MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. MARRIAGE. POLYGAMY. HONOUR PAID TO THE MOTHER. THE
CHILD AND ITS NAME. TOYS. EDUCATION. DRESS. FOOD. AMUSEMENTS. DWELLING
HOUSES AND FURNITURE. AGRICULTURE AND CATTLE BREEDING. TRADE. HANDICRAFTS.
=Manners and Customs.=—The views of the Egyptians about =marriage=
closely resemble those held by many African tribes, for they married
their sisters and nieces, and sometimes indulged in =polygamy=. It is
probable that the views as to marriage which obtained generally in Egypt
were less rigid than those of Western nations. According to an ancient
legend Osiris married his sister Isis, who became by him the mother of
Horus, and he was also the father of Anubis by his other sister Nephthys.
Generally speaking, the Egyptian was the husband of one wife, who was
the mistress of his house and the mother of his children, whether she
was his sister, or his niece, or a stranger. Kings and noblemen married
several wives, and became fathers of children by many of the women of
their households. The Ptolemies, curiously enough, seeing that they were
Greeks, married their sisters and nieces, like the Egyptians. Marriage
in Egypt was, no doubt, arranged in the way common to the East, _i.e._,
it was practically a business transaction, great care being taken to
provide for the maintenance of the woman in the event of misbehaviour
either on her part or that of her husband. Whether any religious ceremony
was performed at the marriage is unknown. Girls were married before
they were fourteen years of age. The legitimate wife of a man is called
“Nebt pa,” 𓎟𓏏𓉐𓏤, _i.e._, “lady of the house,”[18] and she might of
course, be “his beloved sister”; frequently, however, the latter title
is a euphemism for “mistress,” or “concubine.” To divorce or eject the
“lady of the house” was a very difficult matter, and it was probably the
fear of possible pecuniary complications which caused the Egyptian in so
many cases to marry his sister or the woman whom he called by that name.
Moreover, it was thus easier to keep the property in the husband’s family.
The legal =wife= was one of the freest women in the world. She went about
the house, and outside it, at will, and, unlike the modern Egyptian
women, she wore no =veil=. If she pleased, she held converse with men in
the village or market, and she suffered from none of the restrictions
which are placed upon women in the East in modern times. When the wife
became a =mother= her power and influence were greatly increased, and
the literature of ancient Egypt contains many passages which illustrate
the honour and esteem in which the “mistress of the house” was held by
her children, and on scores of stelae in the Egyptian Galleries the
name of the mother of the deceased is given, whilst that of his father
is not mentioned. The Egyptians, like many African tribes, traced their
descent through their mothers, and the views which they held concerning
the affection due to the wife from her husband, and the love which a son
should give to his mother, are well illustrated by two passages. In the
=Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep= (B.C. 3200): “If thou wouldst be a wise man,
rule thy house and love thy wife wholly and constantly. Feed her and
clothe her, love her tenderly, and fulfil her desires as long as thou
livest, for she is an estate which conferreth great reward upon her lord.
Be not hard to her, for she will be more easily moved by persuasion than
by force. Observe what she wisheth, and that on which her mind runneth;
thereby shalt thou make her to stay in thy house. If thou resistest
her will it is ruin.” In the =Precepts of Khensu-ḥetep= (B.C. 1500) we
read: “When thou art grown up, and art married, and hast a house, never
forget the pains which thou didst cost thy mother, nor the care which she
bestowed upon thee. Never give her cause to complain of thee, lest she
lift up her hands to God in heaven, and He hearken to her cry [and punish
thee].”
The life of the woman in the lower classes was a hard one. She cooked the
food for her husband and children, she wove the flax into linen, attended
to all matters in the house, and usually managed to have a large family.
She was a mother at the age of fifteen, or earlier, and a grandmother
at thirty, by which time her body was bent, her forehead wrinkled, and
her face withered. Among the upper classes the process of physical
deterioration was, of course, slower, but the results were the same.
Soon after a child was born a =name= was given to it, which usually
had reference to some physical characteristic; thus a boy might be
called “Nekht” 𓈖𓆱𓐍𓏏𓂡 “Strong,” and a girl “Nefert” 𓄤𓏏 “Beautiful,”
or “Netchemet” 𓇛𓏏 “Sweet.” Pious folk introduced the name of some god
or goddess into the child’s name, _e.g._, “Rā-ḥetep” 𓂋𓂝𓇳𓏤𓊵𓏏𓊪𓀀 “Rā
is satisfied,” and loyal folk the name of the reigning king, _e.g._,
“Pepi-nekht” 𓊪𓊪𓇌𓈖𓆱𓐍𓏏𓂡 “Pepi the strong one.” Several members
of a family often bore the same name, but in these cases each was
distinguished by some “little name” (_i.e._, pet-name). As a pet-name
may be mentioned “Mȧi-sherȧui,” _i.e._, “Little Cat,” or “Pussy,”
𓏇𓇌𓈚𓂋𓇋𓏲𓏭𓅪𓁐. In well-to-do families a special day was set apart for
naming a child and this =name-day= was usually celebrated with rejoicings.
For the first three years of its life a child was wholly in its mother’s
care, and she carried it about on her back or left shoulder (see the
ivory figure No. 41 in Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room). For the
next three or four years of its life it went about naked, whether boy
or girl, gentle or simple; indeed a grandson of Khufu, the builder of
the Great Pyramid, went to school unclothed. The heads of children were
clean-shaven, with the exception of a lock of hair on the right side
of the head. Little girls sometimes wore an amulet on their breast or
body in order to avert the “evil eye,” and perhaps a cheap bracelet or
necklace. They played with =dolls=, numerous examples of which have come
down to us (see Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room). Like all
children, Egyptian children loved =toys= of all kinds. As examples of
these may be mentioned the =cat= with a movable lower jaw, the =elephant=
and his rider, each having movable limbs, the =negro= being pursued by an
animal, the =ape= drawing a chariot, the =cat-headed dwarf=, the =lion=
killing its prey, the toy dog, hippopotamus, etc. The =balls= they played
with were made of porcelain, papyrus, leather stuffed with chopped straw,
etc. (See Standard-case C.)
