[1] See IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY.
CYNOSURE (Lat. _cynosura_, Gr. [Greek: kynosoura], from [Greek: kynos],
genitive of [Greek: kyon], a dog, and [Greek: oura], tail), the name
given by the Greeks and Romans to the constellation of the Little Bear,
Ursa Minor; the word is applied in English to the pole-star which
appears in that constellation, and hence to something bright which, like
a "guiding-star," draws all attention to it, as in Milton's "cynosure of
neighbouring eyes."
CYPERACEAE, in botany, a natural order of the monocotyledonous group of
seed-bearing plants. They are grass-like herbs, sometimes annual, but
more often persist by means of an underground stem from which spring
erect solitary or clustered, generally three-sided aerial stems, with
leaves in three rows. The minute flowers are arranged in spikelets
somewhat as in grasses, and these again in larger spike-like or panicled
inflorescences. The flower has in rare cases a perianth of six
scale-like leaves arranged in two whorls, and thus conforming to the
common monocotyledonous type of flower. Generally the perianth is
represented by hairs, bristles or similar developments, often indefinite
in number; in the two largest genera, _Cyperus_, (fig. 1) and _Carex_
(fig. 2), the flowers are naked. In a few cases two whorls of stamens
are present, with three members in each, but generally only three are
present; the pistil consists of three or two carpels, united to form an
ovary bearing a corresponding number of styles and containing one ovule.
The flowers, which are often unisexual, are wind-pollinated. The fruit
is one-seeded, with a tough, leathery or hard wall. There are nearly 70
genera containing about 3000 species and widely distributed throughout
the earth, chiefly as marsh-plants. In the arctic zone they form 10% of
the flora; they will flourish in soils rich in humus which are too acid
to support grasses. The large genus _Cyperus_ contains about 400
species, chiefly in the warmer parts of the earth; _C. Papyrus_ is the
Egyptian Papyrus. _Carex_, the largest genus of the order, the sedges,
is widely distributed in the temperate, alpine and arctic regions of
both hemispheres, and is represented by 60 species in Britain. _Carex
arenaria_, the sea-bent, grows on sand-dunes and helps to bind the sand
with its long cord-like underground stem which branches widely. _Scirpus
lacustris_ (fig. 3, 1) the true bulrush, occurs in lakes, ditches and
marshes; it has a spongy, green, cylindrical stem, reaching nearly an
inch in thickness and 1 to 8 ft. high, which is usually leafless with a
terminal branched inflorescence. _Eriophorum_ (fig. 3), cotton grass, is
represented in Britain by several species in boggy land; they are small
tufted herbs with cottony heads due to the numerous hair-like bristles
which take the place of the perianth and become much elongated in the
fruiting stage.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Partial inflorescence of _Cyperus longus_
(Galingale), slightly reduced. 1, Spikelet of same; 2, flower.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Carex riparia_, the largest British sedge, from
3 to 5 ft. high. 1, Male flower of _Carex_; 2, female flower of _Carex_;
3, seed of _Carex_, cut lengthwise.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Inflorescence of Cotton-grass (_Eriophorum
polystachion_), about 2/3 nat. size. 1, Flower of true bulrush (_Scirpus
lacustris_).]
CY-PRES (A.-Fr. for "so near"), in English law, a principle adopted by
the court of chancery in dealing with trusts for charitable purposes.
When the charitable purpose intended by a testator cannot be carried
into effect, the court will apply the funds to some other purpose, as
near the original as possible (whence the name). For instance, a
testator having left a fund to be divided into four parts--one-fourth to
be used for "the redemption of British slaves in Turkey and Barbary,"
and the other three-fourths for various local charities--it was found
that there were no British slaves in Turkey or Barbary, and as to that
part of the gift therefore the testator's purpose failed. Instead of
allowing the portion of the fund devoted to this impossible purpose to
lapse to the next of kin, the court devoted it to the purposes specified
for the rest of the estate. This doctrine is only applied where "a
general intention of charity is manifest" in the will, and not where one
particular object only was present to the mind of the testator. Thus, a
testator having left money to be applied in building a church in a
particular parish, and that having been found to be impossible, the fund
will not be applied _cy-pres_, but will go to the next of kin.
In the United States, charitable trusts have become more frequent as the
wealth of the country has progressed, and are regarded with increasing
favour by the courts. The _cy-pres_ doctrine has been either expressly
or virtually applied to uphold them in several of the states, and in
some there has been legislation in the same direction. In others the
doctrine has been repudiated, e.g. in Michigan, Tennessee, Indiana and
Virginia. For many years the New York courts held that this doctrine was
not in force there, but in 1893 the legislature repealed the provisions
of the revised statutes on which these decisions rested and restored the
ancient law. Statutes passed in Pennsylvania have established the
doctrine there, and dissolved any doubt as to its being in force in that
state.
