Conquests by the Word of God--The Diet of
Worms--Difficulties--Charles demands Luther--The Elector to
Charles--State of Men's minds--Aleander's Alarm--The Elector
sets out without Luther--Aleander awakens
Rome--Excommunication of the Pope, and Communion with
Christ--Fulmination of the Bull--Luther's motives in the
Reformation.
The Reformation, which commenced with the struggles of an humble soul
in the cell of a convent at Erfurt, had never ceased to advance. An
obscure individual, with the Word of life in his hand, had stood erect
in presence of worldly grandeur, and made it tremble. This Word he had
opposed, first, to Tezel and his numerous host, and these avaricious
merchants, after a momentary resistance, had taken flight. Next, he
had opposed it to the legate of Rome at Augsburg, and the legate,
paralysed, had allowed his prey to escape. At a later period he had
opposed it to the champions of learning in the halls of Leipsic, and
the astonished theologians had seen their syllogistic weapons broken
to pieces in their hands. At last he had opposed it to the pope, who,
disturbed in his sleep, had risen up upon his throne, and thundered at
the troublesome monk; but the whole power of the head of Christendom
this Word had paralysed. The Word had still a last struggle to
maintain. It behoved to triumph over the emperor of the West, over the
kings and princes of the earth, and then, victorious over all the
powers of the world, take its place in the Church to reign in it as
the pure Word of God.
[Sidenote: THE DIET OF WORMS.]
The whole kingdom was agitated. Princes and nobles, knights and
citizens, clergy and laity, town and country, all were engrossed. A
mighty religious revolution, of which God himself was the prime mover,
but which was also deeply rooted in the minds of the people, was
threatening to overthrow the long venerated head of the Roman
hierarchy. A new generation, of a grave, profound, active, and
energetic spirit, filled the universities, towns, courts, and castles,
the rural districts, and not unfrequently cloisters also. The feeling
that a great social transformation was at hand animated all minds with
holy enthusiasm. In what relation will the new emperor stand to this
movement of the age, and what will be the issue of the mighty impulse,
by which all feel that they are borne along?
A solemn Diet was about to be opened. It was the first imperial
assembly over which the youthful Charles was to preside. Nuremberg,
where, in virtue of the Golden Bull, it ought to have been held, being
desolated by the plague, it had been summoned to meet at Worms, on the
6th of January, 1521.[376] Never had a Diet been attended by so many
princes. All desired to be present at this first act of the government
of the young emperor, and to make a display of their power. Among
others, the young Landgrave, Philip of Hesse, who was afterwards to
play so important a part in the Reformation, arrived at Worms in the
middle of January, with six hundred cavaliers, among them men of
renowned valour.
[376] Sleidan, vol. i, p. 80.
But there was a still more powerful motive which induced the electors,
dukes, archbishops, landgraves, margraves, bishops, barons, and lords
of the empire; as well as the deputies of towns, and the ambassadors
of the kings of Christendom, at this moment, to throng the roads
leading to Worms with their brilliant equipages. It had been announced
that the Diet would be occupied with the nomination of a council of
regency to govern the empire during the absence of Charles, with the
jurisdiction of the imperial chamber, and other important questions.
But the public attention was particularly directed to another matter,
which the emperor had also mentioned in his letter convening the Diet,
viz., the Reformation. The great interests of politics trembled before
the cause of the Monk of Wittemberg. This cause was the principal
subject of conversation among all personages who arrived at Worms.
[Sidenote: CHARLES DEMANDS LUTHER.]
Every thing announced that the Diet would be difficult and stormy.
Charles, scarcely twenty years of age, pale and sickly, yet as skilful
as any one in the graceful management of his horse and in breaking a
lance, of a character imperfectly developed, and with a grave and
melancholy but still benevolent expression of countenance, gave no
proof as yet of distinguished talent, and seemed not to have adopted a
decided course. The able and active William of Croi, Lord of Chievres,
who was his grand chamberlain, his governor, and prime minister, and
possessed absolute authority at the court, died at Worms. Numerous
ambitious projects were competing with each other. Many passions were
in collision. The Spaniards and Belgians were eager to insinuate
themselves into the counsels of the young prince. The nuncios
multiplied their intrigues, while the princes of Germany spoke out
boldly. A struggle might have been foreseen, yet a struggle in which
the principal part would be performed by the secret movements of
factions.[377]
[377] Es gieng aber auf diesem Reichstag gar schlüpferig zu...
Seckend. p. 326.