=Education.=—It is doubtful if the children of peasants and of the
lowest classes went to school, or received any education at all; both
boys and girls were probably sent to herd the geese, to drive the sheep
and goats to pasture or to the canal or river to drink, to look after
the cows, to collect fuel for the fire, etc. It is unlikely that girls
or women generally were taught to read and to write, but little is
known about this matter. The boys of the professional and upper classes
undoubtedly received a certain amount of instruction, for learning was
highly esteemed throughout Egypt; but speaking generally, the learning
of the country was in the hands of the =scribes=. The profession of the
scribe was one of great dignity and importance, and the highest offices
in the land were open to him. The temples and certain offices of the
Government maintained schools in which scribes were trained, and pupils
were, of course, promoted according to their proficiency and ability.
In the temple-schools boys were trained to copy religious texts both in
the hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, and they studied religious
literature, exegesis, the legends of the gods, funerary texts, etc.
In the schools of the Government Departments the teaching was devised
to suit the requirements of the Treasury, the Public Granaries, the
Crown Lands’ Department, etc., and the pupils studied arithmetic, the
keeping of accounts, geometry, mensuration, the writing of reports,
etc. In all schools boys were taught to be clean, diligent, obedient,
respectful and well-behaved. Lessons began early in the morning and
lasted till noon, when, as a papyrus in the British Museum says: “the
pupils left the school with cries of joy.” The daily allowance of food
for a boy was three bread-cakes and two jugs of beer, which were brought
to the school-house by his mother every day. Corporal punishment was
administered freely, and the back of the lazy boy who would not get up
early, and that of the inattentive boy, received many stripes; in one
case a very bad boy was locked up for three whole months in a strong room
in one of the temples.
=School exercises= were written on small whitewashed boards, slices of
white limestone, and papyrus with a reed, and they usually consisted
of extracts from ancient texts, religious or poetical, the contents of
which were intended to improve the mind and form the morals and manners
of the reader and copyist. (See Standard-case C in the Third Egyptian
Room.) The education given in the =colleges of the Priests= was of a
different character. There the young men studied magical and religious
texts, several Books of the Dead, the doctrines of the cosmogony, and the
histories and legends of the gods. They read the ancient writings with
the priests whose duty it was to instruct them, and learned by heart
their expositions of the traditions accepted in the temples. One would
expect the colleges to have possessed glossaries, or dictionaries, and
grammars, but it is doubtful if they did, for nothing of the kind has
hitherto been discovered. =History= in the modern sense of the word was
unknown, though some of the great kings caused =Annals= of their reigns
to be written; and recent excavations have shown that even the =King
Lists= which were drawn up under the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties are
incomplete, and that they contain the names of some kings wrongly spelt.
=Astronomy= was studied with some success by the priests, and the maps
of stars which were compiled by them were undoubtedly used for practical
purposes in connexion with the agriculture of the country.
[Illustration: Head of a seated figure of a priestess wearing a
full-plaited wig, bandlet, etc.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Wall-case 103, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: PLATE IX.
Painted relief with scenes representing dancing, the slaughter of cattle,
preparations for a feast, etc. From the tomb of Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ.
VIth dynasty.
[Assyrian Basement, No. 80.]]
[Illustration: PLATE X.
Painted sepulchral tablet of Kaḥu, a scribe of a storehouse of Ȧmen.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 514.]]
=Dress and ornaments.=—The garments worn by the Egyptians were made
of =linen=, for wool was regarded as unclean. The earliest masculine
garment was the =loin-cloth=, the primitive form of which was preserved
for ceremonial purposes until a late period. Above it a =girdle=, or
belt, was usually added, and to this a =tail=, either that of some
animal, or an imitation made of leather, was fastened. The tail is worn
by many African peoples to this day. As time went on and fashion changed
the loin-cloth developed into a sort of skirt, which varied in length,
fulness, and folds, or a short kilt projecting in a peak just above the
knees. Later both men and women wore a sort of =shirt=, and over this
a loose flowing garment which reached from the neck to the feet. The
linen worn by women of the upper classes was of very fine texture, and
in the luxurious period of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties their apparel
was often very voluminous. The dress of men and women under the VIth
dynasty is well illustrated by the scenes from a maṣṭaba tomb (see the
Assyrian Saloon) reproduced on =Plate IX=, and under the XVIIIth dynasty
by the figures on the stele of Kaḥu (Bay 12, No. 514) (=Plate X=). Both
men and women wore =wigs=, which were sometimes very full and heavy,
but women plaited their natural hair. =Sandals= were made of papyrus
and palm-fibre, neatly woven or plaited, and sometimes of goat skin, or
gazelle skin, well tanned and stained a pink colour. (See Table-case A
in the Third Egyptian Room and Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian
Room.) The “=cone=” was worn on the head by men and women, sometimes with
a lotus flower or lily attached to it. According to some it contained a
ball saturated with oil or pomade of some kind, which ran slowly into
the hair, and so spread over the head and shoulders, causing pleasing
sensations to him on whose head the ball was. The =headdresses= of
the king and queen were very elaborate, whilst those of ordinary folk
consisted of a bandlet, more or less decorated. Men of position always
carried a staff or =walking stick= as a sign of authority, and those whom
the king had honoured by the gift of a =gold collar= wore it on every
important occasion. Both men and women wore rings, anklets, bracelets,
armlets, necklaces, elaborately ornamented collars, pectorals, pendants,
amulets, and earrings, just as they do in Egypt and the Sûdân at the
present time. Egyptian women stained the nails of their fingers and toes
a yellowish red with the juice of the =ḥenna= plant; they painted their
faces with a sort of =rouge=, and their eyelids and eyebrows with a
preparation of antimony (stibium, or =koḥl=), and they added under the
eyes thick lines of paint to make them appear large and full. Both men
and women sometimes decorated their bodies with =tattoo= markings, which
originally probably had a religious, or tribal, import. The burning winds
and heat made the use of unguents an absolute necessity, and =oils= and
=pomades= were very largely used in all periods. Strong scented woods
and herbs were pounded and mixed with oil, and rubbed into the body,
and =scents= were in ancient days, as now, in great demand. Often women
carried a =fan= and a =mirror=. A fine collection of mirrors is exhibited
in Wall-cases Nos. 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
=Food.=—The food of the lower classes consisted chiefly of =bread= and
=vegetables=. The bread was made of a kind of millet, like the modern
=dhurra=, =barley=, and rarely of =wheat=. The grains were rolled and
crushed on a stone and then both the flour and the =bran= were mixed
with water into a stiff paste; from this pieces were broken off and
flattened out by the hand into cakes of various degrees of thickness,
which were baked on hot stones, or in mud-lined ovens. (See the examples
in Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room.) Bread-cakes were made in
a variety of shapes, _e.g._, 𓏏, 𓏙, 𓏐, , 𓊔, , [glyph not in Unicode],
𓏖, 𓏑, etc. Among vegetables may be mentioned =onions=, =cucumbers=
of various kinds, =beans=, =peas=, =lentils=, =radishes=, =pumpkins=,
=water-melons=, =leeks=, =garlic=, =roots= of the turnip and carrot
class, and vegetables belonging to the class of the modern _bâmia_,
_bâdingân_ (egg-plant), _melûkhîyah_ (=spinach=), etc. All these grew in
great abundance, and, in growing, needed little attention, and formed
very important items in the food of all classes. (Compare Numbers xi,
4, 5: “And the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall
give us flesh to eat? We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt
freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and
the garlick.”) =Milk= was drunk in large quantities by the living and
was offered to the dead, and =cheese= was everywhere a common article
of food. Among fruits may be mentioned =figs=, =dates=, =mulberries=,
=grapes=, and probably =pomegranates=. From both figs and dates =syrups=
and =sweetmeats= must have been made. =Fish= was largely eaten by the
poorer classes, but from various passages in the texts we learn that
the “eaters of fish” were unclean ceremonially. The =animal food=
eaten consisted of the flesh of the sheep, goat, ox, gazelle, ariel,
the antelope and other animals of that class, etc.; domestic animals
intended for human food were often =fattened artificially=. Groups of
swine are represented on the monuments occasionally, but the =pig= must
have been regarded as an unclean animal. Among the birds eaten were the
=goose=, =duck=, =pigeon=, =dove=, and the several kinds of birds which
were found in the marshes all over Egypt in ancient days. =Geese= also
were =fattened artificially=, and the trade in them must have been very
large. (See the wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian
Room, where the inspection and counting of geese are represented.)
