_Pituitary Tube._--A remarkable peculiarity of the Cyclostomes lies in
the fact that the pituitary ingrowth of ectoderm does not, as in other
forms, become involved in the inpushing of ectoderm which forms the
buccal cavity. On the contrary, it lies outside the edge of the
stomodaeum, and in the case of the lampreys active growth takes place
in the tissue between the pituitary and stomodaeal ingrowths, so that
the two openings come to be widely separated, the pituitary opening
being pushed back on to the dorsal side of the head. The pituitary
opening remains patent throughout life, as is the case with
Crossopterygians alone amongst Gnathostomata. In _Myxine_ a further
remarkable peculiarity in regard to the hypophysis, probably adaptive
in nature, occurs, inasmuch as the pituitary invagination develops an
opening at its posterior end into the pharynx.
_Nervous System._--The anterior end of the nervous tube is enlarged
and differentiated to form a brain as in other Vertebrates, but this
brain in the lampreys at least shows remarkably primitive features.
The enlargement as compared with the spinal cord is seen to be
comparatively slight: the brain is much elongated, and its various
regions lie in a straight line one behind the other: the roof of the
brain retains to a great extent the primitive epithelial condition. On
each side anteriorly there is present a comparatively large olfactory
lobe, and this is continued posteriorly into a small cerebral
hemisphere.
The lampreys are amongst those vertebrates in which there is an
eye-like apparatus (3) connected with the roof of the
thalamencephalon. There grow out from the roof of the thalamencephalon
two processes, a posterior (the pineal process), and an anterior (the
parapineal process). The pineal process grows forwards so as to
overlie the parapineal process. Each of these projections from the
roof of the thalamencephalon dilates to form a vesicle, and each
vesicle shows certain eye-like characteristics, its deep wall forming
a "retina" and its superficial wall being clear and translucent
("pellucida"). The retinal cells are packed in the case of the pineal
organ with opaque white pigment: similar pigment occurs in smaller
quantity in the parapineal organ. Definite sensory cells are also
present with rod-like structures projecting into the lumen of the
vesicle. Nerve fibres have been traced--from the pineal organ into the
posterior commissure and possibly into the right habenular ganglion.
As regards other parts of the brain, the chief point to note is that
the cerebellum is in a most rudimentary condition, forming merely a
slight transverse thickening of the hind-brain roof at its anterior
end. In Myxinoids the brain is much larger as compared with the spinal
cord, and it differs from that of the lampreys by being relatively
much shorter in an anteroposterior direction. A remarkable negative
feature lies in the complete absence of the pineal and parapineal
organs so conspicuous in the lampreys. The olfactory organ of
Cyclostomes is remarkable for two special characteristics, firstly,
that the two olfactory organs of other vertebrates are here
represented by a single median structure, and secondly, that the
olfactory organ becomes sunk down beneath the surface through becoming
involved in the ectodermal ingrowth which forms the pituitary tube. As
a further consequence in the case of the lampreys the olfactory organ
becomes transported to the roof of the head along with the pituitary
opening, which latter functions as an external nostril. That the
unpaired olfactory organ of existing Cyclostomes has passed through,
in their ancestors, a paired condition such as exists in other
vertebrates, is indicated by the fact that it retains a pair of
olfactory nerves.
The eyes in adult lampreys are of moderate size, while in the
Myxinoids they are greatly reduced--sunk beneath the skin
(_Bdellostoma_) or even in amongst the muscles of the head (_Myxine_).
The lens is completely absent, also the ocular muscles. The otocyst or
auditory organ is unique amongst craniate vertebrates in regard to the
semicircular canals. In the lampreys there are only two instead of the
normal three, while the Myxinoids have only one.
_Alimentary Canal._--The widely gaping buccal funnel is
morphologically an inpushing of the outer skin, i.e. it is stomodaeal
in nature. The thorn-like teeth which stud its lining are formed
simply by cornification of the epidermal cells (4) like the
provisional horny teeth of a tadpole, and are not homologous with the
true teeth of ordinary vertebrates. As to whether they represent the
remnant of a once present system of epidermal scales, which may have
preceded the coating of placoid elements in the evolution of the
vertebrate, there is no evidence.
[Illustration: Modified from T. J. Parker, _Zootomy_, fig. 4, by
permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 2.--Median longitudinal section through anterior end of
_Petromyzon_.
a.v.o, Atrio-ventricular opening.
br, Brain.
br.o, Internal opening of gill sac.
d.a, Dorsal aorta.
d.c, Ductus cuvieri.
h.v, Hepatic vein.
i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein.
