaunted his own boldness, prompt action, and invincibility,

and abused the Blacks, calling them cowards, runaways, etc. He says:

“I have seen them, I made no mistake about them. I seized their women,

I carried off their men and women when I came to their wells, I slew

their bulls, I destroyed their grain, and set fire [to their houses].”

Usertsen III established a line of forts at regular intervals along the

River Nile between Elephantine and the famous rock called Gebel Dôsha,

and garrisoned them with Egyptian troops; and was thus able to ensure the

safe transport of gold into Egypt, where the precious metal was required

in ever-increasing quantities. He repaired and added to many of the great

temples of Egypt, _e.g._, Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Thebes,

Elephantine, etc., and he built a pyramid tomb for himself at Dahshûr.

Among the monuments of this king and his reign may be mentioned: Three

grey granite =statues of Usertsen III= (Nos. =158=, =159=, =160=) which

were found in the South Court of the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep

at Dêr al-Baḥarî. These fine statues appear to represent the king at

different periods of his life, and in finish and execution they stand

unrivalled among the monuments of the period. On the plinth of No. =158=

(Bay 1) are cut the king’s Horus name =Neter Kheperu=, and his name as

king of the South and North (see above, page 116) 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓈍𓂓𓂓𓂓𓐽𓍺 (see =Plate

XXV=). Head of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen III (Bay 1, No.

=161=); a portion of a seated figure of the king from Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim

(Bay 1, No. =162=); and the lower portions of two quartzite statues of

the king (Vestibule, Nos. =163=, =164=). No. 164 was usurped by Uasarken

II, of the XXIInd dynasty, who cut his cartouches upon the pedestal. The

building activity of the king at Bubastis is marked by the granite slabs

from that site in Bay 23 (Nos. =166= and =167=) on which is cut the royal

prenomen. No. 167 is of interest, for here we see part of the prenomen

of Rameses II cut over that of Usertsen III. Of the prominent officials

who flourished in this reign we have the stele of =Ȧn-ḥer-nekht=, the

=overseer of the granaries=, dated in the 7th year (Bay 1, No. =168=);

the stele of =Ȧmeni=, who carried out certain works at Elephantine in

connexion with the king’s expedition into Nubia, dated in the 8th year

(Bay 3, No. =169=); and the stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, a warder of a temple,

dated in the 13th year (Bay 5, No. =170=).

[Illustration: PLATE XXV.

Granite statue of Usertsen III, B.C. 2330.

XIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 159.]]

[Sidenote: B.C. 2300.]

=Ȧmenemḥāt III= reigned about fifty years, and devoted all his energies

to improving the prosperity of his kingdom. Art, sculpture, architecture,

and trade of all kinds flourished under his fostering care; and the

remains of his buildings and inscribed monuments bear witness to the

activity which must have prevailed among all classes of handicraftsmen

during his reign. The mines of Sinai, the Wâdî Ḥammâmât, Ṭura, and

elsewhere were diligently worked, and the king carried out large

irrigation works in connexion with the great =natural reservoir= in

the Fayyûm, which is commonly known by the name of =Lake Moeris= (from

the Egyptian Mu-ur, or Ma-ur) 𓈗𓅨𓐰𓂋, 𓈘𓅨𓐰𓂋𓈗. The circumference of this

reservoir was 150 miles, and its area 750 square miles; its average level

was 80 feet above the Mediterranean. In Nubia also he appears to have

undertaken irrigation works, for several “levels” are cut on the rocks

near the Forts of Usertsen III at Semnah and Kummah, with the years of

the king’s reign in which they were cut. They show that the level of

the river during the inundation was about 26 feet higher than it is

at the present time. Ȧmenemḥāt III is also thought to have built the

=Labyrinth=, which Herodotus says (ii, 148) contained twelve courts, and

3,000 chambers, 1,500 above ground and 1,500 under ground, and covered an

area about 1,000 feet long and 800 feet broad. It was dedicated to the

crocodile-god Sebek; and many sacred crocodiles were buried in a place

specially set apart for them. Ȧmenemḥāt III built a pyramid at Ḥawârah,

and he and his daughter Ptaḥ-Nefert were buried in it. From the ruins

of the chapel at the entrance to this pyramid came the limestone slab

inscribed with the king’s names and titles exhibited in Bay 5 (No. =171=).