=Salt= was obtained from the lakes on the sea-coast, and =rock-salt=
from several places in the Western Desert. With cooked meats, stews,
etc., various kinds of seeds of the =spice= class were probably eaten, as
modern nations eat mustard and pepper.
The =common drink= of the country was =beer=, _ḥeqt_ 𓎛𓈎𓏏𓏊, made from
barley, and probably flavoured with plants of various kinds which took
the place of hops; in the earliest Liturgy of Funerary Offerings mention
is made of three or four kinds of beer. A =sweet beer= was made from
=honey=. =Wine= made from grapes was drunk by the upper classes, and the
lower classes drank =date wine=. This was, and still is, made by pouring
water on ripe, fleshy dates, and letting it stand for a number of days,
according to the strength of the wine required; after standing for a week
or so the liquor becomes an exceedingly strong intoxicant.
=Mode of eating.=—The peasant sat, or squatted, on the ground and dipped
his bread-cake into the mess of lentils or boiled vegetables which was in
a bowl resting either on the ground or on a poor wooden stand. Well-to-do
folk either sat on low stools, or lay on reed mats or cushions, and
dipped their hands into the various bowls of boiled grain, meat, and
vegetables which were placed on the small low stand that served as a
table, round which they were grouped. Water was drunk from earthenware
vessels, which were probably like the modern _ḳula_, or water-bottle, and
wine and beer from bowls. The joint was roughly cut or broken into small
pieces, probably before it was brought into the eating-chamber, but birds
were pulled to pieces by the head of the house and his family or guests
as they sat at meat. Fingers were wiped on the thin, flat bread-cakes,
but after the meal a member of the household brought a jug and basin and
poured water over the hands of those who had eaten. The chief meal of
the day was eaten about the time of sunset. The Egyptians were careful
to inculcate moderation in eating and drinking. Kaqemna, the sage, said:
“If thou art sitting in company hate the food which thou likest; restrain
thy appetite, for greediness savoureth of the beasts. Since one cup of
water will quench the thirst, and a mouthful of vegetables stablish the
heart, and one kind of good food is as satisfying as another, and a small
quantity [of food] is as good as a large quantity, the man who permitteth
his appetite to guide him is an abomination.” On the other hand, the
guest must take what his host gives him, and must eat it, for to leave
it uneaten is indeed an unmannerly act. And Ptaḥ-ḥetep said: “When thou
art seated among the guests of a great man, accept what he giveth thee
gracefully. Look before thee, nor stare [at the food], nor look at it
often; he who departeth from this rule is a boorish fellow. And speak
not to the great man more than is necessary, for one knoweth not what
word will displease him. Speak when he speaketh, and thy word shall give
pleasure.”
[Illustration: Relief with a hippopotamus. From the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā
Menthu-ḥetep.
XIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 3, No. 110.]]
=Amusements.=—The children of the poor were employed as soon as possible
in tending the animals in the field, and they had few toys to play with;
the children of well-to-do folk had painted wooden dolls, with hair made
of strings of mud or porcelain beads, and movable joints, models of
animals, etc. The chief amusement of men was =hunting=, and =fishing=,
and =fowling=. Fish and water-fowl were usually caught in nets, but as
bronze =fish hooks= have been found (see Table-cases B and J in the
Third Egyptian Room) the rod and line must also have been used. The
Egyptian sportsman set out on the marshes in a shallow boat with low
bows and stern, taking with him his short =fishing spears=, =harpoons=,
=boomerangs= (see Table-case E in the Third Egyptian Room), nets, his
=hunting-cat= (see the wall-painting in Case I in the Third Egyptian
Room), servants, and sometimes a favourite wife or daughter. Nets were
cast for fish in certain parts of the marshes, and the boat was poled
in among the high reeds and bulrushes where the birds congregated. The
skilled boomerang thrower soon brought down many birds, and his efforts
were ably seconded by his hunting-cat. Among the birds may be mentioned
the =vulture=, =eagle=, =hawk=, =falcon=, =buzzard=, =kite=, =crow=,
=lark=, =linnet=, =sparrow=, =quail=, =pelican=, =ibis=, =swallow=,
=heron=, =goose=, =pigeon=, etc. Occasionally the =hippopotamus= was
attacked among the dense papyrus growths, and the animal was usually
harpooned to death, as was the custom in the Sûdân until recently, for
the sake of the flesh. The =crocodile= was also sometimes caught. No
hippopotamus has been seen living in Egypt in a natural state for very
many generations, and the crocodile retreated south of Kharṭûm soon after
paddle steamers were placed on the Nile. The crocodile was considered to
be a sacred animal for thousands of years, and a sacred crocodile was
kept and worshipped as the God of the Nile at Kharṭûm so recently as
the year 1829. The numerous ivory objects found in Predynastic graves
prove that the primitive Egyptians hunted and killed the =elephant=
(see Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room), and it seems as if a
considerable amount of ivory passed into Egypt proper by way of the First
Cataract, for the ancient Egyptian name of the old frontier city was Ābu
𓍋𓃀𓅱𓃰𓅱𓄣𓈉, _i.e._, “Elephant City” (hence “Elephantine”). At a very early
period, however, the elephant must have retreated far to the south, for
he plays no part in Egyptian mythology, and figures of the animal are
rare. (See the carnelian elephant in Table-case F, in the Fourth Egyptian
Room.) The =bear= also seems to have been hunted. (See page 86.)