CYPRESS (_Cupressus_), in botany, a genus of fifteen species belonging
to the tribe Cupressineae, natural order Coniferae, represented by
evergreen aromatic trees and shrubs indigenous to the south of Europe,
western Asia, the Himalayas, China, Japan, north-western and
north-eastern America, California and Mexico. The leaves of the
cypresses are scale-like, overlapping and generally in four rows; the
female catkins are roundish, and fewer than the male; the cones consist
of from six to ten peltate woody scales, which end in a curved point,
and open when the seeds are ripe; the seeds are numerous and winged. All
the species exude resin, but no turpentine.
_C. sempervirens_, the common cypress, has been well known throughout
the Mediterranean region since classic times; it may have been
introduced from western Asia where it is found wild. It is a tapering,
flame-shaped tree resembling the Lombardy poplar; its branches are
thickly covered with small, imbricated, shining-green leaves; the male
catkins are about 3 lines in length; the cones are between 1 and 1(1/2)
in. in diameter, sessile, and generally in pairs, and are made up of
large angular scales, slightly convex exteriorly, and with a sharp point
in the centre. In Britain the tree grows to a height of 40 ft., in its
native soil to 70 or 90 ft. It thrives best on a dry, deep, sandy loam,
on airy sheltered sites at no great elevation above the sea. It was
introduced into Great Britain before the middle of the 16th century. In
the climate of the south of England its rate of growth when young is
between 1 and 1(1/2) ft. a year. The seeds are sown in April, and come
up in three or four weeks; the plants require protection from frost
during their first winter.
The timber of the cypress is hard, close-grained, of a fine reddish hue,
and very durable. Among the ancients it was in request for poles,
rafters, joists, and for the construction of wine-presses, tables and
musical instruments; and on that account was so valuable that a
plantation of cypresses was considered a sufficient dowry for a
daughter. Owing to its durability the wood was employed for mummy cases,
and images of the gods; a statue of Jupiter carved out of cypress is
stated by Pliny to have existed 600 years without showing signs of
decay. The cypress doors of the ancient St Peter's at Rome, when removed
by Eugenius IV., were about 1100 years old, but nevertheless in a state
of perfect preservation. Laws were engraved on cypress by the ancients,
and objects of value were preserved in receptacles made of it; thus
Horace speaks of poems _levi servanda cupresso_.
The cypress, which grows no more when once cut down, was regarded as a
symbol of the dead, and perhaps for that reason was sacred to Pluto; its
branches were placed by the Greeks and Romans on the funeral pyres and
in the houses of their departed friends. Its supposed ill-boding nature
is alluded to in Shakespeare's _Henry VI._, where Suffolk desires for
his enemies "their sweetest shade, a grove of cypress trees." The
cypress was the tree into which Cyparissus, a beautiful youth beloved by
Apollo, was transformed, that he might grieve to all time (Ovid, _Met._
x. 3). In Turkish cemeteries the cypress--
"Dark tree, still sad when others' grief is fled,
The only constant mourner o'er the dead"--
is the most striking feature, the rule being to plant one for each
interment. The tree grows straight, or nearly so, and has a gloomy and
forbidding, but wonderfully stately aspect. With advancing age its
foliage becomes of a dark, almost black hue. William Gilpin calls the
cypress an architectural tree: "No Italian scene," says he, "is perfect
without its tall spiral form, appearing as if it were but a part of the
picturesquely disposed edifices which rise from the middle ground
against the distant landscape." The cypress of Somma, in Lombardy, is
believed to have been in existence in the time of Julius Caesar; it is
about 121 ft. in height, and 23 ft. in circumference. Napoleon, in
making the road over the Simplon, deviated from the straight line in
order to leave it standing. The cypress, as the olive, is found
everywhere in the dry hollows and high eastern slopes of Corfu, of the
scenery of which it is characteristic. As an ornamental tree in Britain
the cypress is useful to break the outline formed by round-headed low
shrubs and trees. The _berosh_, or _beroth_, of the Hebrew Scriptures,
translated "fir" in the authorized version, in 1 Kings v. 8 and vi. 15,
2 Chron. ii. 8 and many other passages, is supposed to signify the
cypress.
