Between these first merely tentative and inconclusive visits of Columbus
to Cuba, in which so much was imagined and so little learned or done,
and the actual occupation and settlement of the island, which were
reserved for a few years later, it will be profitable to pause for a
brief space, to review what science has revealed to us of not merely the
pre-Columbian but indeed what we may term the archaic history of this
chief member of the Antillean group. It is a history written in the
rocks and soils, in the mountains and plains and rivers; in brief, the
natural history of the island.
This was something at which Columbus could merely have guessed, if
indeed he had taken the trouble to think of it at all. He knew only that
it was a fair land to look upon and promised to be a pleasant land in
which to dwell; and his successors in the quest hoped to find its river
beds and its mountain rocks rich with the gold which they coveted. That
was all. It remained for the ampler knowledge and the more patient and
painstaking research of later years to analyze the structure of the
island, to discern the causes and the processes through which it had
been developed into its present beautiful and opulent condition, and to
learn that on the surface and just below the surface of its almost
infinitely variegated face there lay the potency and the promise of
wealth beyond the utmost limits of the dreams of those conquistadors of
ancient Spain who were oestrus-driven by the _auri sacra fames_.
Let us consider, then, the geological history of Cuba, so far as it has
been ascertained; and the topography of the land as it has been revealed
through a far more comprehensive survey than that of the Great Admiral's
enraptured vision.
It is, of course, impossible to know the geological history of a country
until its paleontology has been thoroughly studied and investigated.
Where formations of different geological ages are lithologically so
similar as to be often indistinguishable, the only method of
differentiating them is by their fossils. Some paleontological work has
been done in Cuba, but the specimens collected were not accompanied by
the necessary data.
In the present imperfect state of our knowledge of the stratigraphy and
areal geology of the island, it would be hazardous to attempt to
indicate the times at which the various levels were developed, or to
designate the periods during which they remained above the level of the
sea. To do this would require a detailed knowledge of nearly all the
various phases of its geology.
The oldest rocks in Cuba, with the possible exception of the schistose
limestones of Trinidad, are composed of granites and serpentines. The
relative age of these rocks, to the central mass of limestones in the
province of Pinar del Rio, has not been determined, but we do know that
the oldest igneous rocks were themselves folded, faulted and subjected
to other processes of metamorphism, and that subsequent to the changes
to which they were subjected, the entire region was uplifted and deeply
eroded before the cretaceous sedimentation began. No data are available
for determining the geologic period at which the pre-cretaceous erosion
began, but the region has doubtless been standing above the waters of
the ocean for a very long interval, since the amount of rock carried
away has been manifestly great.
The surface upon which the cretaceous sediments were deposited, appears
to have been reduced by erosion to a very low relief, so that the land
was a featureless plain when the cretaceous subsidence began. The time
interval required for the accomplishment of this erosion must have been
very long, since when it began the region was undoubtedly mountainous.
The complex character and disturbed altitude of the pre-cretaceous
rocks, the granites, diorites and other granular rocks which appear on
the surface because of this erosion, were originally formed deep within
the crust of the earth, and therefore furnish a reason for believing
that this period of erosion was exceedingly long.
It has been suggested that during the Jurassic times, the southeastern
coast of the United States was connected by a long isthmus, following
the line of the Antilles, to the northeastern coast of South America.
The data presented would seem to indicate that at least the eastern half
of Cuba stood high above the level during this period of the earth's
history, and although data concerning the western half are less
definite, it too was probably composed of high land masses.
The elevation, and long period of erosion just described, were followed
by subsidence, and on the surface of these old rocks the cretaceous
formations were deposited. The lowest cretaceous rocks yet found are
composed of an arkose, derived in large part from the original igneous
mass. The main body of the strata is composed of limestones, and such
fossils as they contain belong to the genera similar to those of the
cretaceous rocks of Jamaica--Radiolites, Barrettra, Requienia, etc.
During this time the whole of the Island of Cuba was probably submerged
below the level of the sea. The cretaceous rocks in Santa Clara province
occur in the bottoms of synclines, and the projected dips appear
sufficiently to carry the beds over the tops of the dividing anti-clinal
axis. It is believed, however, that the depth of the cretaceous sea over
the island was probably never very great.
