chimerical pursuit, which was early cultivated in the East, and is
generally ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, although its more
enthusiastic admirers pretend to trace a knowledge of it to Adam. From
the earliest periods of history man was acquainted with gold, silver,
and other metals, with bitumen, sulphur, sea salt, sal-ammoniac, gums,
and resins, together with other varieties of substances and liquids
common to modern chemistry. For the compounding and heating of certain
of these materials a multiplicity of means were adopted requiring
furnaces, crucibles, and distillatory apparatus. The first workers in
these experimental operations formed a body of investigators into the
nature and properties of all manner of substances, whether animal,
vegetable or mineral, the members of which were distinguished as adepts,
alchemists, and later in their career as common chemists. The most
esteemed branch of the art however was Alchemy, a pseudo-science which
ultimately took three forms. First, the Hermetic Art for the discovery
of the Philosopher's stone; and the Alkahest, or universal
solvent;--Second, a Medical Alchemy;--and Third, a Theological Alchemy
pretending to conceal divine mysteries under an allegorical form,
treating of the spiritual while apparently describing alchemical
discoveries.
Our principal business, however, is with the so-called Hermetic
Philosophy, treating of vaunted methods of transmuting the base metals
into gold. It is doubtful whether this particular delusion of the
adepts can be referred to a date earlier than the 8th century, but even
then we cannot refrain from surprise at the fallibility of the human
intellect, which could be swayed by a belief in the pretended _lapis
philosophorum_ for upwards of ten centuries. It was believed to be so
secret and rare that its possession was never ascribed at any time to
more than two or three favourite adepts, who transmitted it to some
single favoured individual after his taking the sacrament, and going
through certain prescribed religious ceremonies, preparatory to being
entrusted with a verbal recipe for the composition of a peculiar
smelling red powder, of which it was affirmed that when projected on
heated mercury or any solid metal, it would at once change it into pure
gold. Ashmole gravely assures us that Dr. John Dee and his associate
Kelly, having in some way procured this precious substance, Kelly--to
use Ashmole's own words--"made projection with one small grain thereof,
in proportion no bigger than the least grain of sand, upon one ounce and
a quarter of common mercury, and it produced almost an ounce of pure
gold." With equal simplicity and earnestness, Ashmole asserts that this
same Kelly was often seen to make these extraordinary transmutations,--
"and in particular (he adds) upon a piece of metal cut out of a
warming-pan, and without touching or handling it, or melting the metal,
only warming it in the fire, the elixir being put thereon, it was
transmuted into pure silver. The warming-pan and this piece of it, was
sent to Queen Elizabeth by her Ambassador who then lay at Prague, that
by fitting the piece into the place whence it was cut, it might exactly
appear to be once part of the warming-pan."
Among the adepts there were no doubt a select few who employed
themselves in their prolonged labours in all sincerity, and who were not
unfrequently repaid with remarkable, and unexpected results. Brass,
being the result of copper combined with zinc, would appear a singular
transformation. Many stones, or more properly, ores, would yield sulphur
and metals; sulphur would be found apparently to dissolve iron; and
certain salts, when distilled, would yield corrosive acids. Alchemy thus
presented to the ancient adepts many of the ordinary wonders of modern
chemistry; in short, the latest adept of the present century is no other
than an unlettered chemist. It was peculiar to the Alchemists to treat
all their operations as secrets; which, when recorded, were described
partly by symbols and partly in a novel nomenclature, invented to
conceal their mysteries from vulgar gaze or imitation. Thus, to prepare
the philosopher's stone, we have merely to--"Take of moisture, an ounce
and a half; of meridional redness, that is the soul of the sun, a fourth
part, that is, half an ounce; of yellow seyr, likewise half an ounce;
and of auripigmentum, a half ounce; making in all three ounces. Know
that the vine of wise men is extracted in threes, and its wine at last
is completed in thirty." To the incredulous in these matters, Ashmole
offers the admonition that, he knows "_Incredulity is given to the world
as a punishment!_" However, when the Alkahest, or pretended Universal
Solvent, was alluded to by the modern chemist Kunckel, he could not
refrain from incredulously enquiring--"If it dissolves all substances,
in what vessel can it be contained?"