Foremost among the monuments of this reign must be mentioned the colossal

grey granite seated statue, and the head, which probably belongs to it,

exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (Bay 22, Nos. =774=, =775=;

see =Plate XXVI=). The inscription on the pedestal of the throne was cut

there by order of Uasarken II, a king of the XXIInd dynasty; but it is

certain that an earlier inscription existed, which was erased to make

room for the new one. The features of the face and the general treatment

of the head resemble those of all other extant inscribed statues and

figures of Ȧmenemḥāt III; compare the cast of the statue in the Hermitage

at St. Petersburg (Bay 2, No. =172=), and the cast of a head from a

statue of the king (No. 172, in Wall-case 101, in the Third Egyptian

Room). To his reign also belong the famous =sphinxes= which were found at

Ṣân (Tanis) in 1861, and were for many years attributed to the Hyksos,

because the name of Ȧpepȧ was cut on a shoulder of one of them. On the

cast of one of these exhibited in the Central Saloon (No. =173=) are

inscribed cartouches of Rameses II, Mer-en-Ptaḥ II, and Pasebkhānut. Of

officials who flourished in this reign we have the fine white limestone

=shrine of Pa-suten-sa=, from Mêdûm, surmounted by the figure of a hawk

(Bay 1, No. =174=); the stele of =Nebpu-Usertsen=, one of the king’s

personal attendants (Bay 2, No. 175); the stele of =Usertsen-senbu=

𓄊𓋴𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐰𓊃𓐰𓈖𓋴𓈖𓐰𓃀𓋴𓈖𓐰𓃀𓋴𓈖𓐰𓃀, a veritable royal kinsman, and a commissioner

of the revenue, dated in the 25th year of the king’s reign (Bay 1, No.

=177=); and the =stele and altar of Sebek-ḥer-ḥeb= and =Kemen=, dated in

the 44th year of the king’s reign[32] (Bay 3, Nos. =179=, =180=). The

stele of =Tati-ānkef= (Bay 5, No. =181=), the son of =Tenȧuit=, is of

peculiar interest, for it was found in Malta (see page 220).

[Illustration: PLATE XXVI.

Head of a colossal seated statue of Ȧmenemḥāt III (?), B.C. 2300.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 22, No. 774.]]

The reign of =Ȧmenemḥāt IV= was short, and monuments of his reign are

few. His name is found on the rocks in the copper mines in Sinai, and

on a rock at Kummah in Nubia, but details of his reign are wanting. An

interesting glazed steatite plaque, bearing his name and that of =Prince

Ȧmeni=, will be found in Wall-case 150 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 1.

[Illustration: Shrine dedicated to Osiris by Pa-suten-sa, scribe, who

flourished in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt III, B.C. 2300.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 174.]]

The last ruler of this dynasty was =Sebek-neferut-Rā=, the Skemiophris

of Manetho, and sister of Ȧmenemḥāt IV; her reign was short, and her

monuments are few. The most important is the glazed =cylinder-seal=

inscribed with four of her royal names, exhibited in Table-case D, Fourth

Egyptian Room, No. =134=.

In connexion with the XIIth dynasty must be mentioned King =Ḥer=, who may

have been a son of Ȧmenemḥāt III, or of Usertsen III (see his scarab,

No. 37,652), and an Usertsen with the prenomen of =Seneferȧb-Rā=, who is

sometimes called =Usertsen IV=.

[Illustration: Sepulchral stele of Tatiankef, the son of Tenȧuit. Found

in Malta.

XIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 5, No. 181.]]

The rule of the XIIth dynasty was long and prosperous; and art, and

sculpture, and literature flourished. The art of the period is developed

directly out of that of the Ancient Empire, but one of the most prominent

characteristics is an increased tendency towards realism which is

especially seen in the designs and workmanship of small objects. The

=Scarabs= of the XIIth dynasty are particularly interesting and

beautiful, and a splendid set of examples is exhibited in the Fourth

Egyptian Room. The =sepulchral stelae= of the period are also very

interesting, and many of them exhibit clearly the transition stages

between the “false door” of the maṣṭaba tomb of the Ancient Empire and

the stele, or tablet, which stood by itself in the tomb. The British

Museum Collection is rich in XIIth dynasty stelae, comprising examples of

every important variety. The inscriptions upon them usually open with the

formula =suten-ṭā-ḥetep=, 𓇓𓏙𓊵𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊪 which is followed by a prayer to one

or more gods for sepulchral offerings and for “glory in heaven, strength

upon earth, and triumph in the Other World.” Opinions differ as to the

meaning of the formula _suten ṭā ḥetep_. Some think that it is a prayer

to “the king to give an offering”; and others that it is a prayer for

“an offering like that of a king”; and many different renderings have

been proposed by Egyptologists. It is of course possible that, under the

IVth dynasty, the formula may have been a prayer that an offering might

be given by the king, for the king was regarded as the equal of Anubis

and Osiris and other gods of the dead; but it is manifestly impossible

that every man throughout Egypt could expect the king to send him an

offering at his death, and we are therefore driven to conclude that the

original meaning of the formula was forgotten at a very early period, and

that it was only prefixed to funerary texts at the dictates of custom

or tradition. If it had any meaning at all in the later dynasties, it

would probably be that of a petition to one or more gods for the gift of

an offering like unto that made for a king after his death. Sepulchral

stelae are also valuable because they give the titles of the offices held

by deceased persons, and because they often supply biographies of men who

played important parts in the history of their country.

