depths of the ocean, and exhibit curious modifications of structure. In
_Cheiroteuthis_ itself the tentacular arms are very long and slender,
and are not capable of retraction into pockets. In several species of
this genus the suckers are no longer organs of adhesion, but are simple
cups containing a network of filaments resembling a fishing net. In
_Histioteuthis_ and _Histiopsis_, as in some Octopods, the six dorsal
arms are more or less completely united by a web, which also probably
serves for capturing fish. In these two genera and in _Calliteuthis_ the
skin bears luminous organs. _Cheiroteuthis_ has been taken at 2600 fms.,
_Calliteuthis_ at 2200, _Histiopsis_ at nearly 2000. _Bathyteuthis_,
placed in the same family as _Ommatostrephes_, has been taken at 1700
fms.
The _Cranchiidae_ are remarkable for their small size, the shortness of
the ordinary arms, and the protuberance of the eyes, which in _Taonius_
are actually on the ends of stalk-like outgrowths of the body.
_Cranchia_ is a deep-sea form taken at 1700 fms. Its body is
pear-shaped, swollen posteriorly and quite narrow at the neck.
_Spirula_ is distinguished from all other existing Cephalopods by the
structure of its coiled shell, which in many respects resembles those of
the extinct Ammonites, and is not completely internal. In the structure
of the body the animal is a true cuttle-fish in the sense in which the
term is here used, having ten arms and a perforated cornea. Three
species are distinguished, and their empty shells occur abundantly on
the shores of the tropical regions of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian
Oceans. In German the shells are known from their shape as
_Posthornchen_. They are common on the shores of the Azores. But the
animal has very rarely been obtained; only a few specimens occur in
museum collections. One specimen was taken by the "Challenger" in a
deep-sea trawl, at a depth between 300 and 400 fathoms off Banda Neira
in the Molluccas. Dr Willemoes Suhm, in describing the capture, stated
that the specimen seemed to have been in the stomach of a fish, as its
surface was slightly digested, and he thought it must have habits of
concealment which usually prevent its capture, and that it was secured
on this occasion only by the capture of the fish which had swallowed it.
The fact that the shells are washed ashore in such large numbers is not
fully explained. Possibly when freed from the animal the air in the
chambers of the shell causes it to float, and in that case it would
naturally be sooner or later washed ashore. (J. T. C.)
CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS, BARON (1661-1707), British soldier and
author, came of an Essex family. After a short university career at
Catherine Hall, Cambridge, he came into the enjoyment of the family
estates, but evinced a decided preference for the life of court and
camp. The double ambition for military and literary fame inspired his
first work, which appeared in 1685 under the name _La Muse de cavalier,
or An Apology for such Gentlemen as make Poetry their Diversion not
their Business_. The next year saw Cutts serving as a volunteer under
Charles of Lorraine in Hungary, and it is said that he was the first to
plant the imperialist standard on the walls at the storm of Buda (July
1686). In 1687 he published a book of verse entitled _Poetical
Exercises_, and the following year we find him serving as
lieutenant-colonel in Holland. General Hugh Mackay describes Cutts about
this time as "pretty tall, lusty and well shaped, an agreeable companion
with abundance of wit, affable and familiar, but too much seized with
vanity and self-conceit."
Lieutenant-Colonel Cutts was one of William's companions in the English
revolution of 1688, and in 1690 he went in command of a regiment of foot
to the Irish war. He served with distinction at the battle of the
Boyne, and at the siege of Limerick (where he was wounded), and King
William created him Baron Cutts of Gowran in the kingdom of Ireland. In
1691 he succeeded to the command of the brigade of the prince of Hesse
(wounded at Aughrim), and on the surrender of Limerick was appointed
commandant of the town. Next year he served again in Flanders as a
brigadier, his brigade of Mackay's division being one of those almost
destroyed at Steinkirk. At this battle Cutts himself was wounded. For
some time after this, Lord Cutts was lieutenant-governor of the Isle of
Wight, but he returned to active service in 1694, holding a command in
the disastrous Brest expedition. He was one of Carmarthen's companions
in the daring reconnaissance of Camaret Bay, and was soon afterwards
again wounded. He succeeded Talmash, the commander of the expedition
(who died of his wounds), as colonel of the Coldstream Guards. Next
year, after serving as a commissioner for settling the bank of Antwerp,
he distinguished himself once more at the famous siege of Namur, winning
for himself the name of "Salamander" by his indifference to the heaviest
fire. Henceforward court service and war service alternated. He was deep
in the confidence of William III., and acted as a diplomatic agent in
the negotiations which ended in the peace of Ryswick. On the occasion of
the great fire in Whitehall (1698) Cutts, at the head of the
Coldstreams, earned afresh the honourable nickname of "the Salamander."
A little later we find Captain Richard Steele acting as his private
secretary. In 1702, now a major-general, Cutts was serving under
Marlborough in the opening campaign of the War of the Spanish
Succession, and at the siege of Venloo, conspicuous as usual for
romantic bravery, he led the stormers at Fort Saint Michael. His
enemies, and even the survivors of the assault, were amazed at the
success of a seemingly hare-brained enterprise. Probably, however,
Cutts, who was now a veteran of great and varied experience, measured
the factors of success and failure better than his critics. It was on
this occasion that Swift lampooned the lieutenant-general in his _Ode to
a Salamander_. He made the campaign of 1703 in Flanders, and in 1704,
after a visit to England, he rejoined Marlborough on the banks of the
Danube. At Blenheim he was third in command, and it was his division
that bore the brunt of the desperate fighting at the village which gave
its name to the battle.
Blenheim was Cutts's last battle. His remaining years were spent at
home, and, at the time of his death, he was the holder of eight distinct
political and military offices. He sat in five parliaments for the
county of Cambridge, and in Queen Anne's first Parliament he was
returned for Newport in the Isle of Wight, for which he sat until the
time of his death. He was twice married, but left no issue.
CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832),
French naturalist, was born on the 23rd of August 1769 at Montbeliard,
and was the son of a retired officer on half-pay belonging to a
Protestant family which had emigrated from the Jura in consequence of
religious persecution. He early showed a bent towards the investigation
of natural phenomena, and was noted for his studious habits and
marvellous memory. After spending four years at the Academy of
Stuttgart, he accepted the position of tutor in the family of the Comte
d'Hericy, who was in the habit of spending the summer near Fecamp. It
thus came about that he made the acquaintance of the agriculturist, A.
H. Tessier, who was then living at Fecamp, and who wrote strongly in
favour of his protege to his friends in Paris--with the result that
Cuvier, after corresponding with the well-known naturalist E. Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire, was appointed in 1795 assistant to the professor of
comparative anatomy at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. The National
Institute was founded in the same year and he was elected a member. In
1796 he began to lecture at the Ecole Centrale du Pantheon, and at the
opening of the National Institute in April, he read his first
palaeontological paper, which was subsequently published in 1800 under
the title _Memoires sur les especes d'elephants vivants et fossiles_. In
1798 was published his first separate work, the _Tableau elementaire de
l'histoire naturelle des animaux_, which was an abridgment of his course
of lectures at the Ecole du Pantheon, and may be regarded as the
foundation and first and general statement of his natural classification
of the animal kingdom.
