CURIA REGIS, or AULA REGIS, a term used in England from the time of the
Norman Conquest to about the end of the 13th century to describe a
council and a court of justice, the composition and functions of which
varied considerably from time to time. Meaning in general the "king's
court," it is difficult to define the _curia regis_ with precision, but
it is important and interesting because it is the germ from which the
higher courts of law, the privy council and the cabinet, have sprung. It
was, at first the general council of the king, or the _commune
concilium_, i.e. the feudal assembly of the tenants-in-chief; but it
assumed a more definite character during the reign of Henry I., when its
members, fewer in number, were the officials of the royal household and
other friends and attendants of the king. It was thus practically a
committee of the larger council, and assisted the king in his judicial
work, its authority being as undefined as his own. About the same time
the _curia_ undertook financial duties, and in this way was the parent
of the court of exchequer (_curia regis ad scaccarium_). The members
were called "justices," and in the king's absence the chief justiciar
presided over the court. A further step was taken by Henry II. In 1178
he appointed five members of the _curia_ to form a special court of
justice, and these justices, unlike the other members of the _curia_,
were not to follow the king's court from place to place, but were to
remain in one place. Thus the court of king's bench (_curia regis de
banco_) was founded, and the foundation of the court of common pleas was
provided for in one of the articles of Magna Carta. The court of
chancery is also an offshoot of the _curia regis_. About the time of
Edward I. the executive and advising duties of the _curia regis_ were
discharged by the king's secret council, the later privy council, which
is thus connected with the _curia regis_, and from the privy council has
sprung the cabinet.
In his work _Tractatus de legibus Angliae_, Ranulf de Glanvill treats
of the procedure of the _curia regis_ as a court of law. See W.
Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1883); R. Gneist,
_Englische Verfassungsgeschichte_, English translation by P. A.
Ashworth (London, 1891); A. V. Dicey, _The Privy Council_ (London,
1887); and the article PRIVY COUNCIL. (A. W. H.*)
CURIA ROMANA, the name given to the whole body of administrative and
judicial institutions, by means of which the pope carries on the general
government of the Church; the name is also applied by an extension of
meaning to the persons who form part of it, and sometimes to the Holy
See itself. Rome is almost the only place where the word _curia_ has
preserved its ancient form; elsewhere it has been almost always replaced
by the word court (_cour_, _corte_), which is etymologically the same.
Even at Rome, however, the expression "papal court" (_corte romana_) has
acquired by usage a sense different from that of the word _curia_; as in
the case of royal courts it denotes the whole body of dignitaries and
officials who surround and attend on the pope; the pope, however, has
two establishments: the civil establishment, in which he is surrounded
by what is termed his "family" (_familia_); and the religious
establishment, the members of which form his "chapel" (_capella_). The
word curia is more particularly reserved to the tribunals and
departments which actually deal with the general business of the Church.
General remarks.
I. In order to understand the organization of the various constituent
parts of the Roman Curia, we must remember that the modern principle of
the separation of powers is unknown to the Church; the functions of each
department are limited solely by the extent of the powers delegated to
it and the nature of the business entrusted to it; but each of them may
have a share at the same time in the legislative, judicial and
administrative power. Similarly, the necessity for referring matters to
the pope in person, for his approval or ratification of the decisions
arrived at, varies greatly according to the department and the nature of
the business. But on the whole, all sections of the Curia hold their
powers direct from the pope, and exercise them in his name. Each of
them, then, has supreme authority within its own sphere, while the
official responsibility belongs to the pope, just as in all governments
it is the government that is responsible for the acts of its
departments. Of these official acts, however, it is possible to
distinguish two categories: those emanating directly from the heads of
departments are generally called Acts of the Holy See (and in this sense
the Holy See is equivalent to the Curia); those which emanate direct
from the pope are called Pontifical Acts. The latter are actually the
Apostolic Letters, i.e. those documents in which the pope speaks in his
own name (bulls, briefs, encyclicals, &c.) even when he does not sign
them, as we shall see. The Apostolic Letters alone may be _ex cathedra_
documents, and may have the privilege of infallibility, if the matter
admit of it. There are also certain differences between the two sorts of
documents with regard to their penal consequences. But in all cases the
disciplinary authority is evidently the same; we need only note that
acts concerning individuals do not claim the force of general law; the
legal decisions serve at most to settle matters of jurisprudence, like
the judgments of all sovereign courts.
Division.