Alchemical writings are very numerous, it might be impossible to procure
a complete bibliographical list of them, but they may be estimated at
from 3000 to 4000 works, and an astonishing number of manuscripts. Their
authors indulge in such terms as the Ph[oe]nix, to indicate the
quintessence of Fire; Realgar, for the fume of minerals; Guma, also Luna
Compacta, for quicksilver; Hadid, for iron; Aurum potabile, for liquor
of gold; Anathron, for saltpetre; Malek, for salt; Terra fidelis, for
silver; Tinkar, for borax; and in a similar strain for all matters and
operations; so that Dr. Johnson was justified in deriving the word
Gibberish from the mysterious jargon employed by Geber, a celebrated
Alchemist; who has, nevertheless, been appropriately styled the Pliny of
the 8th century.
Weidenfeld, in an Alchemical Treatise, published in 1685, addressing
students, says:--
"Under heaven is not such an art, more promoting the honour of God, more
conducing to mankind, and more narrowly searching into the most profound
secrets of nature, than is our true and more than laudable Chymy."
And at the conclusion of his address he observes:
"Nothing remains but upon our bended knees to return most humble thanks
to the Father of Lights, in vouchsafing us this art by the writings of
his servants, and the high priests of Nature; without which, it would be
beyond the power of man to arrive at so great a degree of knowledge."
Some notion of the extravagance of the language employed may be obtained
from his description of a Philosophical Wine, literally, rectified
spirits of wine, or alcohol. He assures us that, on opening a vessel of
it, "a wonderful scent" should arise: "so as that no fragrancy of the
world can be compared to it; inasmuch as putting the vessel to a corner
of the house, it can by an invisible miracle draw all that pass in to
it; or, the vessel being put upon a tower, draws all birds within the
reach of its scent, so as to cause them to stand about it. Then will you
have, my son, our quintessence, which is otherwise called Vegetable
Mercury, at your will, to apply in Magistery of the transmutation of
metals."
How ardent an adept this Alchemist was may be gathered from his
exclamation:--"May the God of Heaven put prudence in the heart of
evangelical men, for whom I compose this book, not to communicate this
venerable secret of God to the reprobates."
Among the remarkable discoveries made by Alchemists, due to the
carefully noted and carefully examined failures and accidents, as well
as successes, of their endless combinations of matter, under the
treatment of fire and water, the most distinguished is that of
gunpowder, noted in a recipe left on record by Roger Bacon, who died in
the year 1284. He clearly names the mixture of Saltpetre with Sulphur,
but the third ingredient, Carbon, is concealed in the form of an
anagram.
Lord Bacon, Luther, Spinoza, Leibnitz, and many eminent moderns, were
impressed with a belief in the possibility of transmuting lead, tin,
copper, or other metals, into gold; in short, as it was supposed there
were only four elements, fire, water, earth, and air, it was probably
assumed that a fifth might be found in the Philosopher's stone.
But if ever any pursuit was more open to fraudulent practices than
another, surely the pretended possession of a transmuting powder or
elixir afforded a grand arena for their exercise. In this enlightened
age, although we cannot fail to look with charity on the arduous labours
of those adepts who honestly mixed devotional exercises with laborious
experimental operations, selecting times and seasons for their
alchemical work, and noting with accuracy the hours and days of fusions,
sublimations, distillations, lixiviations, and so forth; still, it is
scarcely possible to refrain from smiling at the docile simplicity of
Ashmole in denouncing a certain class of Alchemists, as pretended
masters and adepts, seeing "they are mere practisers of legerdemain,"
while he himself gave credence to the story of the warming-pan, already
named as being shown to Queen Elizabeth, which was clearly a flagrant
piece of fraud practised by Kelly, a common adventurer, and from his
youth remarkable only for his indifferent character.