The deserts on each side of the Nile were hunted in all periods, and
if we may trust the paintings in the tombs excellent sport was always
to be had. The animals most commonly hunted were the =lion=, =lynx=,
=leopard=, =panther=, =wolf=, =jackal=, =wild-dog=, =fox=, =hyaena=,
=hare=, =gazelle=, =oryx=, =ibex=, =ariel=, and many other animals of
that class. In primitive times the Egyptians caught many animals with
the =lasso= (see the green slate shield exhibited in Table-case L in the
Third Egyptian Room). The rope was thrown over the horns, or round the
legs, of the animal, which was then easily pulled down. The weapons used
in =hunting= were =clubs=, =bows=, =flint-tipped arrows=, boomerangs, and
doubled-headed axes, all of which are shown in the illustrations on page
23. The indigenous ancestors of the dynastic Egyptians probably hunted
the =elephant=, =rhinoceros=, and =giraffe=, but it is unlikely that many
of these creatures remained in Egypt in the Historical Period. =Dogs=
were employed largely in hunting, and several species are known. The most
useful and valuable was the large dog, something like the greyhound,
with prick ears and a long curling tail, of the same species which is
used in Mesopotamia and Persia and the Sûdân at the present day, and is
called _Salûḳî_. The boldness of this kind of dog, called in Egyptian
_thesem_ 𓍿𓊃𓅓𓃡, is marvellous, for he will attack panthers and lions,
and his fleetness is almost incredible. His speed is compared with that
of a flash of light in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XXIV). The kings of
the XVIIIth dynasty were great hunters, and Ȧmen-ḥetep III, who hunted
from the Euphrates in the North to the Blue Nile in the South, states on
his scarabs that he killed with his own hand 110 fierce lions during the
first ten years of his reign. (See Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room,
Nos. 925-929.)
[Illustration: Green schist bear.
Archaïc Period.
[No. 10, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]
Next to hunting =dancing= was perhaps the most favourite amusement of the
Egyptians, and from Pyramid times the Egyptians delighted in watching
men and women perform. The dances were accompanied sometimes by youths
who played a =reed pipe= or =flute=, single or double, or twanged the
strings of an instrument of the =harp=, 𓏢, or =lute= class. (See the
fine examples in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The kings of
the Ancient Empire loved a dance called the “dance of the god” which
was danced by the =Pygmies= in Central Africa; and two of them, Ȧssȧ and
Pepi, caused a Pygmy to be brought from his remote country to Memphis to
dance before them. =Dancing women= danced and sang to the accompaniment
of the =tambourine=, which was also used, together with the =sistrum=
𓏣, =cymbals=, and =bells=, in musical services in the temples. The
=drum=, both the large drum which was beaten with tabs of leather, and
the small =hand drum=, was a very favourite instrument of music, and
was largely used in festivities by every class. =Tumblers=, =acrobats=,
and =buffoons= afforded amusement to the spectators, and the drawings
found on the walls of some of the tombs at Beni Hasan (B.C. 2300) show
that many of the tricks exhibited at the present day were performed at
that time. The well-to-do Egyptian hired dancers, singers, gymnasts, and
musicians, and entertained his guests, both during and after feasts, with
their performances.
The Egyptian loved to play =draughts= on earth, in Egyptian _sent_
𓊃𓈖𓏏𓏠, and he earnestly hoped that he would do the same in heaven. (See
Standard-case F in the Third Egyptian Room, where the scribe Ani and
his wife are represented playing draughts in the Other World.) How the
game was played is not known, but there must have been several kinds of
games, for the =draughtboards= are not all arranged in the same way.
(For examples of them see Standard-cases C and H in the Fourth Egyptian
Room.) The top of the box which held the =draughtsmen= formed the board
on which the game was played. The Egyptians played a number of games
with =counters=, but the methods are unknown. Numbers of =dice= have
been found in the tombs, but it is doubtful if the die was known among
the Egyptians of the Early Empire. Many of their games were, no doubt,
games of chance. The modern equivalent of the draughts and counters
of the ancient Egyptians is dominoes. The poor man, it seems from
the texts, sometimes betook himself to “the house for swilling beer”
𓋴𓅨𓂋𓇋𓈗𓏊𓎛𓈎𓏏𓏊𓉐𓏤, where he got drunk, and babbled about his affairs, and
fell about and hurt himself, and was then cast out of the door by his
fellow drinkers who said: “out with this swiller,” 𓁷𓂋𓇋𓅱𓈐𓅮𓄿𓏭𓋴𓅨𓂋𓇋𓈗𓏊𓂡𓏪.
When his friends came to seek him and upbraid him, they found him lying
on the ground as helpless as a child (Maxims of Khensu-ḥetep, XIII).
During the dark, moonless nights, after long weary days spent in hauling
up water from the river, the peasant villager had little to amuse him,
except games played with counters and draughts, and the converse of his
companions in the “beer-house.”
[Illustration: Egyptian house, with inner chamber and two flights of
steps leading to the roof.
About B.C. 4000.
[No. 292, Wall-case 107, Third Egyptian Room.]]