The constituent parts of the Roman Curia fall essentially into two
classes: (1) the tribunals and offices, which for centuries served for
the transaction of business and which continue their activity; (2) the
permanent commissions of cardinals, known by the name of the Roman
Congregations. These, though more recent, have taken precedence of the
former, the work of which they have, moreover, greatly relieved; they
are indeed composed of the highest dignitaries of the church, the
cardinals (q.v.), and are, as it were, subdivisions of the consistory
(q.v.), a council in which the whole of the Sacred College takes part.
Roman Congregations.
II. _The Roman Congregations._--The constitution of all of these is the
same; a council varying in numbers, the members of which are cardinals,
who alone take part in the deliberations. One of the cardinals acts as
president, or prefect, as he is called; the congregation is assisted by
a secretary and a certain number of inferior officials, for secretarial
and office work. They have also consultors, whose duty it is to study
the subjects for consideration. Their deliberations are secret and are
based on prepared documents bearing on the case, written, or more often
printed, which are distributed to all the cardinals about ten days in
advance. The deliberations follow a simplified procedure, which is
founded more on equity than on the more strictly legal forms, and
decisions are given in the shortest possible form, in answer to
carefully formulated questions or _dubia_. The cardinal prefect, aided
by the secretariate, deals with the ordinary business, only important
matters being submitted for the consideration of the general meeting. To
have the force of law the acts of the congregations must be signed by
the cardinal prefect and secretary, and sealed with his seal.
Practically the only exception is in the cases of the Holy Office, and
of the Consistorial Congregation of which the pope himself is prefect;
the acts of the first are signed by the "notary," and the acts of the
second by the assessor.
We may pass over those temporary congregations of cardinals known also
as "special," the authority and existence of which extend only to the
consideration of one particular question; and also those which had as
their object various aspects of the temporal administration of the papal
states, which have ceased to exist since 1870. We deal here only with
the permanent ecclesiastical congregations, the real machinery of the
papal administration. Some of them go quite far back into the 16th
century; but it was Sixtus V. who was their great organizer; by his bull
_Immensa_ of the 22nd of January 1587, he apportioned all the business
of the Church (including that of the papal states) among fifteen
Congregations of cardinals, some of which were already in existence, but
most of which were established by him; and these commissions, or those
of them at least which are concerned with spiritual matters, are still
working. A few others have been added by his successors. Pius X., by the
constitution _Sapienti Consilio_ of the 29th of June 1908, proceeded to
a general reorganization of the Roman Curia: Congregations, tribunals
and offices. In this constitution he declared that the competency of
these various organs was not always clear, and that their functions were
badly arranged; that certain of them had only a small amount of business
to deal with, while others were overworked; that strictly judicial
affairs, with which the Congregations had not to deal originally, had
developed to an excessive extent, while the tribunals, the Rota and the
Signatura, had nothing to do. He consequently withdrew all judicial
affairs from the Congregations, and handed them over to the two
tribunals, now revived, of the Rota and the papal Signatura; all affairs
concerning the discipline of the sacraments were entrusted to a new
Congregation of that name; the competency of the remaining Congregations
was modified, according to the nature of the affairs with which they
deal, and certain of them were amalgamated with others; general rules
were laid down for the expedition of business and regarding _personnel_;
in short, the work of Sixtus V. was repeated and adapted to later
conditions. We will now give the nomenclature of the Roman
Congregations, as they were until 1908, and mentioning the modifications
made by Pius X.
The Holy Office.
(1) The Holy Inquisition, Roman and universal, or Holy Office (_Sacra
Congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisitionis seu Sancti Officii_),
the first of the Congregations, hence called the supreme. It is composed
of twelve cardinals, assisted by a certain number of officials: the
assessor, who practically fulfils the functions of the secretary, the
commissary general, some consultors and the qualificators, whose duty it
is to determine the degree of theological condemnation deserved by
erroneous doctrinal propositions (_haeretica_, _erronea_, _temeraria_,
&c.). The presidency is reserved to the pope, and the cardinal of
longest standing takes the title of secretary. This Congregation,
established in 1542 by Paul III., constitutes the tribunal of the
Inquisition (q.v.), of which the origins are much older, since it was
instituted in the 13th century against the Albigenses. It deals with all
questions of doctrine and with the repression of heresy, together with
those crimes which are more or less of the character of heresy. Its
procedure is subject to the strictest secrecy. Pius X. attached to it
all matters concerning indulgences; on the other hand, he transferred to
the Congregation of the Council matters concerning the precepts of the
Church such as fasting, abstinence and festivals. The choosing of
bishops, which had in recent times been entrusted to the Holy Office,
was given to the Consistorial Congregation, and dispensations from
religious vows to the Congregation of the Religious Orders. The Holy
Office continues, however, to deal with mixed marriages and marriages
with infidels.