Owing to a lack of paleontological data, the history of the island
during the Eocene time is vague, but it is probable that a large part of
it was submerged. This is certainly true of the province of Oriente,
where Eocene fossils have been collected. During, and possibly previous
to that period, volcanic agencies were active in Oriente, since volcanic
rocks are found interbedded with sediments of the Eocene age. The same
forces were probably active in other sections of the island, and the
intrusion of Diorite porphyries in Santa Clara and other provinces
probably took place during that period.
A portion of the island, at least in the vicinity of Baracoa, was deeply
submerged during the lower Oligocene times, as is proved by the
occurrence of radiolarian earth beneath the upper oligocene limestones
near the above town. Radiolarian oozes are at present being formed on
the sea bottom at depths of between 2,000 and 4,000 fathoms. This, of
course, does not prove that the deposits of Baracoa were laid down at so
great a depth as present day dredging would indicate, but we can at
least feel confident that they were formed in very deep water. This does
not imply however that the whole island was sunken to the abysmal
depths.
During the upper Oligocene time very nearly the whole island was
undoubtedly submerged. Previous to this volcanic agencies had been very
active throughout the larger portion of the island. Mountain building in
Oriente had begun before the deposition of upper Oligocene strata, and
the Sierra Maestra had already been elevated to a considerable height
above the sea. It is probable that the sea at this time covered the
whole of the island, with the exception of portions of Oriente province
along its north and south coast, and occasional high peaks along the
axis of the provinces further west.
The Miocene period was one of general uplift. The whole of the island as
we at present know it, was above the level of the ocean's waters. There
were foldings and uplifts during this period, and volcanic elevation
along the axial line being greater than at the sides. It is probable
that the folding of the Oligocene strata noted in the vicinity of Havana
and Matanzas took place during this time. It may be inferred that the
central portion of the province of Oriente was more highly elevated than
the coastal portions, since upper Oligocene limestones occur in this
section at considerably higher elevations than along either the north or
south coast.
It is furthermore very probable that the terracing of the Oligocene
coral reefs, such as may be seen in the vicinity of the city of
Santiago, was taking place during that time. All the evidence goes to
show that these are wave-cut terraces. It may be added here that all of
the elevated Pleistocene coral reefs recorded are plastered on the
surface of the upper Oligocene formations, or in some instances older
geologic rocks. This applies to every later coral terrace that has been
described, beginning with Cabanas and extending entirely around the
island to the City of Santiago.
The existence of marine Pliocene in Cuba has not been proved. There may
be pliocene rocks in the vicinity of Havana some 60 feet above the sea
level. If these are true Pliocene, it would indicate a subsidence during
that time of from ISO to 180 feet. The character of the fauna found in
the quarry on Calle Infanta does not indicate a greater depth than from
SO to 70 feet for the water in which the limestone was deposited.
Subsequent to this deposition, there was an elevation which caused the
land to stand some forty or fifty feet higher than it does to-day. This
probably took place in early Pleistocene times, at which time the Isle
of Pines and Cuba were connected. One reason for the belief in this
elevation is the existence of an old, deep and comparatively narrow cut
in the bed of the present channel leading out of Havana harbor. There is
further evidence of a general elevation found in borings for water,
three miles southeast of the city of Santiago.
At a depth of some 70 feet below the sea level, in the Rio San Juan
Valley, stream-carried pebbles were found. This would indicate that the
bottom of this valley once stood at least 70 feet or more above sea
level. Subsequent to this elevation, there was a subsidence varying from
40 to 70 feet. There were doubtless other slight oscillations during
the Pleistocene period, and these may be going on at the present time,
although we have no evidence from records of actually measured monuments
established since the Spanish occupation of the island.
Paleontologic, biologic and physiographic research seems to indicate
that there has been no land connection between Cuba and North America at
any time since the beginning of the Tertiary, unless perhaps during the
Oligocene period, and it seems probable there was no connection whatever
during cretaceous times.
Cuba furnishes a very interesting field, not only for geologic research,
but for a far more extended study and survey of its many important
mineral zones both for scientific and for economic reasons.