Among stelae and other monuments of historical value of this period

may be mentioned: Stele from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep= at Beni-Hasan

(Vestibule, No. =182=); statue of =Ȧmenemḥāt=, a veritable royal

kinsman,[33] and =master= of =the robes= (Bay 1, No. =183=); seated

figure of =Ȧmeni=, inscribed with a prayer for offerings (Bay 1, No.

=184=); stele of =Nekhtȧ=, a Ḥā Prince (Bay 1, No. =185=); stele of

=Ȧnḥer-nekht=, =chief clerk= of =grain supply= (Bay 1, No. =186=);

stele of =Ȧntef=, an overseer of priests (Bay 1, No. =187=); stele of

=Sa-Ȧnḥer=, a deputy keeper of the seal, with figures of eighteen of his

children and relatives bearing offerings (Bay 1, No. =189=); stele of the

lady =Khu=, with figures of her two husbands and twelve children (Bay 1,

No. =190=); stele set up to =the memory= of =sixteen persons= and their

mothers (Bay 2, No. =191=); stele of =Sebek-āāiu=, with hieroglyphics

inlaid with blue paste (Bay 2, No. =193=); stele of =Ȧmeni=, of unusual

style (Bay 2, No. =194=); stele of =Erṭā-Ȧntef-Ṭāṭāu=, a governor of the

Sûdân (Bay 4, No. =196=); and stele of =Ȧntef=, with an inscription of

twenty lines in which the deceased describes his virtues and abilities

(Bay 7, No. =197=). As examples of the wall-paintings on the tombs of

this period may be mentioned the slabs from the tomb of =Teḥuti-ḥetep=,

a high official who flourished during the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II (Bay

2, Nos. =198-200=; Bay 7, No. =201=). To the same period, or a little

later, belongs the sandstone =obelisk= which was set up to the memory

of an Egyptian official of the copper mines at Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim in the

Peninsula of Sinai (Bay 1, No. =202=).

The other monuments of the XIIth dynasty consist of =altars=, or =tablets

for offerings=, of which a considerable number are exhibited in =Bays 14,

16, and 17=. Among the altars of the XIIth dynasty may be noted that of

the Ḥā prince =Usertsen=, a superintendent of the prophets, sculptured

with figures of vases and two tanks, and inscribed with an address to

the living (Bay 17, No. =269=). The altar is a rectangular, flat slab of

stone, with a projection which was intended to serve as a spout, from

which the drink offerings were supposed to run off into a vessel placed

to receive them. In the altar small rectangular tanks were sometimes cut,

but usually the surface was sculptured with figures of haunches of meat,

bread-cakes, fruit, flowers, unguent vases, libation jars, etc., and on

the edges and sides were inscribed prayers for funerary offerings of

meat and drink and for things which were deemed necessary for the dead.

The Egyptians believed that the material things placed on such altars

possessed, like animated creatures, two bodies and spirits; their bodies

were consumed by the priests and others, and their spirits by the gods.

Some believed in the transmutation of offerings.

We now come to a period, _i.e._, that of the =XIIIth, XIVth, XVth, XVIth,

and XVIIth= dynasties, which is full of difficulties. Not only is the

order of the succession of the kings of these dynasties unknown, but

authorities differ greatly in their estimate of the length of the period

of their rule. Some say that the interval between the XIIth and the

XVIIIth dynasties consisted of more than 500 years, and others that it

was less than 200 years. The figures given by Manetho are as follows:—

=XIIIth= =dynasty.= From Thebes. 60 kings in 453 years.

=XIVth= ” ” Xoïs. 76 ” in 184 (or 484 years).

=XVth= ” =Shepherds.= 6 ” in 284 years.

=XVIth= ” =Shepherds.= 32 ” in 518 years.

=XVIIth= ” =Shepherds.= 5 (?) kings in 151 years.

[Illustration: PLATE XXVII.

Granite statue of King Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā.

XIIIth or XIVth dynasty, B.C. 2000.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 276.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.

Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Rā, a king of the XIIIth dynasty, about

B.C. 2000.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 2, No. 277.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XXIX.

Memorial cone of Sebek-ḥetep, a scribe, who flourished in the reign of

Sebek-em-sa-f, B.C. 2000.

XIIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 280.]]