Consistorial.
(2) The Consistorial Congregation (_Sacra Congregatio Consistorialis_),
established by Sixtus V., has as its object the preparation of business
to be dealt with and decided in secret consistory (q.v.); notably
promotions to cathedral churches and consistorial benefices, the
erection of dioceses, &c. To this congregation is also subject the
administration of the common property of the college of cardinals. Pius
X. restored this Congregation to a position of great importance; in the
first place he gave it the effective control of all matters concerning
the erection of dioceses and chapters and the appointment of bishops,
except in the case of countries subject to the Propaganda, and save that
for countries outside Italy it has to act upon information furnished by
the papal secretary of state. He further entrusted to this Congregation
everything relating to the supervision of bishops and of the condition
of the dioceses, and business connected with the seminaries. It has also
the duty of deciding disputes as to the competency of the other
Congregations. The pope continues to be its prefect, and the cardinal
secretary of the Holy Office and the secretary of state are _ex officio_
members of it; the cardinal who occupies the highest rank in it, with
the title of secretary, is chosen by the pope; he is assisted by a
prelate with the title of assessor, who is _ex officio_ secretary of the
Sacred College. The assessor of the Holy Office and the secretary for
extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs are _ex officio_ consultors.
(3) The Pontifical Commission for the reunion of the dissident Churches,
established by Leo XIII. in 1895 after his constitution _Orientalium_.
The pope reserved the presidency for himself; its activity is merely
nominal. It was attached by Pius X. to the Congregation of the
Propaganda.
The Visitation.
(4) The Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation (_Sacra Congregatio
Visitationis apostolicae_). The Visitation is the personal inspection of
institutions, churches, religious establishments and their _personnel_,
to correct abuses and enforce the observation of rules. Through this
Congregation the pope, as bishop of Rome, made the inspection of his
diocese; it is for this reason that he was president of this commission,
the most important member of which was the cardinal vicar. He takes the
place of the pope in the administration of the diocese of Rome; he has
his own offices and diocesan assistants as in other bishoprics. The
Congregation of the Visitation was suppressed by Pius X. as a separate
Congregation, and was reduced to a mere commission which is attached,
as before, to the Vicariate.
(5) The Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (_Sacra
Congregatio de Disciplina Sacramentorum_), established by Pius X., thus
comes to occupy the third rank. With the reservation of those questions,
especially of a dogmatic character, which belong to the Holy Office, and
of purely ritual questions, which come under the Congregation of Rites,
this Congregation brings under one authority all disciplinary questions
concerning the sacraments, which were formerly distributed among several
Congregations and offices. It deals with dispensations for marriages,
ordinations, &c., concessions with regard to the mass, the communion,
&c.
Bishops and Regulars.
(6) The Congregation of the Bishops and Regulars, of which the full
official title was, Congregation for the Affairs and Consultations of
the Bishops and Regulars (_Sacra Congregatio super negotiis Episcoporum
et Regularium_; now _Sacra Congregatio negotiis religiosorum sodalium
praeposita_). It is the result of the fusion of two previous
commissions; that for the affairs of bishops, established by Gregory
XIII., and that for the affairs of the regular clergy, founded by Sixtus
V.; the fusion dates from Clement VIII. (1601). This congregation was
very much occupied, being empowered to deal with all disciplinary
matters concerning both the secular and regular clergy, whether in the
form of consultations or of contentious suits; it had further the
exclusive right to regulate the discipline of the religious orders and
congregations bound by the simple vows, the statutes of which it
examined, corrected and approved; finally it judged disputes and
controversies between the secular and regular clergy. On the 26th of May
1906, Pius X. incorporated in this Congregation two others having a
similar object: that on the discipline of the regular clergy
(_Congregatio super Disciplina Regularium_), founded by Innocent XII. in
1695, and that on the condition of the regular clergy (_Congregatio
super Statu Regularium_), established by Pius IX. in 1846. In 1908 Pius
X. withdrew from this Congregation all disciplinary matters affecting
the secular clergy, and limited its competency to matters concerning the
religious orders, both as regards their internal affairs and their
relations with the bishops.
Council.