Topographically the surface of Cuba may be divided into five rather
distinct zones, three of which are essentially mountainous. The first
includes the entire eastern third of the province of Oriente, together
with the greater part of its coast line, where the highest mountains of
the island are found. The second includes the greater part of the
province of Camaguey, made up of gently rolling plains broken by
occasional hills or low mountains, that along the northern coast, and
again in the southeast center of the province, rise to a height of
approximately 1,500 feet above the general level.
The next is a mountainous district including the greater part of eastern
Santa Clara. The fourth comprises the western portion of this province
together with all of Matanzas and Havana. The surface of this middle
section is largely made up of rolling plains, broken here and there by
hills that rise a few hundred feet above the sea level.
The fifth includes the province of Pinar del Rio, the northern half of
which is traversed from one end to the other by several more or less
parallel ranges of sierras, with mean altitudes ranging from 1,000 to
2,000 feet, leaving the southern half of the province a flat plain,
into which, along its northern edge, project spurs and foot hills of
the main range.
The highest mountains of Cuba are located in the province of Oriente,
where their general elevation is somewhat higher than that of the
Allegheny or eastern ranges of the United States. The mountainous area
of this province is greater than that of the combined mountain areas of
all other parts of the island. The mountains occur in groups, composed
of different kinds of rock, and have diverse structures, more or less
connected with one another.
The principal range is the Sierra Maestra, extending from Cabo Cruz to
the Bay of Guantanamo, forty miles east of Santiago. This chain is
continuous and of fairly uniform altitude, with the exception of a break
in the vicinity of Santiago where the wide basin of Santiago Bay cuts
across the main trend of the range. The highest peak of the island is
known as Turquino, located near the middle of the Sierra Maestra, and
reaching an altitude of 8,642 feet.
The hills back of Santiago Bay, separating it from the Valley of the
Cauto, are similar in structure to the northern foothills of the main
sierra. In the western part of the range, the mountains rise abruptly
from the depths of the Caribbean Sea, but near the City of Santiago, and
to the eastward, they are separated from the ocean by a narrow coastal
plain, very much dissected. The streams which traverse it occupy valleys
several hundred feet in depth, while the remnants of the plateau appear
in the tops of the hills.
East of Guantanamo Bay there are mountains which are structurally
distinct from the Sierra Maestra, and these continue to Cape Maysi, the
eastern terminus of Cuba. To the west they rise abruptly from the ocean
bed, but further east they are bordered by terraced foothills. Towards
the north they continue straight across the island as features of bold
relief, connecting with the rugged Cuchillas of Baracoa, and with "El
Yunque" lying to the southwest.
Extending west from this eastern mass are high plateaus and mesas that
form the northern side of the great amphitheatre which drains into
Guantanamo Bay. Much of this section, when raised from the sea, was
probably a great elevated plain, cut up and eroded through the ages
since the seismic uplift that caused its birth.
The most prominent feature of the northern mountains of Oriente
Province, west of "El Yunque," is the range comprising the Sierras
Cristal and Nipe. These extend east and west, but are separated into
several distinct masses by the Rio Sagua, and the Rio Mayari, which
break through and empty into harbors on the north coast. The high
country south of these ranges has the character of a deeply dissected
plateau, the upper stratum of which is limestone.
The character of the surface would indicate that nearly all the
mountains of the eastern part of Oriente have been carved through
erosion of centuries from a high plateau, the summits of which are found
in "El Yunque" near Baracoa, and other flat topped mountains within the
drainage basins of the Mayari and the Sagua rivers. The flat summits of
the Sierra Nipe are probably remnants of the same great uplift.
Below this level are other benches or broad plateaus, the two most
prominent occurring respectively at 1,500 and 2,000 feet above sea
level. The highest summits rise to an altitude of 2,800 or 3,000 feet.
The 2,000 foot plateau of the Sierra Nipe alone includes an area
estimated at not less than 40 square miles. It would seem that these
elevated plateaus with their rich soils might be utilized for the
production of wheat, and some of the northern fruits that require a
cooler temperature than that found in other parts of Cuba.
In the province of Oriente, the various mountain groups form two
marginal ranges, which merge in the east, and diverge toward the west.
The southern range is far more continuous, while the northern is
composed of irregular groups separated by numerous river valleys.
Between these divergent ranges lies the broad undulating plain of the
famous Cauto Valley, which increases in width as it extends westward.