The common or tall variety of _C. sempervirens_ is known as _C.
fastigiata_; the other variety, _C. horizontalis_, which is little
planted in England, is distinguished by its horizontally spreading
branches, and its likeness to the cedar. The species _C. torulosa_ of
North India, so called from its twisted bark, attains an altitude of 150
ft.; its branches are erect or ascending, and grow so as to form a
perfect cone. In the Kulu and Ladakh country the tree is sacred to the
deities of the elements. It has been introduced into England, but does
not thrive where the winter is severe. The wood, which in Indian temples
is burnt as incense, is yellowish-red, close-grained, tough, hard,
readily worked, durable, and equal in quality to that of the deodar.
Another species, _C. lusitanica_ or _glauca_, the "cedar of Goa," is a
handsome tree, 50 ft. in height when full-grown, with spreading branches
drooping at their extremities; it has been much planted in Portugal,
especially in the neighbourhood of Cintra. Its origin is doubtful. It
was well established in Portugal before the middle of the 17th century,
and has since been cultivated generally in the south of Europe, but is
nowhere believed to be indigenous. The name "cedar of Goa" is
misleading, as no cypress is found wild anywhere near Goa. It was
cultivated in England in the 17th century, and the name _C. lusitanica_
was given by Philip Miller, the curator of the Chelsea Physick garden,
in 1768, in reference to its supposed Portuguese origin. Experience has
shown this cypress to be too tender for British climate generally,
though good specimens are to be found in the milder climate of the south
and west of England and in Ireland.
The species _G. Lawsoniana_, the Port Orford cedar, a native of south
Oregon and north California, where it attains a height of 100 ft., was
introduced into Scotland in 1854; it is much grown for ornamental
purposes in Britain, a large number of varieties of garden origin being
distinguished by differences in habit and by colour of foliage. Other
Californian cypresses are _C. macrocarpa_, the Monterey cypress, which
is 60 ft. high when mature, with a habit suggesting that of cedar of
Lebanon, and _C. Joveniana_ and _C. Macnabiana_, smaller trees generally
from 20 to 30 ft. in height. _C. funebris_ is a native of the north of
China, where it is planted near pagodas. _C. nootkaensis_, the Nootka
Sound cypress or Alaska cedar, was introduced into Britain in 1850. It
is a hardy species, reaching a height of from 80 to 100 ft. Several
varieties are distinguished by habit and colour of foliage. _C. obtusa_,
a native of Japan, is a tall tree reaching 100 ft. in height, and widely
planted by the Japanese for its timber, which is one of the best for
interior construction. It is also cultivated by them as a decorative
plant, in many forms, including dwarf forms not exceeding a foot in
height.
The "deciduous cypress," "swamp cypress" or "bald cypress," _Taxodium
distichum_, is another member of the order Coniferae (tribe Taxodineae),
a native of the southern United States and Mexico. It is a lofty tree
reaching a height of 170 ft. or more, with a massive trunk 10 to 15 ft.
or more in diameter, growing in or near water or on low-lying land which
is subject to periodical flooding. The lower part of the trunk bears
huge buttresses, each of which ends in a long branching far-spreading
root, from the branches of which spring the peculiar knees which rise
above the level of the water. The knees are of a soft spongy texture and
act as breathing organs, supplying the roots with air, which they would
otherwise be unable to obtain when submerged. The stout horizontally
spreading branches give a cedar-like appearance; the foliage is light
and feathery; the leaves and the slender shoots which bear them fall in
the autumn. The cones, about the size of a small walnut, bear spirally
arranged imbricated scales which subtend the three-angled winged seeds.
The wood is light, soft, straight-grained and easily worked; it is very
durable in contact with the soil, and is used for railway-ties, posts,
fencing and for construction. The deciduous cypress was one of the first
American trees introduced into England; it is described by John
Parkinson in his _Herbal_ of 1640. It thrives only near water or where
the soil is permanently moist.
CYPRIAN, SAINT [_Caecilius Cyprianus_, called THASCIUS] (c. 200-258),
bishop of Carthage, one of the most illustrious in the early history of
the church, and one of the most notable of its early martyrs, was born
about the year 200, probably at Carthage. He was of patrician family,
wealthy, highly educated, and for some time occupied as a teacher of
rhetoric at Carthage. Of an enthusiastic temperament, accomplished in
classical literature, he seems while a pagan to have courted discussion
with the converts to Christianity. Confident in his own powers, he
entered ardently into what was no doubt the great question of the time
at Carthage as elsewhere. He sought to vanquish, but was himself
vanquished by, the new religious force which was making such rapid
inroads on the decaying paganism of the Roman empire. Caecilianus (or
Caecilius), a presbyter of Carthage, is supposed to have been the
instrument of his conversion, which seems to have taken place about 246.