In 1799 he succeeded L. J. M. Daubenton as professor of natural history
in the College de France, and in the following year he published the
_Lecons d'anatomie comparee_, a classical work, in the production of
which he was assisted by A. M. C. Dumeril in the first two volumes, and
by G. L. Duvernoy in three later ones. In 1802 Cuvier became titular
professor at the Jardin des Plantes; and in the same year he was
appointed commissary of the Institute to accompany the inspectors-general
of public instruction. In this latter capacity he visited the south of
France; but he was in the early part of 1803 chosen perpetual secretary
of the National Institute in the department of the physical and natural
sciences, and he consequently abandoned the appointment just mentioned
and returned to Paris.
He now devoted himself more especially to three lines of inquiry--one
dealing with the structure and classification of the mollusca, the
second with the comparative anatomy and systematic arrangement of the
fishes, and the third with fossil mammals and reptiles primarily, and
secondarily with the osteology of living forms belonging to the same
groups. His papers on the mollusca began as early as 1792, but most of
his memoirs on this branch were published in the _Annales du museum_
between 1802 and 1815; they were subsequently collected as _Memoires
pour servir a l'histoire et a l'anatomie des mollusques_, published in
one volume at Paris in 1817. In the department of fishes, Cuvier's
researches, begun in 1801, finally culminated in the publication of the
_Histoire naturelle des poissons_, which contained descriptions of 5000
species of fishes, and was the joint production of Cuvier and A.
Valenciennes, its publication (so far as the former was concerned)
extending over the years 1828-1831. The department of palaeontology
dealing with the Mammalia may be said to have been essentially created
and established by Cuvier. In this region of investigation he published
a long list of memoirs, partly relating to the bones of extinct animals,
and partly detailing the results of observations on the skeletons of
living animals specially examined with a view of throwing light upon the
structure and affinities of the fossil forms. In the second category
must be placed a number of papers relating to the osteology of the
_Rhinoceros Indicus_, the tapir, _Hyrax Capensis_, the hippopotamus, the
sloths, the manatee, &c. In the former category must be classed an even
greater number of memoirs, dealing with the extinct mammals of the
Eocene beds of Montmartre, the fossil species of hippopotamus, the
_Didelphys gypsorum_, the _Megalonyx_, the _Megatherium_, the
cave-hyaena, the extinct species of rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the
mastodon, the extinct species of elephant, fossil species of manatee and
seals, fossil forms of crocodilians, chelonians, fishes, birds, &c. The
results of Cuvier's principal palaeontological and geological
investigations were ultimately given to the world in the form of two
separate works. One of these is the celebrated _Recherches sur les
ossements fossiles de quadrupedes_, published in Paris in 1812, with
subsequent editions in 1821 and 1825; and the other is his _Discours sur
les revolutions de la surface du globe_, published in Paris in 1825.
But none of his works attained a higher reputation than his _Regne
animal distribue d'apres son organisation_, the first edition of which
appeared in four octavo volumes in 1817, and the second in five volumes
in 1829-1830. In this classical work Cuvier embodied the results of the
whole of his previous researches on the structure of living and fossil
animals. The whole of the work was his own, with the exception of the
Insecta, in which he was assisted by his friend P. A. Latreille.
Apart from his own original investigations in zoology and palaeontology
Cuvier carried out a vast amount of work as perpetual secretary of the
National Institute, and as an official connected with public education
generally; and much of this work appeared ultimately in a published
form. Thus, in 1808 he was placed by Napoleon upon the council of the
Imperial University, and in this capacity he presided (in the years
1809, 1811 and 1813) over commissions charged to examine the state of
the higher educational establishments in the districts beyond the Alps
and the Rhine which had been annexed to France, and to report upon the
means by which these could be affiliated with the central university.
Three separate reports on this subject were published by him. In his
capacity, again, of perpetual secretary of the Institute, he not only
prepared a number of _eloges historiques_ on deceased members of the
Academy of Sciences, but he was the author of a number of reports on the
history of the physical and natural sciences, the most important of
these being the _Rapport historique sur le progres des sciences
physiques depuis 1789_, published in 1810. Prior to the fall of Napoleon
(1814) he had been admitted to the council of state, and his position
remained unaffected by the restoration of the Bourbons. He was elected
chancellor of the university, in which capacity he acted as interim
president of the council of public instruction, whilst he also, as a
Lutheran, superintended the faculty of Protestant theology. In 1819 he
was appointed president of the committee of the interior, and retained
the office until his death. In 1826 he was made grand officer of the
Legion of Honour; and in 1831 he was raised by Louis Philippe to the
rank of peer of France, and was subsequently appointed president of the
council of state. In the beginning of 1832 he was nominated to the
ministry of the interior, but on the 13th of May he died in Paris after
a brief illness.
See P. J. M. Flourens, _Eloge historique de G. Cuvier_, published as
an introduction to the _Eloges historiques_ of Cuvier; _Histoire des
travaux de Georges Cuvier_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1858); A. P. de Candolle,
"Mort de G. Cuvier," _Bibliotheque universelle_ (1832, 59, p. 442); C.
L. Laurillard, "Cuvier," _Biographie universelle_, supp. vol. 61
(1836); Sarah Lee, _Memoirs of Cuvier_, translated into French by T.
Lacordaire (1833).
CUVILLES, FRANCOIS DE (1698-c. 1767), French architect and engraver. He
helped to carry the French rococo taste to Germany--he was summoned
about 1720 to Cologne by the elector James Clement; in 1738 he became
architect to the elector of Bavaria, and afterwards occupied the same
position towards the emperor Charles VII. His style, while essentially
thin, is often painfully elaborate and bizarre. He designed mirrors and
consoles, balustrades for staircases, ceilings and fireplaces, and in
furniture, beds and commodes especially. He also laid out parks and
gardens. He wrote several treatises on artistic and decorative subjects,
which were edited by his son, Francois de Cuvilles the younger, who
succeeded his father at the court of Munich.
CUXHAVEN, or KUXHAVEN, a seaport town of Germany, belonging to the state
of Hamburg, and situated at the extremity of the west side of the mouth
of the Elbe, 71 m. by rail N.W. from Hamburg. Pop. (1900) 6898. The
harbour is good and secure, and is much frequented by vessels delayed in
the Elbe by unfavourable weather. A new harbour was made in 1891-1896,
having a depth of 26(1/4) ft., with a fore port 1000 ft. long by 800 ft.
wide; and it is now the place of departure and arrival of the mail
steamers of the Hamburg-American Steamship Company, who in 1901
transferred here a part of their permanent staff. The port is free, i.e.
outside the customs union (_Zollverein_), the imports being principally
coals, bricks and timber, and the exports fish. There is a fishing
fleet, for which a new harbour was opened in 1892. Though lying on a
bare strand, the town is much frequented as a bathing place by
Hamburgers. It is strongly fortified, and there are a lighthouse, and
lifeboat and pilot stations. The town only dates from 1873, having been
formed by uniting the villages of Ritzebuttel and Cuxhaven, which had
belonged to Hamburg since 1394.