N, Notochord.
oes, Oesophagus.
olf, Olfactory organ.
pc, Pericardium.
p.c.v, Left posterior cardinal vein.
pit, Pituitary tube.
V, Ventricle.
v, Velum.]
The pharyngeal region, closely associated with the respiratory
function, possesses, on each side, a series of gill-sacs (six in
_Myxine_: seven in _Petromyzon_, besides an anterior one which is laid
down in the embryo but disappears later: up to as many as fourteen in
_Bdellostoma_) opening on the one hand to the pharynx and on the other
to the exterior. In _Bdellostoma_ and in the larva of _Petromyzon_ the
gill-sacs open directly from the pharynx to the exterior, but in the
adult lamprey and in _Myxine_ the original relations are modified. In
_Myxine_, the external openings of the gill-sacs have migrated
backwards along the side of the body and become coincident at a point
slightly posterior to the last sac. It follows from this that each sac
is connected with the common aperture by a tube, longest in the case
of the first sac, shortest in the case of the last. In the adult
lamprey a different modification is found. Here the dorsal portion of
the pharynx has become nipped off as a narrow tube which functions as
an oesophagus from the larger ventral portion, which forms an
elongated saccular structure ending blindly at its hinder end and
having in its lateral wall the internal openings of the gill-sacs.
_Breathing._--The inspiratory current passes inwards by the mouth
opening in the larval lamprey, by the pituitary tube in _Myxine_,
while in the adult lamprey both expiration and inspiration takes place
through the external gill-openings. In the case of the lampreys the
elastic skeleton of the branchial region (see below) plays an
important part in respiration. The branchial region shows rhythmic
contraction through the agency of the transverse muscles--and
expansion, through the elasticity of the branchial skeleton--in the
adult lamprey. These rhythmic movements of the branchial region cause
successive inflow and outflow through the branchial openings. In the
larva, on the other hand, the respiratory current always passes in one
direction--backwards. This is helped by the presence of a velar fold
at the front end of the pharynx, which acts as a valve opening only
backwards, and to the presence of membranous flaps projecting back
from the anterior border of each gill-opening and acting as valves
which open only outwards.
Behind the pharynx comes the truly digestive part of the alimentary
canal in the form of a straight tube showing little differentiation
into special regions. The lining of the intestine is increased in area
by an inwardly projecting fold, which is compared by some
morphologists with the spiral valve of certain other groups. In the
mature river lamprey the digestive tract becomes in great part
degenerate.
_Coelomic Organs._--The chief point of interest about the
splanchnocoele or perivisceral cavity is that in the Myxinoids the
adult shows a persistent embryonic condition in that the pericardiac
portion never becomes isolated from the main body cavity.
The renal organs are of special interest in the Myxinoids from their
very simple character. The kidney duct is seen running along the roof
of the coelom on either side. Into the duct open short segmentally
arranged tubes, each possessing at its closed rounded extremity a
Malpighian body. Each of these short tubes is morphologically a
nephric tubule, which, however, in correlation with its shortness, is
without the turns and twists so characteristic of such tubules
generally. A further consequence of the short simple character of the
tubules is that they are quite separate from one another, instead of
being massed together to form a compact gland such as the kidney is
elsewhere. In _Petromyzon_ the kidney has the ordinary compact form,
and here also the Malpighian bodies are shut off from the
splanchnocoele.
The ovary or testis is a large unpaired structure hanging from the
dorsal wall of the splanchnocoele and shedding its products into it;
from the coelomic space the genital products pass into the urogenital
sinus--formed by the fusion of the kidney ducts at their hinder
ends--through a small opening, one at each side. This opening, which
leads directly from coelom into urogenital sinus, is known as the
genital pore. Its morphological significance is doubtful.
_Skeleton._--The vertebral column of the lamprey is represented by a
persistent notochord surrounded by a thick sheath, which shows no
signs of invasion by cartilage cells or of segmentation. Resting on
the sheath are paired dorsal arch elements, more numerous than the
neuromuscular segments. In the tail region these are united into a
continuous band of cartilage on each side: similar cartilaginous bands
represent the ventral arch elements of the tail region. The skeleton
of the head region consists of a cartilaginous cranium, into the
formation of which enter typical parachordal and trabecular elements,
together with olfactory and auditory capsules. In addition to these,
there are a number of other cartilaginous pieces present in the head
region, the homologies of which are doubtful.