The northern half of this valley merges into the plains of Camaguey,
whose surface has been disturbed by volcanic uplifts only by a small
group known as the Najassa Hills, in the southeast center of the
province, and by the Sierra Cubitas Range, which parallels the coast
from the basin of Nuevitas Bay until it terminates in the isolated hill
known as Loma Cunagua.
The central mountainous region of the island is located in the province
of Santa Clara, where a belt of mountains and hills following
approximately northeast and southwest lines, passes through the cities
of Sancti Spiritus and Santa Clara. Four groups are found here, one of
which lies southwest of Sancti Spiritus and east of the Rio Agabama. A
second group is included between the valleys of the Agabama and the Rio
Arimao.
The highest peak of Santa Clara is known as Potrerillo, located seven
miles north of Trinidad, with an altitude of 2,900 feet. A third group
lies southeast of the city of Santa Clara, and includes the Sierra del
Escambray and the Alta de Agabama. The rounded hills of this region have
an altitude of about 1,000 feet although a few of the summits are
somewhat higher.
The fourth group consists of a line of hills, beginning 25 miles east of
Sagua la Grande, and extending into the province of Camaguey. The trend
of this range is transverse with the general geological structure of the
region.
East of the city of Santa Clara the hills of this last group merge with
those of the central portion of the province. The summits in the
northern line reach an altitude of only a thousand feet. The principal
members are known as the Sierra Morena, west of Sagua la Grande, Lomas
de Santa Fe, near Camaguini, the Sierra de Bamburanao, near Yaguajay,
and the Lomas of the Savanas, south of the last mentioned town.
In the province of Pinar del Rio, we find another system, or chain of
mountains, dominated by the Sierra de los Organos or Organ mountains.
These begin a little west of Guardiana Bay, with a chain of "magotes"
known as the "Pena Blanca," composed of tertiary limestone. These are
the result of a seismic upheaval running from north to south, almost at
right angles with the main axis of the chains that form the mountainous
vertebrae of the island.
Between the city of Pinar del Rio and the north coast of La Esperanza,
the Organos are broken up into four or five parallel ridges, two of
which are composed of limestone, while the others are of slate,
sandstones and schists. The term "magote," in Cuba, is applied to one of
the most interesting and strikingly beautiful mountain formations in the
world. They are evidently remnants of high ranges running usually from
east to west, and have resulted from the upheaval of tertiary strata
that dates back probably to the Jurassic period.
The soft white material of this limestone, through countless eons of
time, has been hammered by tropical rains that gradually washed away the
surface and carved their once ragged peaks into peculiar, round,
dome-shaped elevations that often rise perpendicularly to a height of
1,000 feet or more above the level grass plains that form their base.
Meanwhile the continual seepage of water formed great caverns within,
that sooner or later caved in and fell, hastening thus the gradual
leveling to which all mountains are doomed as long as the world is
supplied with air and water. The softening and continual crumbling away
of the rock have formed a rich soil on which grows a wonderful wealth of
tropical vegetation, unlike anything known to other sections of Cuba, or
perhaps to the world.
The valley of the Vinales, lying between the city of Pinar del Rio and
the north coast, might well be called the garden of the "magotes," since
not only is it surrounded by their precipitous walls, but several of
them, detached from the main chain, rise abruptly from the floor of the
valley, converting it into one of the most strangely beautiful spots in
the world.
John D. Henderson, the naturalist, in speaking of this region, says:
"The valley of the Vinales must not be compared with the Yosemite or
Grand Canyon, or some famed Alpine passage, for it cannot display the
astounding contrast of these, or of many well-known valleys among the
higher mountains of the world. We were all of us traveled men who viewed
this panorama, but all agreed that never before had we gazed on so
charming a sight. There are recesses among the Rocky Mountains of Canada
into which one gazes with awe and bated breath, where the very silence
oppresses, and the beholder instinctively reaches out for support to
guard against slipping into the awful chasm below. But the Valley of
Vinales, on the contrary, seems to soothe and lull the senses. Like
great birds suspended in the sky, we long to soar above it, and then
alighting within some palm grove, far below, to rejoice in its
atmosphere of perfect peace."
A mountain maze of high, round-topped lomas, dominates almost the entire
northern half of Pinar del Rio. It is the picturesque remnant of an
elevated plain that at some time in the geological life of the island
was raised above the surface 1,500, perhaps 2,000, feet. This, through
the erosion of thousands of centuries, has been carved into great land
surges, without any particular alignment or system.