Cyprian carried all his natural enthusiasm and brilliant powers into his
new profession. He devoted his wealth to the relief of the poor and
other pious uses; and so, according to his deacon Pontius, who wrote a
diffuse and vague account of his "life and passion," "realized two
benefits: the contempt of the world's ambition, and the observance of
that mercy which God has preferred to sacrifice." The result of his
charity and activity as a Christian convert was his unanimous call by
the Christian people to the head of the church in Carthage, at the end
of 248 or beginning of 249. The time was one of fierce persecution
directed against the Christians, and the bishop of Carthage became a
prominent object of attack. During the persecution of Decius (250-251)
Cyprian was exposed to imminent danger, and was compelled for a time to
seek safety in retreat. Under Gallus, the successor of Decius, the
persecution was relaxed, and Cyprian returned to Carthage. Here he held
several councils for the discussion of the affairs of the church,
especially for grave questions as to the rebaptism of heretics, and the
readmission into the church of the _lapsi_, or those who had fallen
away through fear during the heat of the persecution. Cyprian, although
inspired by lofty notions of the prerogatives of the church, and
inclined to severity of opinion towards heretics, and especially
heretical dissentients from the belief in the divine authorship of the
episcopal order and the unity of Christendom, was leniently disposed
towards those who had temporarily fallen from the faith. He set himself
in opposition to Novatian, a presbyter of Rome, who advocated their
permanent exclusion from the church; and it was his influence which
guided the tolerant measures of the Carthaginian synods on the subject.
While in this question he went hand in hand with Cornelius, bishop of
Rome, his strict attitude in the matter of baptism by heretics brought
him into serious conflict with the Roman bishop Stephen. It would almost
have come to a rupture, since both parties held firmly to their
standpoint, had not a new persecution arisen under the emperor Valerian,
which threw all internal quarrels into the background in face of the
common danger. Stephen became a martyr in August 257. Cyprian was at
first banished to Curubis in Africa Proconsularis. But soon he was
recalled, taken into custody, and finally condemned to death. He was
beheaded on the 14th of September 258, the first African bishop to
obtain the martyr's crown.
All Cyprian's literary works were written in connexion with his
episcopal office; almost all his treatises and many of his letters have
the character of pastoral epistles, and their form occasionally betrays
the fact that they were intended as addresses. These writings bear the
mark of a clear mind and a moderate and gentle spirit. Cyprian had none
of that character which makes the reading of Tertullian, whom he himself
called his _magister_, so interesting and piquant, but he possessed
other qualities which Tertullian lacked, especially the art of
presenting his thoughts in simple, smooth and clear language, yet in a
style which is not wanting in warmth and persuasive power. Like
Tertullian, and often in imitation of him, Cyprian took certain
apologetic, dogmatic and pastoral themes as subjects of his treatises.
By far the best known of these is the treatise _De catholicae ecclesiae
unitate_, called forth in A.D. 251 by the schism at Carthage, but
particularly by the Novatian schism at Rome. In this is proclaimed the
doctrine of the one church founded upon the apostle Peter, whose
"tangible bond is her one united episcopate, an apostleship universal
yet only one--the authority of every bishop perfect in itself and
independent, yet not forming with all the others a mere agglomeration of
powers, but being a tenure upon a totality like that of a shareholder in
some joint property."
Attention must also be called to the treatise _Ad Donatum_ (_De gratia
dei_), in which the new life after regeneration with its moral effects
is set forth in a pure and clear light, as contrasted with the night of
heathendom and its moral degradation, which were known to the author
from personal experience. The numerous _Letters_ of Cyprian are not only
an important source for the history of church life and of ecclesiastical
law, on account of their rich and manifold contents, but in large part
they are important monuments of the literary activity of their author,
since, not infrequently, they are in the form of treatises upon the
topic in question. Of the eighty-two letters in the present collection,
sixty-six were written by Cyprian. In the great majority of cases the
chronology of their composition, as far as the year is concerned,
presents no difficulties; more precise assignments are mainly
conjectural. In the editions of the works of Cyprian a number of
treatises are printed which, certainly or probably, were not written by
him, and have therefore usually been described as pseudo-Cyprianic.
Several of them, e.g. the treatise on dice (_De aleatoribus_), have
attracted the attention of scholars, who are never weary of the attempt
to determine the identity of the author, unfortunately hitherto without
much success.