_Branchial Basket._--One of the most characteristic features of the
skeleton of the lamprey is the remarkable cartilaginous "branchial
basket," which supports the gill region. In an adult river lamprey the
basketwork consists on each side of a series of eight vertical
half-hoops of cartilage. The hoops of each side are connected together
dorsally by a pair of longitudinal bars, lying ventral to the
notochord, and ventrally by a similar pair of rods which are fused in
the middle line. Slender cartilaginous projections arise from the
anterior and posterior sides of the hoops, and certain of these
meeting at their ends form additional longitudinal bars connecting
together successive hoops. Connected with the basketwork posteriorly
is a remarkable cup-shaped cartilage, which supports the hind wall of
the pericardium. The series of cartilaginous half-hoops naturally
suggest the half-hoops of cartilage which form the skeleton of the
visceral arches in the Gnathostomata. They are, however, more
superficial in position, and this has led many to doubt their actual
homology with the cartilaginous visceral arches. Taking into account,
however, our present knowledge of the development of the two sets of
structures, it seems on the whole probable that a true homology exists
and that the branchial basket of the lamprey represents merely a set
of visceral arches modified in accordance with the peculiar breathing
methods of the creature. In the Myxinoids the branchial basket is
reduced to a few vestigial masses of cartilage.
_Vascular System._--The heart (5) of the lamprey consists of an atrium
and a single ventricle, the atrium on the left, the ventricle on the
right. Into the atrium, on its right side, and behind the
atrio-ventricular opening, there opens a nearly vertical chamber
usually termed the sinus venosus (see below), the opening guarded by a
pair of vertically placed valves. The ventricle passes anteriorly into
what is clearly the homologue of the conus arteriosus of other forms.
In its interior are present a pair of laterally placed longitudinal
ridges similar to the ridges which occur in other forms in the conus.
The opening from ventricle into conus is guarded by a pair of
laterally placed pocket valves situated just within the boundary of
the ventricle.
The arterial system is of the ordinary piscine type. From the heart
there passes forwards a ventral aorta, split into two separate vessels
in its anterior half, and giving off on each side a series of efferent
vessels to the gill-sacs, one passing between each two gill-sacs and
an additional one to the front wall of the front sac and to the
posterior wall of the last. The blood is collected from the walls of
the gill-sacs by a series of efferent vessels which open into the
dorsal aorta. It is to be noted that the dorsal aorta retains the
probably primitive unpaired condition, except for a very short extent
at its anterior end, where it is split so as to form two short aortic
roots.
_Venous System._--The main venous channels are like those in other
fishes, though their connexion with the heart becomes modified in the
adult. The two posterior cardinals--with their continuations forwards,
the anterior cardinals--approach the median plane and undergo fusion
in the region of their opening into the two ductus Cuvieri. The left
ductus Cuvieri then atrophies so that all the blood from the cardinals
reaches the heart by way of the originally right ductus Cuvieri. It
is this right ductus Cuvieri which forms the dorsal part of what is
usually termed the sinus venosus. The inferior jugular veins which
return the blood from the ventral side of the head also become
replaced in the adult by a median unpaired vein which opens
posteriorly into the sinus venosus by what probably represents the
hinder end of the original right inferior jugular. It is interesting
to note that in _Polypterus_, one of the Crossopterygian ganoids,
there is a somewhat similar asymmetrical condition of inferior
jugulars and ductus Cuvieri.
_Oviposition of Lamprey_ (6).--The lamprey chooses as spawning ground
a part of the stream with fairly rapid current and where the bottom is
composed of sand with scattered stones. By means of the suctorial
mouth, stones are removed from more or less circular area so as to
form a shallow excavation. The male and female frequently work
together at the task of preparing the nest. When oviposition is about
to take place, the male may be seen to suddenly attach himself to the
dorsal surface of the head of the female which holds on to one of the
stones at the upper margin of the nest. The urogenital opening of the
male, with its specially prominent papilla, is approximated to that of
the female, and with a peculiar quivering movement the eggs and sperms
are emitted synchronously amidst clouds of sand stirred up by the
movements of the tail. The eggs fertilized thus at the moment of exit
are very sticky from their coating of albumen, and become weighted
down by adherent grains of sand.
_Development._--The development of the lamprey is of much
morphological importance from the archaic nature of the creature and
from the fact that the egg is comparatively small (about 1 mm. in
diameter), so that development is not greatly modified by a large mass
of yolk. It has been worked out so far only in the river lamprey (7).