CUYABA, or CUIABA, capital of the inland state of Matto Grosso, Brazil,
about 972 m. N.W. of Rio de Janeiro, on the Cuyaba river near its
discharge into the Sao Lourenco, the principal Brazilian tributary of
the Paraguay. Pop. (1890) 14,507; of the municipality, 17,815. The
surrounding country is thickly populated. Cuyaba has uninterrupted
steamer communication with Montevideo, about 2500 m. distant, but has no
land communication with the national capital, except by telegraph. The
climate is hot and malaria is prevalent. Cuyaba was founded in 1719 by
Paulista gold hunters, and its gold-washings, now apparently exhausted,
yielded rich results in the 18th century. It is the see of a bishopric
and headquarters of an important military district, having an arsenal
and military barracks.
CUYAPO, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine
Islands, 28 m. N.N.W. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,292.
Rice is grown here. In 1907 the town of Nampicuan was formed from part
of Cuyapo.
CUYP, the name of a Dutch family which produced two generations of
painters. The Cuyps were long settled at Dordrecht, in the neighbourhood
of which they had a country house, where Albert Cuyp (the most famous)
was born and bred.
The eldest member of the family who acquired fame was JACOB GERRITSZ
CUYP, born it is said at Dordrecht in 1575, and taught by Abraham
Bloemaert of Utrecht. He is known to have been alive in 1649, and the
date of his death is obscure. J. G. Cuyp's pictures are little known.
But he produced portraits in various forms, as busts and half-lengths
thrown upon plain backgrounds, or groups in rooms, landscapes and
gardens. Solid and clever as an imitator of nature in its ordinary garb,
he is always spirited, sometimes rough, but generally plain, and quite
as unconscious of the sparkle conspicuous in Frans Hals as incapable of
the concentrated light-effects peculiar to Rembrandt. In portrait busts,
of which there are signed examples dated 1624, 1644, 1646 and 1649, in
the museums of Berlin, Rotterdam, Marseilles, Vienna and Metz, his
treatment is honest, homely and true; his touch and tone firm and
natural. In portraying children he is fond of introducing playthings and
pets--a lamb, a goat or a roedeer; and he reproduces animal life with
realistic care. In a family scene at the Amsterdam Museum we have
likenesses of men, women, boys and girls with a cottage and park. In the
background is a coach with a pair of horses. These examples alone give
us a clue to the influences under which Albert Cuyp grew up, and explain
to some extent the direction which his art took as he rose to manhood.
ALBERT CUYP (1620-1691), the son of Jacob Gerritsz by Grietche
Dierichsdochter (Dierich's daughter), was born at Dordrecht. He married
in 1658 Cornelia Bosman, a rich widow, by whom he had an only daughter.
By right of his possessions at Dordwyck, Cuyp was a vassal of the county
of Holland, and privileged to sit in the high court of the province. As
a citizen he was sufficiently well known to be placed on the list of
those from whom William III., stadtholder of the Netherlands, chose the
regency of Dordrecht in 1672. His death, and his burial on the 7th of
November 1691 in the church of the Augustines of Dordrecht, are
historically proved. But otherwise the known facts concerning his life
are few. He seldom dates his pictures, but it appears probable that he
ceased to paint about 1675. It has been said that Albert was the pupil
of his father. The scanty evidence of Dutch annalists to this effect
seems confirmed by a certain coincidence in the style and treatment of
father and son. That he was a pupil of van Goyen has been surmised on
the strength of the style of his early works. It has been likewise
stated that Albert was skilled, not only in the production of portraits,
landscapes and herds, but in the representation of still life. His works
are supposed to be divisible into such as bear the distinctive marks C.
or A. C. in cursive characters, the letters A. C. in Roman capitals, and
the name "A. Cuyp" in full. A man of Cuyp's acknowledged talent may have
been versatile enough to paint in many different styles. But whether he
was as versatile as some critics have thought is a question not quite
easy to answer. It is to be observed that pieces assigned to Cuyp
representing game, shell-fish and fruit, and inscribed A. C. in Roman
capitals (Rotterdam, Amsterdam and Berlin museums), though cleverly
executed, are not in touch or treatment like other pictures of less
dubious authenticity, signed either with C. or A. C. or "A. Cuyp" in
cursive letters. The panels marked C. and A. C. in cursive are portraits
or landscapes, with herds, and interiors of stables or sheds, in which
there are cows, horses and poultry. The subjects and their handling are
akin to those which strike us in panels bearing the master's full
signature, though characterized, as productions of an artist in the
first phase of his progress would naturally be, by tones more uniform,
touch more flat, and colour more deep than we find in the delicate and
subtle compositions of the painter's later time. Generally speaking, the
finished examples of Cuyp's middle and final period all bear his full
signature. They are all remarkable for harmonies attained by certain
combinations of shade in gradations with colours in contraposition.
Albert Cuyp, a true child of the Netherlands, does not seem to have
wandered much beyond Rotterdam on the one hand or Nijmwegen on the
other. His scenery is that of the Meuse or Rhine exclusively; and there
is little variety to notice in his views of water and meadows at
Dordrecht, or the bolder undulations of the Rhine banks east of it,
except such as results from diversity of effect due to change of weather
or season or hour. Cuyp is to the river and its banks what Willem
Vandevelde is to calm seas and Hobbema to woods. There is a poetry of
effect, an eternity of distance in his pictures, which no Dutchman ever
expressed in a similar way. His landscapes sparkle with silvery sheen at
early morning, they are bathed in warm or sultry haze at noon, or glow
with heat at eventide. Under all circumstances they have a peculiar
tinge of auburn which is Cuyp's and Cuyp's alone. Burger truly says van
Goyen is gray, Ruysdael is brown, Hobbema olive, but Cuyp "is blond."
The utmost delicacy may be observed in Cuyp's manner of defining
reflections of objects in water, or of sight from water on ship's sides.