An easily performed trick was effected by means of nails, or other
light articles, made half of gold and half iron, but disguised, so as to
appear to be of one metal and colour. Sometimes these knaves employed
crucibles, having an interior false bottom, below which a small quantity
of gold was placed, which, being reproduced, as was pretended from base
materials, was offered as an example of success. Or, by having the gold
in a hollow rod, stopped at one end with wax, used to stir up the
materials, the gold would naturally enough appear in the crucible. Or,
their materials being conveyed into charcoal, a similar result would be
obtained on heating the crucible in a furnace. At other times, by the
employment of amalgams, or solutions in acids, they could perform a
species of electro-plating on common metals. The extent to which these
nefarious practices were carried might appear incredible, considering
the evident inconsistency of the owner of the pretended golden key to
countless wealth, being in such comparative poverty as to be indebted to
any one of moderate means for pecuniary assistance. But, it is some
apology for such credulity when we call to mind the state of public
morals, of education, of political institutions, and the prevalent
superstition, not only among common people, but also the higher classes
of all countries and creeds, down to the seventeenth century:
representing a phase of the human mind, liable to be overawed by
impostors, who boldly claimed supernatural aid in abetting their
impositions. And the trickery of the designing was further aided by the
close secrecy adopted by the adepts in their processes, their
conversations, and their writings. Ashmole freely admits that--"Their
chief study was to wrap up their secrets in fables, and spin out their
fancies in 'vailes' and shadows, whose radii seem to extend every way,
yet so that all meet in a common centre, and point only to one thing."
It was this very secrecy, this continual mystery from beginning to end,
that favoured deceptions of the grossest and most bungling character, as
viewed by the light of modern chemistry.
Alchemy no doubt tended to improve Medical science, by the introduction
of many new mineral and vegetable preparations, but the healing art
treated after the manner of the Hermetic Art, was laid open to every
description of quackery. It is not our intention, however, to enlarge on
this department, which has steadily advanced at every stage of
improvement in chemical science.
SQUARING THE CIRCLE.
Of Mathematical Problems, the most perplexing to ancient and modern
mathematicians, although of late years said to be satisfactorily
demonstrated, and no longer desiderata of Geometry, are--
1. The Quadrature or Squaring of the Circle;--2. The Duplication, or
doubling of the Cube;--and 3. The Trisection of the Angle.
In his "Popular Astronomy,"[11] Professor Arago, treating on the surface
of a circle, observes that,--
It is mathematically equal to the product of the length of the
circumference, multiplied by half the radius. To square a circle of a
given diameter in mètres, is the same as giving the number of squares,
of a mètre in each side, of which the surface is the equivalent. If, the
diameter being given, the exact circumference were known by a sort of
inspiration, the superficial extent of the circular space would be
deducible from the two numbers, by the mere multiplication of the
numerical length of the circumference by the fourth of the diameter, or
half the radius. But, the circumference being deducible from the
diameter only by approximation, the surface alluded to cannot be
computed with mathematical rigour; yet the result can be obtained with
all desirable precision by the aid of the ratios usually given for such
purpose; for instance, the area of the space included within a circle of
thirty-eight millions of leagues radius, may be determined within such a
degree of precision that the probable error shall not exceed the space
of a mite.
[11] See Translation, by Admiral W. H. Smith, and Robert Grant, M.A., in
2 vols. 8vo. 1855, Vol. I., page 10.
"The sect of squarers then," Arago adds,--"are searching after a
solution which is proved to be impossible, and which, moreover, would be
of no practical use, even if their foolish hopes were crowned with
success."
In the "Birds" of Aristophanes, the character is introduced of a
geometer, who is going to make a square circle, showing how early this
chimerical performance became an object of ridicule.
Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Plato, Apollonius, Ptolemy,
with other ancient mathematicians, have given methods for approximating
to the area of the circle; and many also among the moderns. In 1775, the
Paris Academy of Science determined to discourage papers devoted to this
subject, and their course in this respect was soon after adopted also
by The Royal Society, it being found that there was among certain
geometers a complete mania for settling this and similar problems, the
solution of which was either unattainable, or if attained of very
questionable value.
DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE.
The Duplication of the Cube it is asserted can readily be demonstrated.
It is usually called the Delian Problem, from its having been suggested
by the oracle of Apollo at Delphos, requiring that Apollo's cubical
altar should be doubled.
It is something in its favour to say that the enquiry has had the
attention of Newton and of Huygens.
TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE.
Lastly, we shall notice among problems of this class--the Trisection of
an Angle, which it is asserted can only be accomplished by means of the
conic sections and some other curves.
A rule for the cubic equation by which the problem of trisection is
solved has been given by Cardan.