Segmentation is complete and unequal. It, as well as the process of
gastrulation, agrees in its main features with the same phenomenon in
_Amia_, Dipnoans and Urodele amphibians. The blastopore persists as
the anal opening of the adult. The mesoderm arises in a manner closely
comparable with that which occurs in _Amphioxus_, the chief difference
being that the mesoderm segments are solid instead of hollow, except
in the anterior head region, where they are true hollow enterocoelic
pouches. The rudiment of the central nervous system has the form of a
solid keel-like ingrowth of ectoderm along the mid-dorsal line, which
only secondarily becomes hollowed out--just as happens in Teleostean
fishes. The young lamprey, after completing its embryonic development,
passes three or four years, in fact its whole life up to the time of
sexual maturity, in a prolonged larval condition in which its
structure shows important differences from that of the adult. This
larval stage of the fresh-water lamprey of Europe was long supposed to
be a separate genus of Cyclostomes and was called _Ammocoetes_. The
_Ammocoetes_ lives in the mud and breathes and feeds by means of a
current of water produced by ciliary action, which carries Flagellates
and other microscopic organisms in through the mouth opening.
Correlated with this mode of feeding the buccal cavity is without the
teeth so characteristic of the adult. A number of complicated branched
sensory processes grow into and nearly occlude the cavity, forming a
kind of sieve with only narrow chinks through which the ingoing
current passes. The water passes out by the gill openings, which in
_Ammocoetes_ open direct from pharynx to exterior. Certain
arrangements of the pharyngeal wall of _Ammocoetes_ show a remarkable
resemblance to what is found in _Amphioxus_. The thyroid, which in the
adult is a complicated ductless gland, has in the young _Ammocoetes_
the form of a longitudinal groove of the ventral wall of the pharynx.
This groove is lined by columnar cells, some carrying cilia, others
being glandular and secreting sticky slime. These gland cells are
arranged in four longitudinal bands. The thyroid is, in fact, in this
stage in a condition corresponding exactly with the endostyle of
_Amphioxus_. The agreement extends to function the secretion, forming
sticky threads which entangle food particles. Anteriorly a pair of
peripharyngeal bands pass dorsalwards, one on each side, to bend back
suprapharyngeal bands which are continued to the hinder end of the
pharynx. Here again the resemblance to what occurs in _Amphioxus_ is
very close.
The _Ammocoetes_ possesses a functional liver with bileduct, while in
the adult river lamprey the alimentary canal is degenerate. It has no
arch elements on its notochord. Its eyes are sunk beneath the surface
and nonfunctional, and they retain to a great extent an embryonic
character (8). There is a rapid process of metamorphosis from the
larval to the adult condition, the details of which are by no means
sufficiently known. After the metamorphosis the now mature lamprey
accomplishes the act of reproduction and then apparently dies almost
immediately. The development of the Myxinoids is much less well known
than that of the lampreys. As regards the common hagfish (_Myxine
glutinosa_), we are indeed still in complete ignorance in regard to
its developmental history in spite of persistent efforts to obtain
embryological material. It seems probable that during the breeding
period the hagfishes retire into some particularly inaccessible
habitat. Within the last few years, however, abundant material
illustrating the developmental history of _Bdellostoma_ (9) has been
obtained on the Californian coast, and this when fully worked out will
give us a good idea of the general lines of Myxinoid development. The
egg differs greatly from that of the lampreys. It is--as is that of
_Myxine_--of large size, richly yolked and of a shortened-up sausage
shape. It measures about 22 mm. by 8 mm. Surrounding the egg is a
protective capsule of a yellow horny appearance. At one end a cap-like
portion of this forms a detachable operculum, in the middle of which
is a minute opening, the micropyle. Each end of the capsule is
prolonged into a group of stiff processes with anchor-like expansions
at their tips. Segmentation is, as in other richly yolked eggs,
incomplete, confined to the germinal disk at the opercular pole. The
central nervous system in _Bdellostoma_ develops by the overarching of
medullary folds, not out of a solid keel as is the case with the
lampreys.
_History in Time._--The softness of the skeletal tissues and the
absence of scales in Cyclostomata provide little opportunity for the
preservation of fossil remains of this group, and no known fossils can
be referred with certainty to the Cyclostomata. The Devonian
_Palaeospondylus gunni_ has been regarded as a Cyclostome by some
authors, but this relationship is at the least doubtful. Other authors
have associated the Ostracoderms, the oldest known vertebrates, with
this group.