The best, though by no means faultless, edition of Cyprian's works is
that of W. von Hartel in the _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum_ (3
vols., Vienna, 1868-1871). There is an English translation in the
_Library of the Ante-Nicene Fathers_. The most complete monograph is
that by Archbishop E. W. Benson, _Cyprian, his Life, his Times, his
Work_ (London, 1897). See also J. A. Faulkner, _Cyprian the Churchman_
(Cincinnati and New York, 1906).
CYPRINODONTS. In spite of their name, the small fishes called
Cyprinodonts are in no way related to the Cyprinids, or carp family, but
are near allies of the pike, characterized by a flat head with
protractile mouth beset with cardiform, villiform, or compressed, bi- or
tri-cuspid teeth, generally large scales, and the absence of a
well-developed lateral line. About two hundred species are known, mostly
inhabitants of the fresh and brackish waters of America; only about
thirty are known from the old world (south Europe, south Asia, China and
Japan, and Africa). Several forms occur in the Oligocene and Miocene
beds of Europe. Many species are ovo-viviparous, and from their small
size and lively behaviour they are much appreciated as aquarium fishes.
In many species the sexes are dissimilar, the female being larger and
less brilliantly coloured, with smaller fins; the anal fin of the male
may be modified into an intromittent organ by means of which internal
fertilization takes place, the ova developing in a sort of uterus. In
the remarkable genus _Anableps_, from Central and South America, the
strongly projecting eyes are divided by a horizontal band of the
conjunctiva into an upper part adapted for vision in the air, and a
lower for vision in the water, and the pupil is also divided into two
parts by a constriction.
The latest monograph of these fishes is by S. Garman in _Mem. Mus.
Comp. Zool._ xix. (1895).
The _Amblyopsidae_, which include the remarkable blind cave fishes of
North America (Mammoth cave and others), are nearly related to the
_Cyprinodontidae_, and like many of them ovo-viviparous. _Chologaster_,
from the lowland streams and swamps of the south Atlantic states, has
the eyes well developed and the body is coloured. _Amblyopsis_ and
_Typhlichthys_, which are evidently derived from _Chologaster_, or from
forms closely related to it, but living in complete darkness, have the
eyes rudimentary and more or less concealed under the skin, and the body
is colourless.
See F. W. Putnam, _Amer. Nat._ (1872), p. 6, and _P. Boston Soc._
xvii. (1875), p. 222; and C. H. Eigenmann, _Archiv. fur
Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen_, viii. (1899), p. 545.
(G. A. B.)
CYPRUS, one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, nominally in
the dominion of Turkey, but under British administration, situated in
the easternmost basin of that sea, at roughly equal distance from the
coasts of Asia Minor to the north and of Syria to the east. The headland
of Cape Kormakiti in Cyprus is distant 44 m. from Cape Anamur in Asia
Minor, and its north-east point, Cape St Andrea, is 69 m. from Latakieh
in Syria. It lies between 34 deg. 33' and 35 deg. 41' N., and between 32
deg. 20' and 34 deg. 35' E., so that it is situated in almost exactly
the same latitude as Crete. Its greatest length is about 141 m., from
Cape Drepano in the west to Cape St Andrea in the north-east, and its
greatest breadth, from Cape Gata in the south to Cape Kormakiti in the
north, reaches 60 m.; while it retains an average width of from 35 to 50
m. through the greater part of its extent, but narrows suddenly to less
than 10 m. about 34 deg. E., and from thence sends out a long narrow
tongue of land towards the E.N.E. for a distance of 46 m., terminating
in Cape St Andrea. The coast-line measures 486 m. Cyprus is the largest
island in the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. In 1885 a
trigonometrical survey and a map on the scale of 1 in. to 1 m. were made
by Captain (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, R.E., who worked out the area of
the island at 3584 sq. m., or a little more than the area of Norfolk and
Suffolk.