He shows great cleverness in throwing pale-yellow clouds against clear
blue skies, and merging yellow mists into olive-green vegetation. He is
also very artful in varying light and shade according to distance,
either by interchange of cloud-shadow and sun-gleam or by gradation of
tints. His horses and cattle are admirably drawn, and they relieve each
other quite as well if contrasted in black and white and black and red,
or varied in subtler shades of red and brown. Rich weed-growth is
expressed by light but marrowy touch, suggestive of detail as well as of
general form. The human figure is given with homely realism in most
cases, but frequently with a charming elevation, when, as often occurs,
the persons represented are meant to be portraits. Whatever the theme
may be it remains impressed with the character and individuality of
Cuyp. Familiar subjects of the master's earlier period are stables with
cattle and horses (Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Petersburg and Brussels
museums). Occasionally he painted portraits in the bust form familiar to
his father, one of which is dated 1649, and exhibited in the National
Gallery, London. More frequently he produced likenesses of ladies and
gentlemen on horseback, in which the life and dress of the period and
the forms of horses are most vividly represented (Buckingham Palace,
Bridgewater Gallery, Louvre and Dresden Museum). Later on we find him
fondest of expansive scenery with meadows and cattle and flocks, or
rivers and barges in the foreground and distances showing the towers and
steeples of Dordrecht. Cuyp was more partial to summer than to winter,
to noon than to night, to calm than to storm. But some of his best
groups are occasionally relieved on dark and gusty cloud (Louvre and
Robarts's collection). A few capital pieces show us people sledging and
skating or netting ice-holes (Yarborough, Neeld and Bedford
collections). A lovely "Night on the Banks of a River," in the Grosvenor
collection, reminds us that Cuyp's friend and contemporary was the
painter of moonlights, Aart van der Neer, to whom he was equal in the
production of these peculiar effects and superior in the throw of
figures. Sometimes Cuyp composed fancy subjects. His "Orpheus charming
the Beasts," in the Bute collection, is judiciously arranged with the
familiar domestic animals in the foreground, and the wild ones, to which
he is a comparative stranger, thrown back into the distance. One of his
rare gospel subjects is "Philip baptizing the Eunuch" (Marchmont House,
Berwickshire), described as a fine work by Waagen. The best and most
attractive of Cuyp's pieces are his Meuse and Rhine landscapes, with
meadows, cattle, flocks and horsemen, and occasionally with boats and
barges. In these he brought together and displayed--during his middle
and final period--all the skill of one who is at once a poet and a
finished artist; grouping, tinting, touch, harmony of light and shade,
and true chords of colours are all combined. Masterpieces of
acknowledged beauty are the "Riders with the Boy and Herdsman" in the
National Gallery; the Meuse, with Dordrecht in the distance, in three or
four varieties, in the Bridgewater, Grosvenor, Holford and Brownlow
collections; the "Huntsman" (Ashburton); "Herdsmen with Cattle,"
belonging to the marquess of Bute; and the "Piper with Cows," in the
Louvre. The prices paid for Cuyp's pictures in his own time were
comparatively low. In 1750, 30 florins was considered to be the highest
sum to which any one of his panels was entitled. But in more recent
times the value of the pictures has naturally risen very largely. At the
sale of the Clewer collection at Christie's in 1876 a small "Hilly
Landscape in Morning Light" was sold for L5040, and a view on the Rhine,
with cows on a bank, for L3150. (J. A. C.)
John Smith's _Catalogue raisonne_ of the Dutch and Flemish painters,
in 9 vols. (1840), enumerated 335 of Albert Cuyp's works, of which in
1877 Sir J. A. Crowe wrote in this encyclopaedia that "it would be
difficult now to find more than a third of them." In C. Hofstede de
Groot's _Catalogue raisonne_, vol. ii. (1909), revising Smith's, the
number is extended to nearly 850, but he accepts too readily the
attributions of sale catalogues; the work is, however, the best modern
authority on the painter.
CUZA (or COUZA), ALEXANDER JOHN [_Alexandru Joan_] (1820-1873), first
prince of Rumania, was born on the 20th of March 1820, at Galatz in
Moldavia, and belonged to an ancient _boiar_, or noble, family. He was
educated at Jassy, Pavia, Bologna and Athens; and, after a brief period
of military service, visited Paris from 1837 to 1840 for a further
course of study. In 1845 he married the daughter of another boiar, Elena
Rosetti, who in 1862 founded the Princess Elena refuge for orphans, at
Bucharest. Cuza was imprisoned by the Russian authorities for taking
part in the Rumanian revolution of 1848, but escaped to Vienna. On his
return, in 1850, he was appointed prefect of Galatz. In 1857 he rejoined
the army, and within a few months rose to the rank of colonel. He became
minister of war in 1858, and represented Galatz in the Assembly which
was elected in the same year to nominate a prince for Moldavia. Cuza was
a prominent speaker in the critical debates which ensued when the
assembly met at Jassy, and strongly advocated the union of the two
Danubian principalities, Moldavia and Walachia. In default of a foreign
prince, he was himself elected prince of Moldavia by the assembly at
Jassy (17th Jan. 1859), and prince of Walachia by the assembly at
Bucharest (5th Feb.). He thus became ruler of the united principalities,
with the title Prince Alexander John I.; but as this union was forbidden
by the congress of Paris (18th Oct. 1858), his authority was not
recognized by his suzerain, the sultan of Turkey, until the 23rd of
December 1861, when the union of the principalities under the name of
Rumania was formally proclaimed. For a full account of Cuza's reign see
Rumania. The personal vices of the prince, and the drastic and
unconstitutional reforms which he imposed on all classes, alienated his
subjects, although many of these reforms proved to be of lasting
excellence. Financial distress supervened, and the popular discontent
culminated in revolution. At four o'clock on the morning of the 22nd of
February 1866, a band of military conspirators broke into the palace,
and compelled the prince to sign his abdication. On the following day
they conducted him safely across the frontier. Prince Alexander spent
the remainder of his life chiefly in Paris, Vienna and Wiesbaden. He
died at Heidelberg on the 15th of May 1873.
CUZCO, an inland city of southern Peru, capital of an Andean department
of the same name, about 360 m. E.S.E. of Lima, in lat. 13 deg. 31' S.,
long. 73 deg. 03' W. The population, largely composed of Indians and
_mestizos_, was estimated at 30,000 in 1896, but according to the
official estimate of 1906, it was then about 25% less. The city stands
at the head of a small valley, 11,380 ft. above sea-level, and is nearly
enclosed by mountains of considerable elevation. The valley itself is 9
m. in length and extends S.E. to the valley of Vilcamayu. Overlooking
the city from the N. is the famous hill of Sacsahuaman, crowned by ruins
of the cyclopean fortress of the Incas and their predecessors, and
separated from adjacent heights by the deep ravines of two streams,
called the Huatenay and Rodadero. The principal part of the city lies
between these two streams, with its great _plaza_ in the centre. On the
W. side of the Huatenay are two more fine squares, called the Cabildo
and San Francisco. The houses of the city are built of stone, their
walls commonly showing the massive masonry of the Incas at the bottom,
crowned with a light modern superstructure roofed with red tiles. The
streets cross each other at right angles and afford fine vistas on every
side. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, which is classed
among the best in South America, the convent of San Domingo, which
partly occupies the site of the great Temple of the Sun of the Incas,
the _cabildo_ or government-house, a university founded in 1598, a
college of science and arts, a public library, hospital, mint and museum
of Incarial antiquities. Cuzco was made the see of a bishopric soon
after it was occupied by the Spaniards. The Church has always exercised
a dominating influence in this region, and the city has many churches
and religious establishments. There are a number of small manufacturing
industries in Cuzco, including the manufacture of cotton and woollen
fabrics, leather, beer, embroidery and articles of gold and silver. Its
trade is not large, however, owing to the costs of transportation. The
climate is cool and bracing, and the products of the vicinity include
many of the temperate zone. A railway from Juliaca (a station on the
line from Mollendo to Puno) to Cuzco was virtually completed early in
1908. This railway gives Cuzco an outlet to the coast, and also direct
connexion with La Paz, the Bolivian capital. A branch of the Callao &
Oroya railway is also projected southward to Cuzco, and reached Huancayo
in 1908. Cuzco was the capital of a remarkable empire ruled by the Incas
previous to the discovery of Peru, and it was one of the largest and
most civilized of the native cities of the New World. It was captured by
Pizarro in 1533, and it is said that its size and the magnificence of
its principal edifices filled the Spaniards with surprise. It was for
many years an object of contention among the Spanish factions, but
ultimately the greater attractions of Lima and its own isolation
diminished its importance.