Straight up through the center of this mountainous area are projected a
series of more or less parallel limestone ridges. These, as a rule, have
an east and west axis, and attain a greater elevation than the lomas.
They are known as the Sierras de los Organos, although having many local
names at different points. Water and atmospheric agencies have carved
them into most fantastic shapes, so that they do, in places, present an
organ pipe appearance. They are almost always steep, often with
vertical walls or "paradones" that rise 1,000 feet from the floor or
base on which they rest.
The northernmost range, running parallel to the Gulf Coast, is known as
the "Costanero." The highest peak of Pinar del Rio is called Guajaibon,
which rises to an altitude of 3,000 feet, with its base but very little
above the level of the sea. It is probably of Jurassic limestone and
forms the eastern outpost of the Costaneros.
The southern range of the Organos begins with an interesting peak known
as the Pan de Azucar, located only a few miles east of the Pena Blanca.
From this western sentinel with many breaks extends the great southern
chain of the Organos with its various groups of "magotes," reaching
eastward throughout the entire province. At its extreme eastern terminus
we find a lower and detached ridge known as the Pan de Guanajay, which
passes for a few miles beyond the boundary line, and into the province
of Havana.
Surrounding the Organos from La Esperanza west, and bordering it also on
the south for a short distance east of the city of Pinar del Rio, are
ranges of round topped lomas, composed largely of sandstone, slate and
shale. The surface of these is covered with the small pines, scrubby
palms and undergrowth found only on poor soil.
From the Mulato River east, along the north coast, the character of the
lomas changes abruptly. Here we have deep rich soil covered with
splendid forests of hard woods, that reach up into the Organos some ten
miles back from the coast. Along the southern edge of the Organos, from
Herredura east, lies a charming narrow belt of rolling country covered
with a rich sandy loam that extends almost to the city of Artemisa.
Extensions, or occasional outcroppings, of the Pinar del Rio mountain
system, appear in the Province of Havana, and continue on into Matanzas,
where another short coastal range appears, just west of the valley of
the Yumuri. This, as before stated, has its continuation in detached
ranges that extend along the entire north coast, with but few
interruptions, until merged into the mountain maze of eastern Oriente.
Outside of the mountainous district thus described, the general surface
of Cuba is a gently undulating plain, with altitudes varying from only a
few feet above the sea level to 500 or 600 feet, near El Cristo in
Oriente. In Pinar del Rio it forms a piedmont plain that entirely
surrounds the mountain range. On the south this plain has a maximum
width of about 25 miles and ascends gradually from the shores of the
Caribbean at the rate of seven or eight feet to the mile until it
reaches the edge of the foothills along the line of the automobile drive
connecting Havana with the capital of Pinar del Rio.
North of the mountain range, the lowland belt is very much narrower and
in some places reaches a height of 200 feet as a rule deeply dissected,
so that in places only the level of the hill tops mark the position of
the original plain.
The two piedmont plains of Pinar del Rio unite at the eastern extremity
of the Organos Mountains and extend over the greater part of the
provinces of Havana and Matanzas and the western half of Santa Clara.
The divide as a whole is near the center of this plain, although the
land has a gradual slope from near the northern margin towards the
south.
In the neighborhood of Havana, the elevation varies between 300 and 400
feet, continuing eastward to Cardenas. The streams flowing north have
lowered their channels as the land rose, and the surface drained by them
has become deeply dissected, while the streams flowing toward the south
have been but little affected by the elevation and remain generally in
very narrow channels.
East of Cardenas the general elevation of the plain is low, sloping
gradually both north and south from the axis of the island. Considerable
areas of this plain are found among the various mountain groups in the
eastern half of Santa Clara province, beyond which it extends over the
greater part of Camaguey and into Oriente. Here it reaches the northern
coast between isolated mountain groups, extending as far east as Nipe
Bay, and toward the south, merges into the great Cauto Valley.