_Mountains._--Great part of the island is occupied by two mountain
ranges, both of which have a general direction from west to east. Of
these the most extensive, as well as the most lofty, is that which fills
up almost the whole southern portion of the island, and is generally
designated by modern geographers as Mount Olympus, though that name
appears to have been applied by the ancients only to one particular
peak. The highest summit is known at the present day as Mount Troodos,
and attains an elevation of 6406 ft. It sends down subordinate ranges or
spurs, of considerable altitude, on all sides, one of which extends to
Cape Arnauti (the ancient Acamas), which forms the north-west extremity
of the island, while others descend on both sides quite to the northern
and southern coasts. On the south-eastern slope are governmental and
military summer quarters. The main range is continued eastward by the
lofty summits known as Mount Adelphi (5305 ft.), Papoutsa (5124) and
Machaira or Chionia (4674), until it ends in the somewhat isolated peak
called Santa Croce (Stavrovouni or Oros Stavro), the Hill of the Holy
Cross (2260 ft.). This mountain, designated by Strabo Mount Olympus, is
a conspicuous object from Larnaca, from which it is only 12 m. distant,
and is well known from being frequented as a place of pilgrimage. The
northern range of mountains begins at Cape Kormakiti (the ancient
Crommyon) and is continued from thence in an unbroken ridge to the
eastern extremity of the island, Cape St Andrea, a distance of more than
100 m. It is not known by any collective name; its western part is
called the Kyrenia mountains, while the remainder has the name of
Carpas. It is inferior in elevation to the southern range, its highest
summit (Buffavento) attaining only 3135 ft., while in the eastern
portion the elevation rarely exceeds 2000 ft. But it is remarkable for
its continuous and unbroken character--consisting throughout of a narrow
but rugged and rocky ridge, descending abruptly to the south into the
great plain of Lefkosia, and to the north to a narrow plain bordering
the coast.
[Illustration: Map of Cyprus.]
_The Mesaoria._--Between the two mountain ranges lies a broad plain,
extending across the island from the bay of Famagusta to that of Morphou
on the west, a distance of nearly 60 m., with a breadth varying from 10
to 20 m. It is known by the name of the Mesaoria or Messaria, and is
watered by a number of intermittent streams from the mountains on either
hand. The chief streams are the Pedias and the Yalias, which follow
roughly parallel courses eastward. The greater part of the plain is open
and uncultivated, and presents nothing but barren downs; but corn is
grown in considerable quantities in the northern portions of it, and
there is no doubt that the whole is readily susceptible of cultivation.
It is remarkable that Cyprus was celebrated in antiquity for its
forests, which not only clothed the whole of its mountain ranges, but
covered the entire central plain with a dense mass, so that it was with
difficulty that the land could be cleared for cultivation. At the
present day the whole plain of the Mesaoria is naturally bare and
treeless, and it is only the loftiest and central summits of Mount
Olympus that still retain their covering of pine woods. The
disappearance of the forests (which has in a measure been artificially
remedied) naturally affected the rivers, which are mostly mere torrents,
dry in summer. Even the Pedias (ancient _Pediaeus_) does not reach the
sea in summer, and its stagnant waters form unhealthy marshes. In the
marshy localities malarial fever occurs but is rarely (in modern times)
of a severe type. The mean annual temperature in Cyprus is about 69 deg.
F. (mean maximum 78 deg., and minimum 57 deg.). The mean annual rainfall
is about 19 ins. October to March is the cool, wet season. Earthquakes
are not uncommon.
_Geology._--Cyprus lies in the continuation of the folded belt of the
Anti-taurus. The northern coast range is formed by the oldest rocks in
the island, consisting chiefly of limestones and marbles with
occasional masses of igneous rock. These are supposed to be of
Cretaceous age, but no fossils have been found in them. On both sides
the range is flanked by sandstones and shales (the Kythraean series),
supposed to be of Upper Eocene age; and similar rocks occur around the
southern mountain mass. The Oligocene consists of grey and white marls
(known as the Idalian series), which are distributed all over the
island and attain their greatest development on the south side of the
Troodos. All these rocks have been folded, and take part in the
formation of the mountains. The great igneous masses of Troodos, &c.,
consisting of diabase, basalt and serpentine, are of later date.
Pliocene and later beds cover the central plain and occur at intervals
along the coast. The Pliocene is of marine origin, and rests
unconformably upon all the older beds, including the Post-oligocene
igneous rocks, thus proving that the final folding and the last
volcanic outbursts were approximately of Miocene age. The caves of the
Kyrenian range contain a Pleistocene mammalian fauna.
_Population._--The population of Cyprus in 1901 was 237,022, an increase
of 27,736 since 1891 and of 51,392 since 1881. The people are mainly
Greeks and Turks. About 22% of the population are Moslems; nearly all
the remainder are Christians of the Orthodox Greek Church. The Moslem
religious courts, presided over by cadis, are strictly confined to
jurisdiction in religious cases affecting the Mahommedan population. The
island is divided into the six districts of Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca,
Limasol, Nicosia and Papho. The chief towns are Nicosia (pop. 14,752),
the capital, in the north central part of the island, Limasol (8298) and
Larnaca (7964) on the south-eastern coast. The other capitals of
districts are Famagusta on the east coast, Kyrenia on the north, and
Ktima, capital of Papho, on the south-west. Kyrenia, a small port, has a
castle built about the beginning of the 13th century, and notable,
through the troubled history of the island, as never having been
captured.