Charles opened the Diet on the 28th of January, 1521, being the
festival of Charlemagne. He had a high idea of the importance of the
imperial dignity. In his opening address he said, that no monarchy
could be compared to the Roman empire, to which of old almost the
whole world had been subject; that, unhappily, the empire was now only
the shadow of what it had been; but that he hoped, by means of his
kingdoms and powerful alliances, to re-establish it in its ancient
glory.
But numerous difficulties immediately presented themselves to the
young emperor. How will he act, placed, as he is, between the papal
nuncio and the Elector to whom he owes his crown? How can he avoid
dissatisfying Aleander or Frederick? The former urged the emperor to
execute the papal bull, and the latter begged him to undertake nothing
against the monk without giving him a hearing. Wishing to please these
two opposite parties, the young prince, during a sojourn at Oppenherm,
had written to the Elector to bring Luther to the Diet, assuring him
that no injustice would be done him, that he would meet with no
violence, and that learned men would confer with him.
This letter of Charles, accompanied by letters from Chievres and the
Count of Nassau, threw the Elector into great perplexity. An alliance
with the pope might at any instant become necessary to the young and
ambitious emperor, and in that case it was all over with Luther.
Frederick, by taking the Reformer to Worms, was perhaps taking him to
the scaffold; and yet the orders of Charles were express. The Elector
ordered Spalatin to acquaint Luther with the letters which he had
received. "The enemy," said the chaplain to him, "is putting every
thing in operation to hasten on the affair."[378]
[378] Adversarios omnia moliri ad maturandum id negotii. (L. Ep. i, p.
534.)
[Sidenote: THE ELECTOR'S LETTER TO CHARLES V.]
Luther's friends trembled, but he trembled not. He was then in very
feeble health; no matter. "If I cannot go to Worms in health," replied
he to the Elector, "I will make myself be carried; since the emperor
calls me, I cannot doubt but it is a call from God himself. If they
mean to employ violence against me, as is probable, (for assuredly it
is not with a view to their own instruction that they make me
appear,) I leave the matter in the hands of the Lord. He who preserved
the three young men in the furnace, still lives and reigns. If He is
not pleased to save me, my life is but a small matter; only let us not
allow the gospel to be exposed to the derision of the wicked, and let
us shed our blood for it sooner than permit them to triumph. Whether
would my life or my death contribute most to the general safety? It is
not for us to decide. Let us only pray to God that our young emperor
may not commence his reign with dipping his hands in my blood; I would
far rather perish by the sword of the Romans. You know what judgments
befel the emperor Sigismund after the murder of John Huss. Expect
every thing of me--save flight and recantation;[379] I cannot fly,
still less can I recant."
[379] Omnia de me præsumas præter fugam et palinodiam.... (L. Ep. i,
p. 536.)
Before receiving this letter from Luther, the Elector had taken his
resolution. As he was advancing in the knowledge of the gospel, he
began to be more decided in his measures. Seeing that the conference
of Worms could not have a happy result, he wrote to the emperor. "It
seems to me difficult to bring Luther with me to Worms; relieve me
from the task. Besides, I have never wished to take his doctrine under
my protection, but only to prevent him from being condemned without a
hearing. The Legates without waiting for your orders, have proceeded
to take a step insulting both to Luther and to me, and I much fear,
that in this way they have hurried him on to an imprudent act which
might expose him to great danger were he to appear at the Diet." The
Elector alluded to the pile which had consumed the Papal bull.
But the rumour of Luther's journey to Worms had already spread. Men
eager for novelty rejoiced at it. The emperor's courtiers were
alarmed, but no one felt so indignant as the papal legate. Aleander on
his journey had seen how deep an impression the gospel which Luther
preached had made on all classes of society. Literary men, lawyers,
nobles, the lower clergy, the regular orders, and the people, were
gained to the Reformation.[380] These friends of the new doctrine
carried their heads erect, and were bold in their language, while fear
and terror froze the partizans of Rome. The papacy still stood, but
its props were shaking. A noise of devastation was already heard,
somewhat resembling the creaking which takes place at the time when a
mountain begins to slip.[381]
[380] Multitudo..turba paperum, nobilium...grammatici
causidici...inferiores ecclesiastici..factio multorum regularium...
(Pallavicini, i, p. 93.)
[381] Hæ omnes conditiones petulanter grassantium..metum cuilibet
incutiebant... (Ibid., p. 93.)
[Sidenote: ALEANDER'S ALARM.]