The department of Cuzco is the second largest in Peru, having an area of
156,317 sq. m., and a population, according to a reduced official
estimate of 1906, of only 328,980. It occupies an extremely mountainous
region on the frontier of Bolivia, E. of the departments of Junin,
Ayacucho and Apurimac, and extends from Loreto on the N. to Puno and
Arequipa on the S. Its area, however, includes a large district E. of
the Andes which is claimed by Bolivia, and the settlement of the dispute
may materially diminish its size. The elevation of a large part of the
department gives it a temperate climate and permits the cultivation of
cereals and other products of the temperate zone. Cattle and sheep are
produced in large numbers in some of the provinces, while in others
mining forms the chief industry. On the eastern forested slopes and in
the lower valleys tropical conditions prevail. The population is chiefly
composed of Indians who form a sturdy, docile labouring class, but are
in great part strongly disinclined to accept the civilization of the
dominant white race.
CYANAMIDE, NC.NH2, the amide of normal cyanic acid, obtained by the
action of ammonia on cyanogen chloride, bromide or iodide, or by the
desulphurization of thio-urea with mercuric oxide; it is generally
prepared by the latter process. It forms white crystals, which melt at
40 deg. C., and are readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Heated
above its melting point it polymerizes to di-cyandiamide (CN2H2)2, which
at 150 deg. C. is transformed into the polymer _n_-tri-cyantriamide or
melamine (CN2H2)3, the mass solidifying. Nascent hydrogen reduces
cyanamide to ammonia and methylamine. It gives mono-metallic salts of
the type NC.NHM when treated with aqueous or alcoholic solutions of
alkalis. Di-metallic salts are obtained by heating cyanates alone, e.g.
calcium, or cyanides in a current of nitrogen, e.g. barium.
Calcium cyanamide has assumed importance in agriculture since the
discovery of its economic production in the electric furnace, wherein
calcium carbide takes up nitrogen from the atmosphere to form the
cyanamide with the simultaneous liberation of carbon. It may also be
produced by heating lime or chalk with charcoal to 2000 deg. in a
current of air. The commercial product (which is known in Germany as
"_Kalkstickstoff_") contains from 14 to 22% of nitrogen, which is
liberated as ammonia when the substance is treated with water; to this
decomposition it owes its agricultural value. It appears that with soils
which are not rich in humus or not deficient in lime, calcium cyanamide
is almost as good, nitrogen for nitrogen, as ammonium sulphate or sodium
nitrate; but it is of doubtful value with peaty soils or soils
containing little lime, nor is it usefully available as a top-dressing
or for storing.
CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES. Cyanic acid, CN.OH, was discovered by F.
Wohler in 1824, and may be obtained by distilling its polymeride,
cyanuric acid, in a current of carbon dioxide (F. Wohler and J. v.
Liebig, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_, 1827, 11, p. 84), the vapours which
distil over being condensed in a freezing mixture. It is a very volatile
liquid of strong acid reaction, and is only stable below 0 deg. C. It
has a smell resembling that of acetic acid. At 0 deg. C. it is rapidly
converted into a mixture of cyanuric acid, C3N3O3H3, and another
polymer, cyamelide (CNOH)x; this latter substance is a white amorphous
powder, insoluble in water. An aqueous solution of cyanic acid is
rapidly hydrolysed (above 0 deg. C.) into a mixture of carbon dioxide
and ammonia. Cyanogen chloride, CNCl, may be regarded as the chloride of
cyanic acid. It may be prepared by the action of chlorine on hydrocyanic
acid or on mercury cyanide. It is a very poisonous volatile liquid,
which boils at 15.5 deg. C. It polymerizes readily to cyanuric chloride,
C3N3Cl3. Caustic alkalis hydrolyse it readily to the alkaline chloride
and cyanate.
The salts of cyanic acid are known as the cyanates, the two most
important being potassium cyanate (KOCN) and ammonium cyanate (NH4OCN).
Potassium cyanate may be prepared by heating potassium cyanide with an
oxidizing agent, or by heating potassium ferrocyanide with manganese
dioxide, potassium carbonate or potassium dichromate (J. v. Liebig,
_Ann._, 1841, 38, p. 108; C. Lea, _Jahresb._, 1861, p. 789; L.
Gattermann, _Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 1224), the fused mass being extracted
with boiling alcohol. It crystallizes in flat plates and is readily
soluble in cold water. It is a somewhat important reagent, and has been
used by Emil Fischer in various syntheses in the uric acid group (see
PURIN). Ammonium cyanate possesses considerable theoretical importance
since the first synthetical production of an organic from inorganic
compounds was accomplished by warming its aqueous solution for some
time, urea being formed (F. Wohler, _Berzelius Jahresberichte_, 1828,
12, p. 266). J. Walker and J. K. Wood (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1900, 77, p.
24) prepared pure ammonium cyanate by the union of gaseous ammonia and
cyanic acid, special precautions being taken to keep the temperature
below the point at which the salt is transformed into urea. It
crystallizes in fine needles, which melt suddenly at about 80 deg. C.,
then resolidify, and melt again at about 128 deg. to 130 deg. C. (this
temperature being that of the melting point of urea). Substituted
ammonias were also made to combine with cyanic acid, and it was found
that the substituted ammonium cyanates produced pass much more readily
into the corresponding ureas than ammonium cyanate itself. (On the
constitution of cyanic acid see F. D. Chattaway and J. M. Wadmore,
_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1902, 81, p. 191.)
Esters of normal cyanic acid are not known, but those of isocyanic acid
(HN.CO) may be prepared by the action of alkyl halides on silver
cyanate, or by oxidizing the isonitriles with mercuric oxide. They are
volatile liquids which boil without decomposition, and possess a
nauseating smell. When hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, they yield
primary amines (this reaction determines their constitution). C2H5NCO +
H2O = C2H5NH2 + CO2. When heated with water they yield carbon dioxide
and symmetrical dialkyl ureas; with ammonia and amines they form alkyl
ureas; and with acid anhydrides they yield tertiary amides.
Ethyl isocyanate, C2H5NCO, was first prepared by A. Wurtz (_Ann. chim._,
1854 (3), 42, p. 43) by distilling a mixture of potassium ethyl
sulphate and potassium cyanate. It is a colourless liquid which boils at
60 deg. C.
_Cyanuric acid_, H3C3N3O3, was obtained by Wohler and Liebig by heating
urea, and by A. Wurtz by passing chlorine into melting urea. It forms
white efflorescent crystals. Treatment with phosphorus pentachloride
gives cyanuric chloride, C3N3Cl3, which is also formed by the
combination of anhydrous chlorine and prussic acid in the presence of
sunlight. These substances contain a ring of three carbon and three
nitrogen atoms, i.e. they are symmetrical triazines.
CYANIDE, in chemistry, a salt of prussic of hydrocyanic acid, the name
being more usually restricted to inorganic salts, i.e. the salts of the
metals, the organic salts (or esters) being termed nitriles. The
preparation, properties, &c., of cyanides are treated in the article
PRUSSIC ACID; reference should also be made to the articles on the
particular metals. The most important cyanide commercially is potassium
cyanide, which receives application in the "cyanide process" of gold
extraction (see GOLD).