_Agriculture, &c._--The most important species of the few trees that
remain in the island are the Aleppo pine, the _Pinus laricio_, cypress,
cedar, carob, olive and _Quercus alnifolia_. Recent additions are the
eucalyptus, casuarina, _Pinus pinea_ and ailanthus. Some protection has
been afforded to existing plantations, and some attempt made to extend
their area; but the progress in both directions is slow. Agriculture is
the chief industry in the island, in spite of various disabilities. The
soil is extremely fertile, and, with a fair rainfall, say 13 in.,
between November and April, yields magnificent crops, but the
improvements in agriculture are scarcely satisfactory. The methods and
appliances used are extremely primitive, and inveterate prejudice debars
the average peasant from the use of new implements, fresh seed, or
manure; he generally cares nothing for the rotation of crops, or for the
cleanliness of his land. Modern improvements and the use of imported
machinery have, however, been adopted by some. A director of agriculture
was appointed in 1896, and leaflets are issued pointing out improvements
within the means of the villager, and how to deal with plant diseases
and insect pests. The products of the soil include grain, fruit,
including carob, olive, mulberry, cotton, vegetables and oil seeds.
Vineyards occupy a considerable area, and the native wines are pure and
strong, but not always palatable. The native practice of conveying wine
in tarred skins was deleterious to its flavour, and is now for the most
part abolished. A company has exploited and improved the industry. Large
sums have been expended on the destruction of locusts; they are now
practically harmless, but live locusts are diligently collected every
year, a reward being paid by the government for their destruction. Under
the superintendence of an officer lent by the government of Madras, two
great works of irrigation, from the lack of which agriculture had
seriously suffered, were undertaken in 1898 and 1899. The smaller
includes a reservoir at Syncrasi (Famagusta), with a catchment of 27 sq.
m. and a capacity of 70,000,000 cub. ft. It reclaims 360 acres, and was
estimated to irrigate 4320. The larger scheme includes three large
reservoirs in the Mesaoria to hold up and temporarily store the flood
waters of the Pedias and Yalias rivers. The estimate premised a cost of
L50,000, the irrigation of 42,000 acres, and the reclamation of 10,000.
These works were completed respectively in 1899 and 1901.
The rearing of live stock is of no little importance. A committee exists
"for the improvement of the breeds of Cyprus stock"; stallions of Arab
blood have been imported, and prizes are offered for the best donkeys.
Cattle, sheep, mules and donkeys are sent in large numbers to Egypt.
Cyprus mules have found favour in war in the Crimea, India, Uganda,
Eritrea and Egypt. The sea fisheries are not important, with the
exception of the sponge fishery, which is under the protection of the
administration. The manufactures of the island are insignificant.
_Minerals._--Next to its forests, which long supplied the Greek monarchs
of Egypt with timber for their fleets, Cyprus was celebrated among the
ancients for its mineral wealth, especially for its mines of copper,
which were worked from a very early period, and continued to enjoy such
reputation among both Greeks and Romans that the modern name for the
metal is derived from the term of Aes Cyprium or Cuprium by which it was
known to the latter. According to Strabo the most valuable mines were
worked at a place called Tamasus, in the centre of the island, on the
northern slopes of Mount Olympus, but their exact site has not been
identified. An attempt to work copper towards the close of the 19th
century was a failure, but some prospecting was subsequently carried on.
Besides copper, according to Strabo, the island produced considerable
quantities of silver; and Pliny records it as producing various kinds of
precious stones, among which he mentions diamonds and emeralds, but
these were doubtless nothing more than rock crystal and beryl. Salt,
which was in ancient times one of the productions for which the island
was noted, is still made in large quantities, and there are extensive
salt works in the neighbourhood of Larnaca and Limasol, where there are
practically inexhaustible salt lakes. Rock crystal and asbestos are
still found in the district of Paphos. Gypsum is exported unburnt from
the Carpas, and as plaster of Paris from Limasol and Larnaca. Statuary
marble has been found on the slopes of Buffavento in the northern range.
Excellent building stone exists throughout the island.