=Dwelling Houses.=—The king usually lived in a palace or large building
within the precincts of some temple, or at a very little distance from
one. His palace was probably like the large houses of modern times in
Egypt, _i.e._, it had a courtyard with trees in the middle of it, and a
large garden round about it. In the garden were fish-ponds and groves of
fruit trees, palms, acacias, flowering shrubs with scented blossoms,
and a limited number of flowers. There were arbours, too, covered with
creepers and vines, and the gardeners watered the ground daily by means
of small channels into which water was poured from the _shâdûf_, or the
water wheel. The courtyards were paved, or tiled, or covered with floors
made of inlaid painted porcelain work. The walls and ceilings of the
rooms were painted with rich and intricate designs, and in a few of the
rooms there were openings near the roof which served as windows. The
royal furniture was probably richly painted and inlaid with ebony, ivory,
porcelain, and, under the New Empire, metal vases of all shapes and sizes
would be seen everywhere in the dwelling rooms. Certain large rooms were
set apart for receptions and entertainments, and these probably contained
large raised benches placed along the walls for the guests. The kitchen,
pantry, stables, and general servants’ quarters were outside the house,
but the personal attendants on the king and queen, the steward, the
master of the chambers, etc., had their apartments in the palace. The
storeys were rarely more than two in number, and the roof, which was
flat, was approached by a flight of steps, either from the courtyard or
from the roof of the storey on the ground floor.
The =houses of nobles= were built on the same lines as the palace, but
with less magnificence, and they seldom consisted of more than two
storeys. There was a courtyard, with sets of small rooms built on three
sides of it, and a portico on the fourth. On the flat roof were wind
shafts by which the north wind was brought into the rooms, and a small
amount of light was also admitted into them through openings in the upper
parts of the walls, close to the ceiling. Then as now, at certain seasons
of the year, some of the members of the family slept on the roof or in
the courtyard, the remainder on the upper floor. Near the house were the
wine-press, beer-house, stable, byres for cattle, bins for various kinds
of grain, etc., and chambers for storing the fruit and vegetables from
the estate. The garden contained a small lake, and in the ground round
about, which was divided into oblong beds, were fruit trees and flowering
shrubs with scented blossoms, vines, etc. The whole was enclosed within
a thick mud wall built probably of crude brick. The =farmhouse= of one
storey usually contained one living-room, one bed-room, and a number
of small chambers in which grain was stored. On the roof was a small
chamber to which the master retired in the cool of the evening; this was
approached by means of a flight of solid mud steps. The corn was ground
and the bread baked in the courtyard, where also were kept the large
porous earthenware jars, like the modern _zîr_, containing the =supply
of water= which was brought to the house from the Nile each morning and
evening. The house and yard were enclosed by a strong mud wall, with one
door in it; in times of danger the cattle of the farm were driven from
the fields into the yard. A good model of this kind of house is exhibited
in Standard-case C, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Here are seen the master
sitting in the chamber on the wall, or roof, with a plate of food before
him, and the wife rolling the dough for the bread-cakes of the evening
meal. The =house of the peasant= labourer was a mere hut made of mud, the
roof of which was formed of layers of palm branches or straw. Small huts
were made of reeds or palm trees bound together with twigs, and perhaps
daubed with mud in the cold weather, and in the northern districts of
mud; in the summer a shelter of reed mats probably sufficed.
[Illustration: Egyptian hut.
About B.C. 4000.
[No. 293, Wall-case 108, Third Egyptian Room.]]
=Furniture.=—The Egyptians did not fill their houses with furniture like
Western Nations. Their =bedsteads= were made of wood, which usually came
from the Sûdân, and consisted of a strong rectangular framework, about
15 or 20 inches high, across which was stretched plaited palm fibre, or
rope; the _ankarîb_ of the Sûdân is the modern equivalent. The covering
of such beds was formed of thick padded linen sheets, and the =pillow=
was a support made of wood, or ivory, more or less ornamented, with a
curved top for the neck to fit into. (See Wall-cases Nos. 97, 98, in the
Third Egyptian Room.) =Carpets= were unknown, but plaited palm leaf or
straw mats took their place. =Chairs= (see Standard-case H in the Fourth
Egyptian Room) and =tables= were found in the houses of the wealthy, but
only low =stools= were known in poor abodes. (For examples of a painted
table, chairs inlaid with ivory and ebony, a couch-frame, stools, inlaid
box, etc., see Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) Men, women,
and children squatted or sat on the floor, or reclined upon mats, and in
later days upon cushions made of padded linen. In houses of moderate size
there was probably a raised mud bench, covered with mats in the receiving
or eating room, for the use of the male members of the house, or their
guests. There was also, probably, a raised mud bench built against the
_outside_ of one of the walls of the house for the use of friends who sat
there in the cool of the evening and for the men of the house to sleep on
during hot nights. Niches, or square cavities cut in the walls, served as
=cupboards=, and in one of these the =lamp= (see Wall-case No. 176 in the
Fourth Egyptian Room), usually made of earthenware, stood.
[Illustration: Ivory head-rest, or pillow, of Ḳua-ṭep.
XIIth dynasty.
[No. 69, Wall-case 98, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The stores of clothing, etc., were kept in a very small room provided
with a stout wooden door with a =bolt-lock= and =key= of simple pattern.
(For examples of bolts and keys, see Wall-cases Nos. 180, 181, in the
Fourth Egyptian Room.) The mistress of the house usually possessed a
small strong =box= in which she kept jewellery, ornaments, and amulets,
and perhaps also her toilet requisites; in some cases the latter were
kept in a special =toilet box=, which held =eye-paint= (stibium, or
antimony, koḥl), =comb=, =hair-tweezers=, =pumice-stone=, =unguents= and
=pomades=, both scented and plain. (See Standard-case L in the Fourth
Egyptian Room.) =Kitchen utensils= were comparatively few in number.
Fresh and sour milk (or curds), soft cheese, sheep-fat, etc., were kept
in earthenware pots, some of which were undoubtedly glazed; bowls made
of earthenware or gourds were common, as were large open saucers. The
=cooking pots= were usually of earthenware, or, among well-to-do people,
of metal. =Knives= made of flint, stone, or metal, were common, and rough
flesh =forks=; in the later period =spoons= were used. =Plates=, in the
modern sense of the word, were unknown; the thick bread-cake served as
a plate for those who squatted round the bowl of cooked vegetables with
pieces of meat on the top, and the thin flat cake was frequently used
as a napkin. A stone =corn-grinder= and a =kneading-stone= were found
in every house. The stock of grain for the family was kept in large
earthenware jars, or in a kind of bin made of mud. Every house contained
a =figure of the god= under whose protection the family lived, and to
this adoration was offered at regular intervals; it took part in the
family-councils, its lot was bound up with that of the family, and it
prevented wandering spirits of evil disposition from entering the house.