Aleander, during his journey to Worms, was sadly annoyed. When he had
to dine or sleep, neither literary men nor nobles nor priests, even
among the supposed friends of the pope, durst receive him, and the
proud nuncio was obliged to seek an asylum in taverns of the lowest
class.[382] He was thus in terror, and had no doubt that his life was
in great danger. In this way he arrived at Worms; and, thenceforth, to
his Roman fanaticism was added resentment for the personal injuries
which he had received. He immediately put every means in operation to
prevent the audacious compearance of the redoubtable Luther. "Would it
not be scandalous," said he, "to see laics re-investigating a cause
which the pope had already condemned?" Nothing alarms a Roman courtier
so much as an investigation; and, moreover, an investigation to take
place in Germany, and not at Rome. How humiliating even should
Luther's condemnation be unanimously decided! And it was not even
certain that such would be the result. Will not the powerful word of
Luther, which has already done such havoc, involve many princes and
nobles in inevitable ruin? Aleander, when before Charles, insisted,
implored, threatened, and spoke out as nuncio of the head of the
Church.[383] Charles yielded; and wrote to the Elector that the time
granted to Luther having already elapsed, the monk was under papal
excommunication; and that therefore unless he were willing to retract
his writings, Frederick must leave him at Wittemberg. Frederick had
already quitted Saxony without Luther. "I pray the Lord to be
favourable to our Elector," were the words of Melancthon on seeing him
depart; "on him our hopes of the restoration of Christendom repose.
His enemies dare every thing, και παντα λιθον
κινησομενους;[384] but God will bring to nought the counsel of
Ahithophel. As for us, let us do our part in the combat by our lessons
and our prayers." Luther was deeply grieved at being prohibited to
appear at Worms.[385]
[382] Neminem nactus qui auderet ipsum excipere ad vilia sordidaque
hospitia ægre divertit. (Pallavicini, i, p. 93.)
[383] Legati Romani nolunt ut audiatur homo hæreticus. Minantur multa.
(Zw. Ep. p. 157.)
[384] There is not a stone which they will not move. (Corp. Ref., i,
p. 279. 24th Jan.)
[385] Cum dolore legi novissimas Caroli litteras. (L. Ep. i, p. 542.)
Aleander did not consider it enough that Luther should not come to
Worms--he wished him to be condemned. Returning incessantly to the
charge before the princes, prelates, and different members of the
Diet, he accused the Augustin monk not only of disobedience and
heresy, but also of sedition, rebellion, impiety, and blasphemy. The
very accent in which he spoke betrayed the passions by which he was
actuated; so that men exclaimed, it is hatred and love of vengeance,
rather than zeal and piety, that excite him.[386] However frequent,
however vehement his discourses were, he made no converts.[387]
[386] Magis invidiâ et vindictæ libidine quam zelo pietatis. (Historia
Johnnis Cochlœi de actis et scriptis Martini Lutheri. _Parisus_,
1565, p. 27, verso. Cochlœus was all his life one of Luther's
greatest enemies. We will soon see him appear.)
[387] Vehementibus suis orationibus parum promovit. (Ibid.)
[Sidenote: ALEANDER AWAKENS ROME.]
Some pointed out to him that the papal bull had condemned Luther only
conditionally; others did not altogether conceal the joy which they
felt at seeing Roman pride humbled. The ministers of the emperor, on
the one hand, and the ecclesiastical electors, on the other, affected
great coldness--the former to make the pope more sensible how
necessary it was for him to league with their master, the latter in
order to induce him to pay better for their favour. A conviction of
Luther's innocence prevailed in the assembly, and Aleander could not
restrain his indignation.
But the coldness of the Diet did not try the patience of the legate so
much as the coldness of Rome. Rome, which had so long refused to take
a serious view of the quarrel of the drunk German, had no idea that a
bull of the sovereign pontiff could prove insufficient to make him
humble and submissive. She had accordingly resumed her wonted
security,[388] no longer sending either bull or purses of money. But
how was it possible without money to succeed in such a business?[389]
Rome must be awakened, and Aleander gives the alarm. Writing to the
Cardinal de Medicis, he says, "Germany is detaching herself from Rome,
and the princes are detaching themselves from the pope. A few delays
more--a few more attempts at compromise and the matter is past hope.
Money! money! or Germany is lost."[390]
[388] Negligens quædam securitas Romam pervaserat. (Pallavicini, i, p.
94.)
[389] Nec pecunia ad varios pro eadem sumptus. (Ibid.)
[390] "Periculum denique amittendæ Germaniæ ex parcimonia monetæ
cujusdam." (Ibid.) In fine, the danger of losing Germany from
niggardliness in withholding a sum of money.