_Commerce._--A disability against the trade of Cyprus has been the want
of natural harbours, the ports possessing only open roadsteads; though
early in the 20th century the construction of a satisfactory commercial
harbour was undertaken at Famagusta, and there is a small harbour at
Kyrenia. Trade is carried on principally from the ports already
indicated among the chief towns. The various agricultural products,
cattle and mules, cheese, wines and spirits, silk cocoons and gypsum
make up the bulk of the exports. Barley and wheat, carobs and raisins
may be specially indicated among the agricultural exports. The annual
value of exports and of imports (which are of a general character) may
be set down as about L300,000 each. Good roads are maintained connecting
the more important towns, and when the harbour at Famagusta was
undertaken the construction of a railway from that port to Nicosia was
also put in hand. The Eastern Telegraph Co. maintains a cable from
Alexandria (Egypt) to Larnaca, and the greater part of the lines on the
island. The Imperial Ottoman Telegraph Co. has also some lines. The
British sovereign is the current gold coin, the unit of the bronze and
silver coinage being the _piastre_ (1(1/3) penny). Turkish weights and
measures are used. The oke, equalling 2.8 lb. avoirdupois, and the
_donum_, about 1/4 of an acre, are the chief units.
_Constitution and Government._--Under a convention signed at
Constantinople on the 4th of June 1878, Great Britain engaged to join
the sultan of Turkey in defending his Asiatic possessions (in certain
contingencies) against Russia, and the sultan, "in order to enable
England to make necessary provision for executing her engagement,"
consented to assign the island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered
by England. The British flag was hoisted on the 12th of June, and the
conditions of the occupation were explained in an annex to the
convention, dated the 1st of July. An order in council of the 14th of
September, modified so far as related to legislation by another of the
30th of November, regulated the government of the island. The
administration was placed in the hands of a high commissioner with the
usual powers of a colonial governor. Executive and legislative councils
were established; and in each of the six districts into which, for
administrative and legal purposes, the island was divided, a
commissioner was appointed to represent the government. The executive
council consists of the high commissioner, the chief secretary, the
king's advocate, the senior officer in charge of the troops, and the
receiver-general, with, as "additional" members, two Christians and one
Mussulman. The legislative council consists of six non-elected members,
being office-holders, and twelve elected members, three being chosen by
the Moslems and nine by the non-Moslem inhabitants. British subjects and
foreigners, who have resided five years in Cyprus, can exercise the
franchise as well as Ottoman subjects. The qualification otherwise is
the payment of any of the taxes classed as Vergi Taxes (see below). The
courts in existence at the time of the occupation were superseded by the
following, constituted by an order in council dated the 30th of November
1882:--(1) a supreme court of criminal and civil appeal; (2) six assize
courts; (3) six district courts; (4) six magistrates' courts; and (5)
village courts. Actions are divided, according to the nationality of the
defendant, into "Ottoman" and "Foreign"; in the latter, the president of
the court alone exercises jurisdiction as a rule, so also in criminal
cases against foreigners. The law administered is that contained in the
Ottoman codes, modified by ordinances passed by the legislative council.
_Finance._--The principal sources of revenue are:--
(1) Vergi taxes, or taxes on house and land property, and trade
profits and incomes (not including salaries); (2) military exemption
tax, payable by Moslems and Christians alike, but not by foreigners,
of 2s. 6d. a head on males between 18 and 60 years of age; (3) tithes.
All tithes have been abolished, except those on cereals, carobs, silk
cocoons, and, in the form of 10% _ad valorem_ export duties, those on
cotton, linseed, aniseed and raisins (all other export duties and a
fishing tax have been abolished); (4) sheep, goat, and pig tax; (5) an
excise on wine, spirits and tobacco; (6) import duties; (7) stamps,
court fees, royalties, licenses, &c.; (8) salt monopoly. Foreigners
are liable to all the above taxes except the military exemption tax.
The annual sum of L92,800, payable to Turkey as the average excess
(according to the years 1873-1878) of revenue over expenditure, but
really appropriated to the interest on the British guaranteed loan of
1855, is a heavy burden. But if not lightened, taxation is at least
better apportioned than formerly.
_Instruction._--A general system of grants in aid of elementary
schools was established in 1882. There are some 300 connected with the
Greek Orthodox Church, and 160 elementary Moslem schools. Aid is also
given to a few Armenian and Maronite schools. Among other schools are
a Moslem high school (maintained entirely by government), a training
college at Nicosia for teachers in the Orthodox Church schools, Greek
high schools at Larnaca and Limasol, an English school for boys and a
girls' school at Nicosia. By a law of 1895 separate boards of
education for Moslem and Greek Christian schools were established, and
in each district there are separate committees, presided over by the
commissioner. An institution worthy of special notice is the home and
farm for lepers near Nicosia, accommodating over a hundred inmates.