There being no =chimney= to the house, the =fire= was lit wherever it was
most convenient, and the smoke went out through the roof and the aperture
in the wall which served as a window. The =fuel= was animal dung, and
such refuse from the straw as could not be eaten by the cow or goat of
the house, and, occasionally, pieces of wood. As =matches= were unknown,
care was taken to keep a small amount of fuel smouldering under the
ashes, so that whenever it was necessary to boil lentils, etc., the fire
could be revived; if the fire was out, recourse was had to the striking
of =flints=, or to some neighbour, or to the temple fire. In primitive
times the Egyptians seem to have used a =fire-stick=, like some of the
tribes of Central Africa.
=Agriculture and Cattle-breeding.=—By far the larger part of the
population of Egypt and the Egyptian Sûdân has been for many thousands
of years past connected with the cultivation of the soil and the rearing
of cattle, and on the success of the =farmer= and the =cattle-breeder=
the prosperity of the whole country has always depended. In remote ages,
before the estuary of the Nile was filled up by the mud which came down
in flood-time from the mountains of Ethiopia and Nubia, and while still
the sea flowed up the Nile as far as Esna, the primitive Egyptians were
shepherds and herdsmen. The great cattle-breeding district was situated
in the neighbourhood of the country now called Dâr Fûr, or the “Home of
the Fûrs,” and even to the present day the exportation of the beautiful
cattle of the district forms a very important item of Sûdân trade.
The natives who lived by breeding cattle were called by the Egyptians
“Menti,” _i.e._, “=cattle-men=,” and their modern descendants are called
“Baḳḳârah,” which also means “cattle-men.” In all times they have been
a wild and lawless folk, ferocious, blood-thirsty, and cruel. The early
cattle-men worshipped the =bull=, and this animal played a prominent
part in later Egyptian mythology. Several kinds of bulls were worshipped
in Egypt: =Apis= at Memphis, =Mnevis= at Heliopolis, and =Bachis= at
Hermonthis, and one of the greatest of the titles of Osiris was “Bull of
Ȧmentet,” or “Bull of the Other World.” The =cow= also was worshipped
under the name of Hathor, and a flint cow-head in the British Museum
(Table-case M in the Third Egyptian Room) proves that her cult dates
from the latter part of the Neolithic Period. The paintings on the
walls of early tombs show that several kinds of cattle were known to
the Egyptians, and the inscriptions make it clear that the old feudal
lords and gentry of Egypt devoted much attention to cattle-breeding, and
that they made a regular trade of it. (See the models of cows in the
Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, No. 140, and the
wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian Room.) =Oxen= and
=cows= were fattened like the smaller animals and geese, and, before they
were turned out for the season into the deserts to browse upon the growth
which followed the rains, they were branded, or marked in some way with
their owner’s name.
[Illustration: The bull Ḥāp (Apis), with the triangular blaze on his
forehead, and the scarabs, etc., on his back.
[Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: The bull Mer-ur (Mnevis).
[Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]]
[Illustration: Flint Cow’s head.
[No. 86, Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]
The =camel= was certainly known in the Predynastic Period, for the head
of an earthenware figure of one was found at Abydos a few years ago;
but this animal cannot have been used for transport purposes, or bred
by the early Dynastic Egyptians, for otherwise we should find pictures
of him on the walls of the tombs. One of the earliest mentions of the
camel is contained in the “Travels of an Egyptian” (Brit. Mus. Papyrus
No. 10,247), where we find the Semitic word for camel under the form
_kamāȧl_ 𓎡𓄿𓅖𓇋𓄿𓏭𓂋𓏤𓄛. The camel plays no part in Egyptian mythology. The
commonest beast of burden was the =ass=, which was bred in large numbers,
and was employed like oxen for treading out the corn and for riding. One
of the desert caravans of Ḥer-Khuf, an old feudal lord of Elephantine
under the VIth dynasty, contained 300 asses. The ass was admired for his
strength, endurance, and virility, and he appears in Egyptian mythology
as a form of the Sun-god. =Sheep= and =goats= were always bred in large
numbers. The =horse= may have been known in Egypt in the XIIth dynasty,
but he was not bred there until the experience gained by the Egyptians
in their Asiatic campaigns showed them his value in military operations.
Horses must have been plentiful in Egypt under the XXIInd dynasty, “for
Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt,” and “a chariot came up and
went out of Egypt, for six hundred _shekels_ of silver, and an horse for
an hundred and fifty” (1 Kings x, 28, 29). Excellent representations of
horses are seen in the wall-painting in Standard-case D in the Third
Egyptian Room, and in the battle-scene of Rameses II on the South Wall of
the Fourth Egyptian Room, above the cases.
The =pig= is not often represented on the monuments, but a painting in
a tomb at Thebes shows that swine were used on farms for treading out
the corn. From a very early period the god of evil, Set, was believed
to have appeared in the form of a “black pig” 𓂋𓂋𓃟𓆎𓅓𓏜 when he smote the
Eye of Horus (_i.e._, the Sun). The gods then decreed that pigs should
be sacrificed to Horus, with bulls, sheep, and goats. In one form of the
Judgment Scene the pig is the emblem of evil, and also in the Book of the
Dead (see Chapters XXXVI and CXII). On the other hand, the =sow= was an
animal sacred to Isis, and small figures of sows were worn as amulets
attached to necklaces. (See the figures of sacred animals in Wall-case
No. 121 in the Third Egyptian Room.) Under the early dynasties a species
of =ram=, which became the symbol of the god Khnemu 𓁠, with flat horns
projecting at right angles from the sides of his head 𓃝, was common
in Nubia, but it appears to have died out before the end of the XIIth
dynasty. Another kind of ram apparently indigenous to Nubia, became the
symbol of the god Ȧmen of the Sûdân.