CYANITE, a native aluminium silicate, Al2SiO5, crystallizing in the
anorthic system. It has the same percentage chemical composition as
andalusite and sillimanite, but differs from these in its
crystallographic and physical characters. P. Groth writes the formula as
a metasilicate (AlO)2SiO3. The name cyanite was given by A. G. Werner in
1789, from [Greek: kyanos], blue, in allusion to the characteristic
colour of the mineral; the form kyanite is also in common use, and the
name disthene, proposed by R. J. Hauy in 1801, is used by French
writers.
[Illustration]
Distinctly developed crystals with terminal planes are rare, the mineral
being commonly found as lamellar cleavage masses or long blade-shaped
crystals embedded in crystalline rocks. The colour is usually a pale
sky-blue, but may be white, greenish or yellowish; it varies in
intensity in different bands, so that the crystals usually present a
more or less striped appearance. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to
the broad face m (100), and a less perfect one parallel to t (010): the
basal plane p (001), oblique to the prism zone, is a gliding plane on
which secondary twinning is produced by pressure, giving rise to
characteristic horizontal striations on the cleavage face m. The
accompanying figure represents a crystal twinned on the plane m (100). A
negative biaxial optic figure is seen in convergent polarized light
through the cleavage plane m, the axial plane being inclined at about 30
deg. to the edge between m and t. A remarkable feature of cyanite is the
great difference in hardness on different faces of the same crystal and
in different directions on the same face: on the face m in a direction
parallel to the edge between m and p the hardness is 7, whilst in a
direction parallel to the edge between m and t it is 4(1/2). The name
disthene, from [Greek: dis], two, and [Greek: sthenos], strong, has
reference to these differences in hardness.
Analyses of cyanite often show the presence of a small amount (usually
less than 1%) of ferric oxide and sometimes traces of copper, and to
these constituents the blue or green colour of the mineral is doubtless
due. The mineral is infusible before the blowpipe, and is not decomposed
by acids. At a high temperature, about 1350 deg. C., it becomes
transformed into sillimanite, changing in specific gravity from 3.6 to
3.2.
Cyanite is a characteristic mineral of the metamorphic crystalline
rocks--gneiss, schist, granulite and eclogite--and is often associated
with garnet and staurolite. A typical occurrence is in the white,
fine-scaled paragonite-schist of Monte Campione, near St Gotthard in
Switzerland, where long transparent crystals of a fine blue colour are
abundant. In the gneiss of the Pfitscher Tal near Sterzing in Tirol a
white variety known as rhaetizite is found. It occurs at several places
in Scotland, for instance, at Botriphnie in Banffshire, with muscovite
in a quartz-vein. Fine specimens are found in mica-schist at
Chesterfield in Massachusetts, and at several other localities in the
United States. It is found in the gold-washings of the southern Urals
and in the diamond-washings of Brazil. As minute crystal fragments it is
met with in many sands and sandstones.
When of sufficient transparency and depth of colour (deep
cornflower-blue) the mineral has a limited application as a gem-stone;
it is usually cut _en cabochon_. (L. J. S.)
CYANOGEN (Gr. [Greek: kyanos], blue [Greek: gennan], to produce), C2N2,
in chemistry, a gas composed of carbon and nitrogen. The name was
suggested by Prussian blue, the earliest known compound of cyanogen. It
was first isolated in 1815 by J. Gay-Lussac, who obtained it by heating
mercury or silver cyanide; this discovery is of considerable historical
importance, since it recorded the isolation of a "compound radical." It
may also be prepared by heating ammonium oxalate; by passing induction
sparks between carbon points in an atmosphere of nitrogen (see H. von
Wartenburg, _Abs. J.C.S._, 1907, i. p. 299), or by the addition of a
concentrated solution of potassium cyanide to one of copper sulphate,
the mixed solutions being then heated. It also occurs in blast-furnace
gases. When cyanogen is prepared by heating mercuric cyanide, a residue
known as para-cyanogen, (CN)_x, is left; this is to be regarded as a
polymer of cyanogen. It is a brownish amorphous solid, which is
insoluble in water. Cyanogen is a colourless gas, possessing a peculiar
characteristic smell, and is very poisonous. It burns with a purple
flame, forming carbon dioxide and nitrogen; and may be condensed (by
cooling to -25 deg. C.) to a colourless liquid, and further to a solid,
which melts at -34.4 deg. C. (M. Faraday, _Ann._, 1845, 56, p. 158). It
dissolves readily in water and the aqueous solution decomposes on
standing; a dark-brown flocculent precipitate of azulmic acid, C4H5N5O,
separating whilst ammonium oxalate, urea and hydrocyanic acid are found
in the solution. In many respects it resembles chlorine in its chemical
behaviour, a circumstance noted by Gay-Lussac; it combines directly with
hydrogen (at 500 deg. to 550 deg. C.) to form hydrocyanic acid, and with
chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur, to form cyanogen chloride, &c.;
it also combines directly with zinc, cadmium and iron to form cyanides
of these metals. It combines with sulphuretted hydrogen, in the presence
of water, to form the compound C2N2.H2S, and in the presence of alcohol,
to form the compound C2N2.2H2S. Concentrated hydrochloric acid converts
it into oxamide. Potash solution converts it into a mixture of potassium
cyanide and cyanate. When heated with hydriodic acid (specific gravity
1.96) it forms amino-acetic acid, and with tin and hydrochloric acid it
yields ethylene diamine.
CYAXARES (Pers. _Uvakhshatra_), king of Media, reigned according to
Herodotus (i. 107) forty years, about 624-584 B.C. That he was the real
founder of the Median empire is proved by the fact that in Darius's time
a Median usurper, Fravartish, pretended to be his offspring (Behistun
inscr. 2. 43); but about his history we know very little. Herodotus
narrates (i. 103 ff.) that he renewed the war against the Assyrians, in
which his father Phraortes had perished, but was, while he besieged
Nineveh, attacked by a great Scythian army under Madyas, son of
Protothyes, which had come from the northern shores of the Black Sea in
pursuit of the Cimmerians. After their victory over Cyaxares, the
Scythians conquered and wasted the whole of western Asia, and ruled
twenty-eight years, till at last they were made drunk and slain by
Cyaxares at a banquet (cf. another story about Cyaxares and a Scythian
host in Herod, i. 73). As we possess scarcely any contemporary documents
it is impossible to find out the real facts. But we know from the
prophecies of Jeremiah and Zephaniah that Syria and Palestine were
really invaded by northern barbarians in 626 B.C., and it is probable
that this invasion was the principal cause of the downfall of the
Assyrian empire (see MEDIA and PERSIA: _Ancient History_).
After the destruction of the Scythians Cyaxares regained the supremacy,
renewed his attack on Assyria, and in 606 B.C. destroyed Nineveh and the
other capitals of the empire (Herod. i. 106; Berossus _ap._ Euseb.