The difficulty only arises when we attempt the trisection of any other
than a right angle, its trisection being easily effected with a pair of
compasses.
On this subject it has been observed that, "there is no more trouble in
trisecting an angle, not a right angle, than in finding a cube root."
* * * * *
These three celebrated problems have received the attention of
mathematicians in every age and country, and led to many learned
discussions, and controversial writings. But in point of litigiousness
the Squarers of the Circle most decidedly carry off the palm, having
frequently laid and lost heavy wagers, and even appeared in a Court of
Justice to settle their monetary disputes. They are renowned for their
pamphlets, in which philosophers of every class are charged with
prejudice, conceit, and ignorance, and denounced for their want of
candour and consistency in not giving audience to the projector of the
last best demonstration.
PERPETUUM MOBILE.
To conclude this Lecture we shall offer a few remarks on Perpetuum
Mobile, or the search for a means of obtaining a mechanical perpetual
motion. As a mathematical problem it dates back some 2000 years or
more, but we know nothing of any actual attempt earlier than the 14th
century to construct a machine intended to be self motive, by containing
within itself the means of continually overbalancing. External motive
agency such as the tides, magnetism, and the like are not included; the
only admitted agent being gravity.
If we considered wear and tear the question would be settled at once,
but this is allowed as the single exception, and therefore any machine
constantly renewing the means that first moved it might be deservedly
called a perpetual motion.
Until a history of the schemes invented by numerous ingenious mechanics
was published in 1861, inventors of this class were continually though
unconsciously reproducing obsolete contrivances, from taking up the
ordinary idea that a wheel may be kept constantly over-weighted on one
side, so as to raise the next weight which is to perform the same
miracle of art. It is singular to observe this particular coincidence of
the inventive faculty of man, and it shows next to a demonstration, that
if all mechanical inventions were swept from the face of the earth they
would be reproduced in some remote age.
A common error with those who toil at perpetual motion machinery is
their aiming to produce a bottled-up power; or to apply the principles
of the ordinary scale or balance to a wheel, overlooking the simple
facts of friction on one side acting against their most ingenious
contrivances, and of non-production on the other. Sooner or later,
however, they discover the inertia of matter, that a pound will not
raise a pound, and that they cannot invent mechanism to move
independently of the laws of action and reaction.
A ball descending a semicircular path, as suggested by Dr. Henderson,
will only rise to the same height as that from which it fell; and will
afterwards gradually diminish in velocity until it rests at the centre.
If it would ascend to a height greater than that from which it
descended, then indeed an inclined path might return the ball to repeat
such evolutions until quite worn out.
And as regards the weighted wheels, it is always overlooked that they
come to rest from the same fact, that the vertical line of descent and
that of ascent are equal, however much the weights may on one side
recede from the centre, while on the other side the weights are
approaching the centre. (_See_ Plate 6, Fig. 1.)
The most famous perpetual motive schemes were those of the Marquis of
Worcester made 1630-41; (_See_ Plate 6, Fig. 2,) and of Bessler, better
known as Orfyreus, between 1712-19.
The Marquis gives a brief notice of his plan, in his "Century of
Inventions," a curious catalogue of his several ingenious schemes.
But of Orfyreus's wheel we know nothing more than was communicated by
the eminent mathematician, 'S Gravesande, to Sir Isaac Newton, after an
external view of it, while it was rotating in a chamber of the residence
of the Prince of Hesse Cassel.
The most singular part of this strange delusion is the fact of its
strong hold on the minds of its infatuated votaries. Once bewitched with
the idea of at last succeeding in the attainment of his grand design,
fortune, health, and reputation, are resolutely set at nought, in the
delirium of delight that follows; and more unreasonable creatures can
scarcely be found than such self-deluded individuals, for they cannot,
or will not, be convinced that their utmost efforts can at best but
produce an amazingly curious toy; and nothing can be more futile than to
expect any higher application, assuming such a discovery were possible.
The best proof of the sincerity and earnestness of those who seek the
attainment of a mechanical perpetual motion, is afforded by the variety
and number of their patented schemes; the patentees having among them
divines, doctors, lawyers, civil engineers, carpenters, draughtsmen,
jewellers, watchmakers, shoemakers, confectioners, and all classes of
professions and trades. It is not, as is generally supposed, only the
wholly ignorant and designing who can be cajoled by these chimeras;
there is in them a spice of mystery, of wonder, of singularity, and of
simplicity combined with much subtle difficulty, which, being once fully
imbibed, acts like an opiate draught.