From Cabo Cruz the plain extends along the northern base of the Sierra
Maestra to the head of the Cauto Valley. Its elevation near Manzanillo
is about 200 feet, whence it increases to 640 feet at El Cristo. In the
central section of Oriente, the Cauto River and its tributaries have cut
channels into this plain from 50 to 200 feet in depth. In the lower part
of the valley these channels are sometimes several miles across and are
occupied by alluvial flats or river bottoms. They decrease in width
toward the east and in the upper part of the valley become narrow
gorges.
A large part of this plain of Cuba, especially in the central provinces,
is underlaid by porous limestone, through which the surface waters have
found underground passages. This accounts for the fact that large areas
are occasionally devoid of flowing surface streams. The rain water sinks
into the ground as soon as it falls, and after flowing long distances
under ground, emerges into bold springs, such as those of the Almendares
that burst out of the river bank some eight miles south of the City of
Havana. Engineers of the rope and cordage plant, just north of the City
of Matanzas, while boring for water, found unexpectedly a swift, running
river, only ten feet below the surface, that has given them an
inexhaustible supply of excellent water.
Most of the plains of Cuba above indicated have been formed by the
erosion of its surface, and are covered with residual soil derived from
the underlying limestones. Where they consist of red or black clays they
are, as a rule, exceedingly fertile. Certain portions of the plains,
especially those bordering on the southern side of the mountains of
Pinar del Rio, are covered with a layer of sand and gravel, washed down
from the adjoining highlands, and are, as a rule, inferior in fertility
to soils derived from the erosion of limestone. Similar superficial
deposits are met in the vicinity of Cienfuegos, and in other sections of
the island, where the plain forms a piedmont adjacent to highlands
composed of silicious rocks.
The most striking and perhaps the most important fact in regard to the
climate of Cuba is its freedom from those extremes of temperature which
are considered prejudicial to health in any country. The difference
between the mean annual temperature of winter and that of summer is only
twelve degrees, or from 76 degrees to 88 degrees. Even between the
coldest days of winter, when the mercury once went as low as 58 degrees,
and the extreme limit of summer, registered as 92 degrees, we have a
difference of only 34 degrees; and the extremes of summer are seldom
noticed, since the fresh northeast trade winds coming from the Atlantic
sweep across the island, carrying away with them the heated atmosphere
of the interior.
The fact that the main axis of the island, with its seven hundred mile
stretch of territory, extends from southeast to northwest, almost at
right angles to the general direction of the wind, plays a very
important part in the equability of Cuba's climate. Then again, the
island is completely surrounded by oceans, the temperature of which
remains constant, and this plays an important part in preventing
extremes of heat or cold.
Ice, of course, cannot form, and frost is found only on the tops of the
tallest mountain ranges. The few cold days during winter, when the
thermometer may drop to 60 after sundown, are the advance waves of
"Northers" that sweep down from the Dakotas, across Oklahoma and the
great plains of Texas, eventually reaching Cuba, but only after the
sting of the cold has been tempered in its passage of six hundred miles
across the Gulf of Mexico.
A temperature of 60 degrees in Cuba is not agreeable to the natives, or
even to those residents who once lived in northern climes. This may be
due to the fact that life in the tropics has a tendency to thin the
blood, and to render it less resistant to low temperature; and also
because Cuban residences are largely of stone, brick or reinforced
concrete, with either tile or marble floors, and have no provision
whatever against cold. And, although the walls are heavy, the windows,
doors and openings are many times larger than those of residences in the
United States, hence the cold cannot readily be excluded as in other
countries. There is said to be but one fireplace on the Island of Cuba,
and that was built in the beautiful home of an American, near Guayabal,
just to remind him, he said, of the country whence he came.
Again, in the matter of rainfall and its bearing on the climate of a
country, Cuba is very fortunate. The rains all come in the form of
showers during the summer months, from the middle of May until the end
of October, and serve to purify and temper the heat of summer. On the
other hand, the cooler months of winter are quite dry, and absolutely
free from the chilling rains, sleets, snows, mists and dampness, that
endanger the health, if not the life, of those less fortunate people who
dwell in latitudes close to 40 degrees.
Cloudy, gloomy days are almost unknown in Cuba, and the sun can be
depended upon to shine for at least thirty days every month, and
according to the testimony of physicians nothing is better than sunshine
to eliminate the germs of contagious diseases. Hence we can truthfully
say that in the matter of climate and health, Cuba asks no favor of any
country on earth.