REFERENCES.--1. D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, _Fishes of North and
Middle America_ (Washington, 1896), part i. p. 8; 2. L. Plate, _SB.
Ges. Naturf._ (Berlin, Jg. 1897), p. 137; 3. F. Studnicka in Oppel's
_Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_
(Jena, 1905), Teil v. s. i.; 4. E. Warren, _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ xlv.
(1902) p. 631; 5. L. Vialleton, _Arch. d'anat. micr._ T. vi. (1903) p.
283; 6. H. A. Surface in D. S. Jordan's _Fishes_ (1905), vol. i. p.
494; 7. A. E. Shipley, _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ xxvii. (1887), W. B. Scott,
_Journ. Morphol._ i. (1887), C. Kupffer, _Arch. mikr. Anat._ xxxv.
(1890), A. Goette, _Entwick. des Flussneunauges_ (Hamburg and Leipzig,
1890); 8. C. Kohl, in _Bibliotheca zoologica_, Heft 13 (Cassel, 1892);
9. Bashford Dean in Kupffer's _Festschrift_ (Jena, 1899).
(J. G. K.)
CYCLOSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: kyklos], a circle, and [Greek: stylos], a
column), a term used in architecture. A structure composed of a circular
range of columns without a core is cyclostylar; with a core the range
would be peristyle. This is the species of edifice called by Vitruvius
monopteral.
CYGNUS ("The Swan"), in astronomy, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be the swan in the form of
which Zeus seduced Leda. Ptolemy catalogued 19 stars, Tycho Brahe 18,
and Hevelius 47. In this constellation [beta] _Cygni_ is a fine coloured
double star, consisting of a yellow star, magnitude 3, and a blue star,
magnitude 5(1/2). The fine double star, [mu] _Cygni_, separated by Sir
William Herschel in 1779, has magnitudes 4 and 5; it has a companion, of
magnitude 7(1/2), which, however, does not form part of the system. A
double star, _61 Cygni_, of magnitudes 5.3 and 5.9, was the first star
whose distance was determined; its parallax is 0".39, and it is
therefore the nearest star in the northern hemisphere with the exception
of [sigma] _Centauri_. A regular variable, [chi] _Cygni_, has extreme
magnitudes of 5 to 13.5, and its period is 406 days. _Nova Cygni_ is a
"new" star discovered by Johann Schmidt in 1876. There is also an
extended nebula in the constellation.
CYLINDER (Gr. [Greek: kylindros], from [Greek: kylindein], to roll). A
cylindrical surface, or briefly a cylinder, is the surface traced out by
a line, named the generatrix, which moves parallel to itself and always
passes through the circumference of a curve, named the directrix; the
name cylinder is also given to the solid contained between such a
surface and two parallel planes which intersect a generatrix. A "right
cylinder" is the solid traced out by a rectangle which revolves about
one of its sides, or the curved surface of this solid; the surface may
also be defined as the locus of a line which passes through the
circumference of a circle, and is always perpendicular to the plane of
the circle. If the moving line be not perpendicular to the plane of the
circle, but moves parallel to itself, and always passes through the
circumference, it traces an "oblique cylinder." The "axis" of a circular
cylinder is the line joining the centres of two circular sections; it is
the line through the centre of the directrix parallel to the generators.
The characteristic property of all cylindrical surfaces is that the
tangent planes are parallel to the axis. They are "developable"
surfaces, i.e. they can be applied to a plane surface without crinkling
or tearing (see SURFACE).
Any section of a cylinder which contains the axis is termed a "principal
section"; in the case of the solids this section is a rectangle; in the
case of the surfaces, two parallel straight lines. A section of the
right cylinder parallel to the base is obviously a circle; any other
section, excepting those limited by two generators, is an ellipse. This
last proposition may be stated in the form:--"The orthogonal projection
of a circle is an ellipse"; and it permits the ready deduction of many
properties of the ellipse from the circle. The section of an oblique
cylinder by a plane perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined
to the axis at the same angle as the base, is named the "subcontrary
section," and is always a circle; any other section is an ellipse.
The mensuration of the cylinder was worked out by Archimedes, who showed
that the volume of any cylinder was equal to the product of the area of
the base into the height of the solid, and that the area of the curved
surface was equal to that of a rectangle having its sides equal to the
circumference of the base, and to the height of the solid. If the base
be a circle of radius r, and the height h, the volume is [pi]r^2h and the
area of the curved surface 2[pi]rh. Archimedes also deduced relations
between the sphere (q.v.) and cone (q.v.) and the circumscribing
cylinder.