At this cry Rome awakes: the servants of the papacy, laying aside
their torpor, hastily forge their dreaded thunder at the Vatican. The
pope issues a new bull;[391] and the excommunication with which till
then the heretical doctor had been merely threatened, is in distinct
terms pronounced against him and all his adherents. Rome herself,
breaking the last thread which still attached him to her church, gave
Luther greater freedom, and thereby greater power. Thundered at by the
pope, he, with new affection, took refuge in Christ. Driven from the
external temple, he felt more strongly that he was himself a temple
inhabited by God.
[391] Decet Romanum Pontificem, etc. (Roman. Bullarium.)
[Sidenote: EXCOMMUNICATION BY THE POPE. COMMUNION WITH CHRIST.]
"It is a glorious thing," said he, "that we sinners, in believing on
Jesus Christ, and eating his flesh, have him within us with all his
strength, power, wisdom and justice, according as it is written, '_He
who believeth in me, dwelleth in me and I in him._' Admirable
dwelling! marvellous tabernacle! far superior to that of Moses, and
all magnificently adorned within with superb tapestry, veils of
purple, and furniture of gold, while without, as on the tabernacle
which God ordered to be constructed in the wilderness of Sinai, is
seen only a rough covering of beavers' skins or goats' hair.[392]
Christians often stumble, and in external appearance are all
feebleness and disgrace. But no matter: within this infirmity and
folly dwells secretly a power which the world cannot know, but which
overcomes the world; for Christ remaineth in them. I have sometimes
seen Christians walking with a halt, and in great weakness; but when
the hour of combat or appearance at the world's bar arrived, Christ of
a sudden acted within them, and they became so strong and resolute
that the devil in dismay fled before them."[393]
[392] Exodus, xxvi, 7, 14.
[393] So regete sich der Christus, dass sie so fest wurden dass der
Teufel fliechen musste. (L. Op. ix, p. 613, on John, vi.)
In regard to Luther, such an hour was about to peal, and Christ, in
whose communion he dwelt, was not to forsake him. Meanwhile Rome
naturally rejected him. The Reformer, and all his partisans, whatever
their rank and power, were anathematised, and deprived personally, as
well as in their descendants, of all their dignities and effects.
Every faithful Christian as he loved his soul's salvation was ordered
to shun the sight of the accursed crew. Wherever heresy had been
introduced, the priests were, on Sundays and festivals, at the hour
when the churches were best filled, solemnly to publish the
excommunication. They were to carry away the vessels and ornaments of
the altar, and lay the cross upon the ground; twelve priests, with
torches in their hands, were to kindle them and dash them down with
violence, and extinguish them by trampling them with their feet; then
the bishop was to publish the condemnation of the impious men; all the
bells were to be rung; the bishops and priests were to pronounce
anathemas and maledictions, and preach forcibly against Luther and his
adherents.
[Sidenote: LUTHER'S MOTIVES IN THE REFORMATION.]
Twenty-two days had elapsed since the excommunication had been
published at Rome, and it was perhaps not yet known in Germany, when
Luther, learning that there was again some talk of calling him to
Worms, addressed the Elector in a letter written in such terms that
Frederick might communicate it to the Diet. Luther wished to correct
the erroneous impression of the princes, and frankly explain to this
august tribunal the true nature of a cause which was so much
misapprehended. "I rejoice with all my heart, most serene lord," said
he, "that his imperial majesty means to bring this affair under
consideration. I call Jesus Christ to witness that it is the cause of
Germany, of the Catholic Church, of the Christian world, and of God
himself, ... and not of any single man, and more especially such a man
as I.[394] I am ready to repair to Worms, provided I have a
safe-conduct, and learned, pious, and impartial judges. I am ready to
answer, ... for it is not in a spirit of rashness, or with a view to
personal advantage, that I have taught the doctrine with which I am
reproached; I have done it in obedience to my conscience, and to the
oath which, as doctor, I took to the Holy Scriptures; I have done it
for the glory of God, the safety of the Christian Church, the good of
the German nation, and the extirpation of many superstitions, abuses,
and evils, disgrace, tyranny, blasphemy, and impiety."
[394] "Causam, quæ, Christo teste, Dei, Christiani orbis, Ecclesiæ
Catholicæ, et totius Germanicæ Nationis, et non unius, et privati est
hominis" .... (L. Ep. i, p. 551.)
This declaration, in the solemn circumstances in which Luther made it,
is deserving of our attention. We here see the motives which
influenced him, and the primary causes which led to the renovation of
Christian society. These were something more than monkish jealousy or
a wish to marry.