_Chron._ i. 29, 37, confirmed by a stele of Nabonidus found in Babylon:
Scheil in _Recueil de travaux_, xviii.; Messerschmidt, "Die Inschrift
der Stele Nabonaids," in _Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen
Gesellschaft_, i., 1896). According to Berossus he was allied with
Nabopolassar of Babylon, whose son Nebuchadrezzar married Amyitis, the
daughter of the Median king (who is wrongly called Astyages). The
countries north and east of the Tigris and the northern part of
Mesopotamia with the city of Harran (Carrhae) became subject to the
Medes. Armenia and Cappadocia were likewise subdued; the attempt to
advance farther into Asia Minor led to a war with Alyattes of Lydia. The
decisive battle, in the sixth year, was interrupted by the famous solar
eclipse on the 28th of May 585 predicted by Thales. Syennesis of Cilicia
and Nebuchadrezzar (in Herodotus named Labynetus) of Babylon interceded
and effected a peace, by which the Halys was fixed as frontier between
the two empires, and Alyattes's daughter married to Cyaxares's son
Astyages (Herod. i. 74). If Herodotus's dates are correct, Cyaxares died
shortly afterwards.
In a fragmentary letter from an Assyrian governor to King Sargon (about
715 B.C.) about rebellions of Median chieftains, a dynast Uvakshatar
(i.e. Cyaxares) is mentioned as attacking an Assyrian fortress
(Kharkhar, in the chains of the Zagros). Possibly he was an ancestor of
the Median king. (Ed. M.)
CYBELE, or CYBEBE (Gr. [Greek: Knbele], [Greek: Knbebe]), a goddess
native to Asia Minor and worshipped by most of the peoples of the
peninsula, was known to the Romans most commonly as the GREAT MOTHER OR
THE GODS (q.v.), or the Great Idaean Mother of the Gods--_Magna Deum
Mater, Mater Deum Magna Idaea_. She was known by many other names, such
as _Mater Idaea_, Dindymene, Sipylene, derived from famous seats of
worship, and Mountain Mother, &c., in token of her character, but Cybele
is the name by which she is most frequently known in literature. Her
cult became centralized in Phrygia, had found its way into Greece, where
it never flourished greatly, as early as the latter 6th century B.C.,
and was introduced at Rome in 204 B.C. Under the Empire it attained to
great importance, and was one of the last pagan cults to die. Cybele was
usually worshipped in connexion with Attis (q.v.), as Aphrodite with
Adonis, the two being a duality interpreted by the philosophers as
symbolic of Mother Earth and her vegetation. (G. Sn.)
CYCLADES, a compact group of islands in the Greek Archipelago, forming a
cluster around the island of Syra (Syros), the principal town of which,
now officially known as Hermoupolis, is the capital of a department.
Population of the group (1907) 130,378. The islands, though seldom
visited by foreigners, are for the most part highly interesting and
picturesque, notwithstanding their somewhat barren appearance when
viewed from the sea; many of them bear traces of the feudal rule of
Venetian families in the middle ages, and their inhabitants in general
may be regarded as presenting the best type of the Greek race. To the
student of antiquity the most interesting are: Delos (q.v.), one of the
greatest centres of ancient religious, political and commercial life,
where an important series of researches has been carried out by French
archaeologists; Melos (q.v.), where, in addition to various buildings of
the Hellenic and Roman periods, the large prehistoric stronghold of
Phylakopi has been excavated by members of the British school at Athens;
and Thera (see SANTORIN), the ancient capital of which has been explored
by Baron Hiller von Gaertringen. Thera is also of special interest to
geologists owing to its remarkable volcanic phenomena. Naxos, the
largest and most fertile island of the group, contains the highest
mountain in the Cyclades (Zia, 3290 ft.); the island annually exports
upwards of 2000 tons of emery, a state monopoly the proceeds of which
are now hypothecated to the foreign debt. The oak woods of Ceos (Zea)
and Ios furnish considerable supplies of valonia. Kimolos, which is
absolutely treeless, produces fuller's-earth. The famous marble quarries
of Paros have been practically abandoned in modern times; the marble of
Tenos is now worked by a British syndicate. The mineral wealth of the
Cyclades has hitherto been much neglected; iron ore is exported from
Seriphos, manganese and sulphur from Melos, and volcanic cement
(pozzolana) from Santorin. Other articles of export are wine, brandy,
hides and tobacco. Cythnos, Melos and other islands possess hot springs
with therapeutic qualities. The prosperity of Syra, formerly an
important distributing centre for the whole Levant, has been declining
for several years.
Population (1907):--Syra 31,939 (communes, Hermoupolis 18,132, Mykonos
4589, Syra 9218); Andros 18,035 (Andros 8536, Arni 2166, Gaurio 2897,
Corthion 4436); Thera 19,597 (Thera 4226, Egiale 1513, Amorgos 2627,
Anaphe 579, Emporium 2172, Therasia 679, Ios 2090, Kalliste 3519, Oea
2192); Ceos 11,032 (Ceos 3817, Dryopis 1628, Cythnos 1563, Seriphos
4024); Melos, 12,774 (Melos 4864, Adamas 529, Siphnos 3777, Kimolos
2015, Pholegandros 962, Sikinos 627); Naxos 25,185 (Naxos 2064,
Apiranthe 2421, Vivlos 4343, Coronis 3205, Marpessa 1313, Naoussa
1670, Paros 3586, Tragea 4661, Hyrie 1922); Tenos 11,816 (Tenos 4697,
Panorme 2658, Peree 2801, Sosthenion 1660).
CYCLAMEN, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order Primulaceae,
containing about ten species native in the mountains of central Europe
and the Mediterranean region. _C. europaeum_ (Sow-bread) is found as an
introduced plant in copses in Kent and Sussex. The plants are
low-growing herbs with large tuberous rootstocks, from the surface of
which spring a number of broad, generally heart-shaped or kidney-shaped,
long-stalked leaves, which in cultivated forms are often beautifully
marbled, ribbed or splashed. The flowers are nodding, and white, pink,
lilac or crimson in colour. The corolla has a short tube and five large
reflexed lobes. After flowering the stalk becomes spirally coiled,
drawing the fruit down to the soil. Cyclamen is a favourite winter and
spring flowering plant. _C. persicum_ is probably the best known. It is
a small-growing kind bearing medium-sized leaves and numerous flowers.
_C. giganteum_ is a large, strong-growing species; not quite so free
flowering as _C. persicum_, but in all other respects superior to it
when well grown. _C. papilio_ differs in the fringed character of the
petals. It has been obtained by selection from _C. persicum_. There is
also a very beautiful crested race, probably derived from _C.
giganteum_.
The plants are raised from seed, and, with good cultivation, flower in
fifteen to eighteen months from date of sowing. Seed should be sown as
soon as ripe, in July or August, in pots or pans, filled up to 2(1/2)
in. of the rim with broken crocks for drainage. The soil should consist
of fibrous yellow loam, leaf-mould in flakes, and coarse silver-sand, in
equal parts. Sow the seed thinly--1/4 in. to 1/2 in. apart--and cover
with a very thin sprinkling of the soil. Protect with a square of glass
covered with a piece of brown paper for shade, and place on a shelf in a
warm greenhouse. The soil should never be allowed to get dry.