The principal instrument used in farming was the =plough= 𓍁, the share
of which was made of a piece of wood tied to a long pole; at the other
end of the pole was fixed a bar, which was made fast to the horns of the
cows which drew the plough. This primitive instrument was little more
than a stout stake tied to a pole which was drawn over the ground, and
made a very shallow furrow. The stiff Nile mud was further broken up by
the =hoe= 𓌸, of which examples may be seen in the Wall-case No. 102 in
the Third Egyptian Room (No. 281, etc.). As soon as the fields were ready
to receive the seed, the =sowing= took place, and when the seed had been
cast into the furrows it was trodden in by the animals on the farm being
driven over it. The sowing was done by hand, and no drill appears to have
been used. The fields were watered either by allowing the water to flow
from a large basin or reservoir on to them, or by machines which lifted
the water from the canal to their level, or from the Nile itself. The
commonest water-raising machine resembled the modern =shâdûf=, which was
worked by one or two men. Two stout stakes were driven firmly into the
ground at the edge of the stream, and between them was tied a long pole,
heavily weighted with a mass of mud or stone at one end. To the end of
the longer half of the pole a rope and a leather bucket were tied. The
labourer drew the pole down until the bucket entered the stream, and the
weight of the counterpoise at the other end helped him to raise the water
to the surface of the field, where he poured it into the channel leading
to the growing crop.
At the =harvest= the crops were cut with the small =sickle= 𓌳 (see
Table-case K in Third Egyptian Room, Nos. 1-4), which in primitive times
was made of flint or a series of flints set in a wooden frame [glyph
not in Unicode], and in later times of iron or bronze. The wheat or
barley was tied up into small bundles by the reapers, and carried to the
=threshing floor=, where the grain was trodden out by animals—donkeys,
swine, etc. The threshing floor, as we may see from the wall paintings
and pictures on papyri, was circular in form, and its edges were raised,
, thus preventing the animals, as they ran round and round in it, from
scattering the grain with their feet. The operations of ploughing,
reaping, and =treading out the corn= are well illustrated by the Vignette
No. 35, from the Ani Papyrus. (See Standard-case G in the Third Egyptian
Room.) When the grain had been trodden out, it was thrown up by hand
into heaps, the wind blowing away the chaff whilst it was in the air.
It was next carried in baskets, or bags, to the store or granary, which
was usually near the house. Here it was either piled up in heaps on
mud stands with raised edges 𓊚, or poured into large bins built in the
walls along a rectangular courtyard. (See the models of granaries in
Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room.)
=Trade.=—The trade of Egypt appears to have been chiefly in the hands
of the seafaring folk of the Delta, who probably worked the imports and
exports of the country in connection with the Semitic merchants who
traded in the seaports of Phoenicia and the Mediterranean generally.
The chief =export= of Egypt was =corn=, which was carried all over the
Mediterranean, and we know from Genesis xii, xli-xliii, that when grain
was scarce in other countries, the merchants were in the habit of going
to Egypt to supply their wants. At intervals, however, serious famines
came upon Egypt (Genesis xli, 55, 56), and when corn could not be
imported, the mortality among the people was very great. In the reign of
Ptolemy III (B.C. 247) there was a famine in Egypt, and the King expended
much gold in purchasing grain at a high price to save the lives of the
people of Egypt, and he caused corn to be brought to Egypt from Eastern
Syria, and Phoenicia, and Cyprus. Next in importance came the =linen= of
Egypt, which, in the form of byssus, was famous throughout Western Asia.
Under the XVIIIth dynasty considerable quantities of =gold= were exported
from Egypt to Northern Syria, Assyria and Babylonia. The gold came
from the Eastern Sûdân and Punt, where at that time (B.C. 1500) it was
produced in such large quantities that Tushratta writing to Ȧmen-ḥetep
III says: “Send me so much gold that it cannot be measured, more gold
than that thou didst send to my father; for in my brother’s land (_i.e._,
Egypt), gold is as common as dust”! (Tell al-Amarna tablet, No. 8.)
According to Diodorus (ed. Didot, p. 41) Rameses II received from his
gold and silver mines in one year metal to the value of 32,000,000 minas,
or £80,000,000 sterling. Another article of export was paper manufactured
from =papyrus=.
Among the =imports= may be mentioned =copper= and =tin= from Cyprus and
Northern Syria, =cedar= wood from the Lebanon Mountains, =lapis-lazuli
paste= from Babylonia, =myrrh= and =spices= for embalming, =skins=,
=cattle=, =ebony=, =ostrich feathers=, =bows=, =pillows=, =chairs=,
=couches=, =fans=, =mats=, =shields=, etc., from the Sûdân; and a number
of the products of India and Arabia must have found their way into Egypt
by means of the caravans which crossed the desert to some place near the
modern Suez or Ḳanṭarah, and some sea-borne goods entered Egypt by the
route from the Red Sea to the Nile, _viâ_ Ḳuṣêr and Ḳena. The importance
of Egypt as a trading centre, and as the natural market half-way between
the East and the West, was not fully recognized until the Ptolemaïc
Period, about B.C. 250. Business was carried on chiefly by =barter=, so
much wheat, barley, or millet being the value of a sheep, bull, cow, or
goat, linen, etc. The Egyptians used =weights= and =measures=, _e.g._,
the =royal cubit= of 7 palms or 28 fingers, the =little cubit= of 6 palms
or 24 fingers, the =palm= of 4 fingers, the =hand= of 5 fingers, the
=fist= of 6 fingers, and the =finger=; of =dry measure=, the =hen=, the
=ṭenȧt=, the =ȧpt=, etc.; of =weight=, the =ṭeben= (= 3⅕ ounces), the
=ḳeṭ= = ⅟₁₀th of a ṭeben, etc. The use of the =scales= was well known,
but there is no evidence that the steelyard was employed before the
Roman Period. =Stamped money= was unknown among the Egyptians, but they
appear to have used a =currency= which consisted of pieces of wire made
of copper, iron, or gold, and gold-dust. =Ring-money=, made of gold, is
represented in the painting on the south wall of the Fourth Egyptian
Room; and also the little bags containing gold dust. Ring-money in gold
is in use at the present day along the east coast of Africa, and in
certain parts of the Sûdân copper wire still possesses great purchasing
powers.
[Illustration: Jewellers drilling and polishing beads, etc.
XVIIIth dynasty.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 518.]]
=Handicrafts.=—The Egyptian of all periods was a skilled =potter=. In
the earliest times the potter’s wheel was unknown, and every vessel was
shaped by the potter’s hand or foot. Vessels of all sorts, shapes, and
sizes were made with great skill, and in later periods were decorated
with linear and other designs. The art of the potter throve until the
advent of the conquerors from Asia, when it began to languish; and in
a few centuries earthenware vessels were superseded by stone. Good
examples of Predynastic and Archaïc pottery will be found in the cases
on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, and of the pottery of the
later periods in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =Basket-weaver= wove rush
matting, plaited mats and sandals, and made ropes and baskets of all
kinds. Specimens of his work will be seen in Table-case A in the Third
Egyptian Room, and in Wall-cases 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
Owing to the abundance of flax in Egypt the trade of the =linen-weaver=
was in all periods most flourishing, and the “fine linen of Egypt” was
famous throughout Western Asia and the seaports of the Mediterranean.