We have thus reviewed summarily, chimeras which are mainly associated
with Astronomy, Chemistry, Mathematics, and Mechanics, and which have
swayed the human mind more or less from a period anterior to the
Christian era. The list of this species of deceitful systems of
pseudo-philosophy, and of profitless problems, might have been enlarged;
but what has been advanced may suffice as a warning to the uninitiated
to beware of blind guides and of visionary pursuits. Science has lost
nothing by its professors exercising that degree of caution, which all
classes of superficially learned men, affecting to possess original and
valuable views on certain matters, call _prejudice_: which, in such
cases, generally means no more than the natural aversion which the
learned have for all attempts to place specious dogmas on a level with
sound science. Such enthusiasts are generally men of no research or
depth of thought, who obtain an imperfect acquaintance with subjects
with which they are incompetent to grapple; and with whom it is,
therefore, hopeless to contend. Delusion will have its day, and will as
certainly decay, if not die out. Chimeras constantly spring up, and find
ardent professors and crowds of easily led proselytes, even up to this
very present time; so that although, undoubtedly with many--_Knowledge
is power_: yet it is to be feared that far too large a proportion of
mankind favour the delusion that--_Ignorance is bliss_.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES.
PLATE I.--FIGURE 1.
_Of the Twelve Houses._--The 1st, 4th, 7th, and 10th
houses--_angular_.--These are of more durable signification than the
others, denoting the wife or husband--a situation under Government, &c.
&c.
The twelve houses have signification of all the various concerns of
human life, and of nature at large.
_For Example._--When the cusp of the first house is well aspected by, or
has the presence of Jupiter or Venus, and these are not afflicted by the
aspects of evil planets, they preserve life in infancy, and give health,
and often an agreeable person.
But if their rays or presence (says Varley) should be thrown on the cusp
of the second house, then the native will have success in concerns of
property. The Sun in this house helps to disperse property; and if he be
peregrine, that is, in the sign of a contrary nature to his own, where
he has no dignities, and is without reception, then the native's
property is dispersed in vainglorious expenses; but if the Sun be in
Leo, his property in general will be ample enough to admit of instant
acts of bounty and benevolence.
In a similar strain, Astronomers particularize the remaining eleven
houses. It would be impossible, in any reasonable space, to describe
further the operations of the planets in the several houses thus
assigned to them.
_As to when the Planets are most powerful._--Barrett says:--The planets
are powerful when they are ruling in a house, or in exaltation, or
triplicity, or term, or face, without combustion of what is direct in
the figure of the heavens; but we must take care that they are not in
the bounds or under the dominion of Saturn or Mars. The angles of the
ascendant, and 10th and 7th are fortunate; as also the lord of the
ascendant, and place of the Sun and Moon.
The Moon is powerful if she be in her house, in exaltation, in
triplicity, in face, or in degree convenient for the desired work, &c.
&c.
FIGURE 2.
VARLEY'S TABLE OF SIGNS, HOUSES, EXALTATION, AND TRIPLICITY.
The falls of the Planets are opposite to their Exaltations, and their
Detriments opposite to their Houses.
Aries and Scorpio are the house of Mars [Mars]
Taurus and Libra are the house of Venus [Venus]
Gemini and Virgo are under the dominion of Mercury [Mercury]
Cancer is the house of the Moon [Moon]
Leo is the house of the Sun [Sun]
Sagittarius and Pisces are the houses of Jupiter [Jupiter]
Capricorn is the house of Saturn [Saturn]
And Aquarius is governed by the Herschel Planet [Uranus]
PLATE II.
This table gives the usual symbols employed for indicating the several
planets, and which are still retained in Astronomy for simplicity of
expression, but which Astrologers venerate as possessing a cabalistic
character.
Associated with these symbols are the names of certain principal angels,
spirits, or demons, forming, however, but a small proportion of such
airy nothings.
The Astrological Symbols were also employed by the Alchemists to
indicate the seven metals then known.
PLATE III.--SQUARING THE CIRCLE.