When the seedlings appear, remove the covering, care being taken that
they do not suffer for want of shade, water or a moist atmosphere. As
soon as the third leaf appears, repot singly into thumb-pots in slightly
coarser soil, so that the crowns of the little plants are just above the
level of the soil. In December transfer into a little richer soil,
consisting of two parts fibrous loam broken into small bits by hand and
the fine particles rejected, one part flaked leaf-mould, passed through
a half-inch sieve, half a part of plant ash from the burnt refuse heap
and half a part of coarse silver-sand. Keep through the winter in a
moist atmosphere at a temperature not below 50 deg. Fahr., and as near
the glass as possible. In March they should be ready for their next
shift into 5-in. pots. The potting compost should be the same as for the
last shift, with the addition of half a part of well-sweetened manure,
such as a spent mushroom bed. Keep in a warm moist atmosphere and shade
from strong sunlight. In June remove to cold frames and stand them on
inverted pots well clear of one another. Slugs show a marked partiality
for the succulent young leaves and should be excluded by dusting round
the frames occasionally with newly slaked lime. The inverted pots serve
as traps. The frames may thus be frequently syringed without keeping the
plants unduly wet. Shade heavily from direct sunlight, but afford as
much diffused light as practicable. Ventilate on all favourable
occasions, and close the frames early after copious syringing.
By the end of the month they will be ready for the final shift into
7-in. pots. Much care must be used in handling them, the leaves being
large, tender and numerous. The soil is as for the last potting. The
frames should be kept close and heavily shaded for a few days after
potting; then gradually reduce shade and increase ventilation. By the
end of July the elegance of the foliage alone should well repay the care
bestowed on them. From this time onwards very little shading will be
needed, the object of the cultivator being to harden the growth already
made. With the advent of cool weather in September, remove to flowering
quarters in a warm greenhouse. Flowering will begin in November and will
continue through the winter and spring. The damping off of the
flower-buds may occasionally prove troublesome during winter. This may
generally be traced to checks, such as sudden changes in temperature,
too low a temperature, careless watering, &c. During spring plants that
are flowering freely will require weak manure water about twice a week.
Plants selected to bear seed should be set aside for that purpose, and
as soon as the capsules are found to be developing properly they should
be reduced to six or seven per plant, and all flower-buds picked off as
soon as they are large enough to handle. The production of strong seeds
is of the utmost importance.
Plants grown for market purposes, either for decoration or for seed, are
sown later than the above, are kept cooler, and during summer receive
more ventilation and less shade. This results in the production of
plants with much smaller and more erect leaves, which travel well. They
are flowered in spring and early summer. The species grown for this
purpose is _C. persicum_.
A few species are hardy in dry sheltered positions, such as rockeries,
under walls and old trees, provided the positions are well drained. Such
are _C. europaeum_, with reddish-purple flowers in summer; _C.
hederifolium_ in autumn; and _C. neapolitanum_, with large leaves
marbled with silver and rosy-pink flowers.
CYCLE (Gr. [Greek: kuklos], a circle), in astronomy, a period of time at
the end of which some aspect or relation of the heavenly bodies recurs.
The more important cycles are discussed in the articles CALENDAR and
ECLIPSE. In physics, the term is applied to a series of operations
which, performed upon a system, brings it back to its original state;
"Carnot's Cycle" is an example (see THERMODYNAMICS). From the use of the
word for any period at the end of which the same events recur in the
same order or for any complete series of phenomena, it is used loosely
of any long period of time. The name [Greek: ho epikos kuklos], the epic
cycle, was given to the poems which complete the Homeric account of the
Trojan War (see below). It is this use which has given rise to the
application of the term "cycle" to a series of prose or poetical
romances which have for a centre one subject, whether a person, as in
the Alexander, Arthurian or Charlemagne cycles, or an object, such as
the ring of the Nibelungenlied. In music "Song-cycle" (Ger.
_Liederkreis_) is similarly used of a series of songs written round one
subject or set to poems by the same author. Beethoven's _An die ferne
Geliebte_ (Op. 98), published in 1816, is the earliest instance.
Schubert's _Die schone Mullerin_, Schumann's _Dichterliebe_ and Brahms's
_Magelone-Lieder_ are well-known instances.
_Epic Cycle._--This is a collection or corpus of lays written about
776-580 B.C. by poets of the Ionian School, introductory or
complementary to the Homeric poems, dealing with the legends of the
Trojan and Theban wars. At a later date they were arranged so as to form
a continuous narrative (the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ included), perhaps
after certain alterations had been made, to fill up gaps and remove
inconsistencies and repetitions. By whom, and when, they were so
arranged, cannot be decided; it is possible that it was the work of
Zenodotus of Ephesus, who had the care of the epic section of the
Alexandrian library. In order to furnish the general reader with a
comprehensive sketch of mythological history, Proclus--according to
Welcker and Valesius (Valois), not the neo-Platonist, but an unknown 2nd
or 3rd century grammarian, perhaps Eutychius Proclus of Sicca[1] in
Africa, one of the tutors of Marcus Aurelius (see PROCLUS)--compiled a
prose summary ([Greek: Grammatke chrestomatheia]) of the contents of
the poems, to serve as a sort of primer to Greek literature. Extracts
from this are preserved in the Codex Venetus of Homer and Photius (cod.
239), according to which the epic cycle began with the union of Uranus
and Ge and ended with the death of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca at
the hands of his son Telegonus. The cycle was in existence in his
(Proclus's) time, and was in request not so much for its artistic merit,
as for the "sequence of the events described in it." Further light is
thrown on the subject by pictorial representations, intended for school
use during the Roman imperial period, the most famous of which is the
_Tabula Iliaca_ in the Capitoline museum.
The expression "epic cycle" in the sense of a poetical collection does
not occur before the Christian era; the word [Greek: kyklos] ("cycle,"
"circle") is used of a special kind of short poem and also of a prose
abstract of mythological history; the adjective has the general sense of
"hackneyed," "conventional," and is applied contemptuously (by
Callimachus and Horace) to a particular Alexandrian school of poetry.
The most important poems of the Trojan legendary cycle are the _Cypria
of Stasinus_ (q.v.); the _Aethiopis_ and _Iliou Persis_ (Sack of Troy)
of Arctinus (q.v.); the _Little Iliad_ of Lesches (q.v.); the _Nosti_ of
Hagias or Agias; the _Telegonia_ of Eugammon. To the Theban cycle
belong: the _Thebais_ or _Expedition of Amphiaraus_ and the _Epigoni_ of
Antimachus. The _Oechalias Halosis_ (capture of _Oechalia_) of
Creophylus (q.v.); the _Phocais_ (or _Minyas_) of Prodicus; and the
_Danais_ of Cercops, although belonging to the old Homeric epos, cannot
with certainty be included in the epic cycle. The names of the authors
are in several cases exceedingly doubtful.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard work on the subject is F. G. Welcker, _Der
epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882); see also T. W. Allen, "The Epic Cycle,"
in _Classical Quarterly_, Jan. and April 1908 (summary of sources and
authorities); Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, _Homerische Untersuchungen_
(1884), who regards the traditional names and personalities of the
poets of the cycle with great scepticism; D. B. Monro, _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, iv. (1883), appendix to his edition of the
_Odyssey_, xiii.-xxiv. (1900), and on the Codex Venetus fragment of
Proclus; J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ (2nd ed., 1906), vol.
i. ch. 2; J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), pp. 2-8 on
the epics as history; articles by H. Flach in Ersch and Gruber,
_Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and by E. Schwartz and others in
Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_.