The name "cylindroid" has been given to two different surfaces. Thus it
is a cylinder having equal and parallel elliptical bases; i.e. the
surface traced out by an ellipse moving parallel to itself so that every
point passes along a straight line, or by a line moving parallel to
itself and always passing through the circumference of a fixed ellipse.
The name was also given by Arthur Cayley to the conoidal cubic surface
which has for its equation z(x^2 + y^2) = 2mxy; every point on this
surface lies on the line given by the intersection of the planes y = x
tan [theta], z = m sin 2[theta], for by eliminating [theta] we obtain
the equation to the surface.
CYLLENE (mod. _Ziria_), a mountain in Greece, in the N.E. of Arcadia
(7789 ft.). It was specially sacred to Hermes, who was born in a cave on
the mountain, and had a temple and an ancient statue on its summit. The
name Cyllene belongs also to an ancient port town in Elis, and, owing to
doubtful identification with this, to a modern port at Glarentza, and
also to some mineral baths a little to the south of it.
CYMA (Gr. [Greek: kyma], wave), in architecture, a moulding of double
curvature, concave at one end, convex at the other. When the concave
part is uppermost, it is called a _cyma recta_; but if the convex
portion is at the top, it is called a _cyma reversa_. When the crowning
moulding of an entablature is of the cyma form, it is called a
"cymatium."
CYMBALS (Fr. _cymbales_; Ger. _Becken_; Ital. _piatti_ or _cinelli_), a
modern instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, whereas the
small ancient cup-shaped cymbals sounded a definite note. Cymbals
consist of two thin round plates of an alloy containing 8 parts of
copper to two of tin, each having a handle-strap set in the little knob
surmounting the centre of the plate. The sound is obtained not by
clashing them against each other, but by rubbing their edges together by
a sliding movement. Sometimes a weird effect is obtained by suspending
one of the cymbals by the strap and letting a drummer execute a roll
upon it as it swings; or by holding a cymbal in the left hand and
striking it with the soft stick of the bass drum, which produces a sound
akin to that of the tam-tam. All gradations of _piano_ and _forte_ can
be obtained on the cymbals. The composer indicates his intention of
letting the cymbals vibrate by "Let them vibrate," and the contrary
effect by "Damp the sound." To stop the vibrations the performer presses
the cymbals against his chest, as soon as he has played a note. The
duration of the vibration is indicated by the _value_ of the note placed
upon the staff; the name signifies nothing, since the pitch of the
cymbals is indefinite. The instrument is played from the same part of
the score as the bass drum, unless otherwise indicated by _senza
piatti_, or _piatti soli_ if the bass drum is to remain silent. Although
cymbals are not often required they form part of every orchestra; their
chief use is for marking the rhythm and for producing weird, fantastic
effects or adding military colour, and their shrill notes hold their own
against a full orchestra playing _fortissimo_. Cymbals are specially
suited for suggesting frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as in the
Venus music in Wagner's _Tannhauser_ and Grieg's _Peer Gynt_ suite.
Damping gives a suggestion of impending evil or tragedy. The _timbre_ of
the ancient cymbals is entirely different, more like that of small
hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are not struck
full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given
out by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller.
Berlioz in _Romeo and Juliet_ scored for two pairs of cymbals, modelled
on some ancient Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are
no larger than a crown piece), and tuned to [note] and [note].
The origin of the cymbals must be referred to prehistoric times. The
ancient Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own. The British Museum
possesses two pairs, 5(1/3) in. in diameter, one of which was found in
the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician; they are shown
in the same case as the mummy, and have been reproduced by Carl
Engel.[1] Those used by the Assyrians were both plate- and cup-shaped.
The Greek cymbals were cup- or bell-shaped, and are to be seen in the
hands of fauns and satyrs innumerable in sculptures and on painted
vases. The word cymbal is derived from [Greek: kymbe] (Lat. _cymba_),
a hollow vessel, and [Greek: kymbala] = small cymbals. During the
middle ages the word cymbal was applied to the _Glockenspiel_, or peal
of small bells, and later to the dulcimer, perhaps on account of the
clear bell-like tone produced by the hammers striking the wire
strings. After the introduction or invention of the keyed dulcimer or
clavichord, and of the spinet, the word clavicymbal was used in the
Romance languages to denote the varieties of spinet and harpsichord.
Ancient cymbals are among the instruments played by King David and his
musicians in the 9th-century illuminated MS. known as the Bible of
Charles the Bald in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. (K. S.)