A staff of linen weavers appears to have been attached to each temple,
and the sale of their work produced a large revenue; a portion was paid
to the king, and the rest was kept by the priests. The city of Ȧpu
(Panopolis, the modern Akhmîm) was one of the chief seats of the linen
industry, and to this day the dyed curtains of Akhmîm are used throughout
Egypt. The craft of the =jeweller= was very important, for, in addition
to the rings, bracelets, necklaces, pendants, earrings, etc., which he
made in gold and silver, he cut the =amulets= and ornaments in amethyst,
garnet, agate, onyx, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, mother-of-emerald,
lapis-lazuli, turquoise, rock-crystal, basalt, porphyry, haematite,
obsidian, coral, mother-of-pearl, etc. (See Table-cases F, J.) The finest
work of the jeweller belongs to the XIIth dynasty, and the workmen of
that period brought the art of =inlaying precious stones= and metals to a
very high pitch of perfection. Some think that the Egyptians understood
the art of =enamelling=, but authorities are not agreed on this point.
The =glass-maker’s= craft is a very old one in Egypt, and it is probable
that the Phoenicians borrowed it from that country. Fine specimens of it
in the British Museum are the turquoise-blue opaque glass jar of Thothmes
III (Table-case H, No. 50, Third Egyptian Room), a blue glass bowl, and a
variegated glass bowl from the tomb of Ȧmen-ḥetep II (Nos. 57, 59, in the
same case), and an opaque glass stibium pot with a gold rim (Wall-cases
182-187, No. 29). The =porcelain maker= produced the little figures,
amulets, bowls, vases, ushabtiu-figures, tiles, beads, pendants, etc.,
in the beautiful blue, green, purple, violet, and brown glazed ware to
which the name =Egyptian porcelain= is usually given. An exceedingly
fine collection of objects in this material is exhibited in Wall-cases
Nos. 151-156 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =leather worker= prepared
parchments for writing materials, and made the harness for horses and
trappings for chariots, soldiers’ belts (Table-case B, No. 193), sheaths
for daggers (No. 37), nets of fine meshes (Wall-case No. 187, Fourth
Egyptian Room), seats for chairs (No. 5 Standard-case L, same room), bags
in which barbers carried their razors, etc. (Wall-case No. 184, Fourth
Egyptian Room.) Examples of the tools of the =carpenter=, =blacksmith=
and =coppersmith=, =stonemason=, =house-painter= and =decorator=, etc.,
will be found in Table-case K and Wall-case 103 in the Third Egyptian
Room.
Of the =brickmaker’s= work specimens belonging to the reigns of
Ȧmen-ḥetep III, Thothmes I, Thothmes III, and Rameses II are exhibited
in Wall-case 175, Fourth Egyptian Room. Examples of the craft of the
=furniture maker= in the form of tables, chairs, stools, couches, toilet
boxes, altar-stands, etc., are seen in Standard-case L and Wall-case
No. 190 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The work of the =ivory carver=
went hand in hand with that of the carpenter as regards the inlaying of
chair frames, jewel-boxes, etc. (see Nos. 13 and 16 in Standard-case L).
Specimens of the highest form of his skill are seen in the chair-legs,
human figures, spoons, etc., in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room.
The =caster-in-metal= produced the splendid series of figures of the gods
in Wall-cases 119-132 and Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room; fine
examples are the =silver figure of Ȧmen-Rā= (No. 42), =gold figures= of
Thoth, Ptaḥ and Rā, (Nos. 21, 25, 26), and the gold figure of Osiris (No.
34). The =wood-carver= made the models of men, boats, animals, etc.,
which were placed in the tombs (see Wall-case Nos. 192, 193, Fourth
Egyptian Room), and =dolls= and =children’s toys= (see Standard-case C,
Fourth Egyptian Room). The =dyer= produced the salmon-coloured linen
coverings for mummies (see Case L, First Egyptian Room), the brown
mummy-swathings (see Wall-cases 93-96, Third Egyptian Room), and coloured
wearing apparel (see Table-case E, Third Egyptian Room), etc.
The =baker= and =confectioner= found constant employment in every town
and village in Egypt, for the Egyptians loved cakes made with honey,
and fruit of all kinds, and bread and buns made into fanciful shapes.
A great business was done in bread and pastry which were intended to
serve as funerary offerings. Specimens of the bread and the stands on
which the flat loaves were placed, will be found in Table-case H, Third
Egyptian Room. The terra-cotta =cones= 𓏙 which are exhibited in large
numbers in Wall-cases 110, 111, are supposed by some to represent the
loaves, of a pyramidal shape, seen in the hands of kings and others who
are represented offering to the gods. The =barber= also found constant
employment, for many had their whole heads and bodies shaved every
two or three days. He also dressed the hair of ladies on ceremonial
occasions, and made =wigs= (see the fine example in Wall-case H, Third
Egyptian Room). The barber often united to his trade the profession of
=physician=, just as was the case in Europe in the Middle Ages. The craft
of the =boat-builder= was very important in a country where a river was
the chief highway. Flat-bottomed boats and punts used in fishing in the
canals, or fowling on the marshes, were made of bundles of reeds, or
papyrus, tied together, like the modern _tôf_ in the Sûdân. Boats for
carrying merchandize on the river were made of planks of wood pegged
together, which were sometimes kept in position by being nailed on to
ribs, and others were merely tied round with ropes made of papyrus. One
of the earliest known pictures of an Egyptian boat is seen on vase No.
160, in Wall-case No. 5, on the landing of the North-West Staircase.
Models of funeral boats, and barges and war boats are exhibited on the
upper shelf of Wall-cases Nos. 99-110, in the Third Egyptian Room. The
Egyptians were skilful boat builders, and they made rafts capable of
carrying enormous blocks of stone, _e.g._, the obelisks which Queen
Ḥātshepset set up at Karnak. They had equivalents of the modern broad
ferry-boat, barge, lighter, etc., which they worked with oars or “sweeps”
and sails, or towed, when going upstream, and when there was no wind.