(7) The Congregation of the Council (_Sacra Congregatio Cardinalium
Concilii Tridentini interpretum_), i.e. a number of cardinals whose duty
it is to interpret the disciplinary decrees of the council of Trent, was
instituted by Pius IV. in 1563, and reorganized by Sixtus V.; its
mission is to promote the observation of these disciplinary decrees, to
give authoritative interpretations of them, and to reconcile disputes
arising out of them. Pius X. in 1908 entrusted to this Congregation the
supervision of the general discipline of the secular clergy and the
faithful laity, empowering it to deal with matters concerning the
precepts of the Church, festivals, foundations, church property,
benefices, provincial councils and episcopal assemblies. Proceedings for
annulling marriages, which used to be reserved to it, were transferred
to the tribunal of the Rota; reports on the condition of the dioceses
were henceforth to be addressed to the Consistorial Congregation, which
involved the suppression of the commission which had hitherto dealt with
them. The other commission, formerly charged with the revision of the
decrees of provincial councils, was merged in the Congregation itself.
The Congregation of Immunity (_Sacra Congregatio Jurisdictionis et
Immunitatis ecclesiasticae_) was created by Urban VIII. (1626) to watch
over the immunities of the clergy in respect of person or property,
whether local or general. This, having no longer any object, was also
attached to the Congregation of the Council, and is now amalgamated with
it.
Propaganda.
(8) The Congregation of the Propaganda (_Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda
Fide_) was established by Gregory XV. in 1622, and added to by Urban
VIII., who founded the celebrated College of the Propaganda for the
education of missionaries, and his polyglot press for printing the
liturgical books of the East. It had charge of the administration of the
Catholic churches in all non-Catholic countries, for which it discharged
the functions of all the Congregations, except in doctrinal and
strictly legislative matters. Its sphere was very wide; it administered
all non-European countries, except Latin America and the old colonies of
the Catholic countries of Europe; in Europe it had also charge of the
United Kingdom and the Balkan States. But the constitution "_Sapienti_"
of 1908 withdrew from the Propaganda and put under the common law of the
Church most of those parts in which the episcopal hierarchy had been
re-established, i.e. in Europe, the United Kingdom, Holland and
Luxemburg; in America, Canada, Newfoundland and the United States.
Further, even for those countries which it continues to administer, the
Propaganda has to submit to the various Congregations all questions
affecting the Faith, marriage and rites. The missions begin by
establishing apostolic prefectures under the charge of priests; the
prefecture is later transformed into an apostolic vicariate, having at
its head a bishop; finally, the hierarchy, i.e. the diocesan episcopate,
is established in the country, with residential sees. Thus the hierarchy
was re-established in England in 1850 by Pius IX., in 1878 by Leo XIII.
in Scotland, in 1886 in India, in 1891 in Japan. It is also the work of
the Propaganda to appoint the bishops for the countries it administers.
Under the same cardinal prefect is found that section of the Propaganda
which deals with matters concerning oriental rites (_Congregatio
specialis pro negotiis ritus Orientalis_), the object of which is
indicated by its name. To the former were attached two commissions, one
for the approbation of those religious congregations which devote
themselves to missions, which is now transferred to the Congregation of
the Religious Orders; the other for the examination of the reports sent
in by the bishops and vicars apostolic on their dioceses or missions.
With the latter is connected the commission for the examination of the
liturgical books of the East (_Commissio pro corrigendis libris
ecclesiae Orientalis_). Finally, the popes have devoted to the missions
the income arising from the Chamber of Spoils (_Camera Spoliorum_), i.e.
that portion of the revenue from church property which cannot be
bequeathed by the holders of benefices as their own property; this
source of income, however, has decreased greatly.
Index.
(9) The Congregation of the Index (_Congregatio indicis librorum
prohibitorum_), founded by St Pius V. in 1571 and reorganized by Sixtus
V., has as its object the examination and the condemnation or
interdiction of bad or dangerous books which are submitted to it, or,
since the constitution "_Sapienti_," of those which it thinks fit to
examine on its own initiative (see INDEX).
Rites.
(10) The Congregation of Rites (_Congregatio sacrorum Rituum_), founded
by Sixtus V., has exclusive charge of the liturgy and liturgical books;
it also deals with the proceedings in the beatification and canonization
of saints. Of late years there have been added to it a Liturgical
Commission, a Historico-liturgical Commission, and a Commission for
church song, the functions of which are sufficiently indicated by their
names.
Ceremonial.
(11) The Ceremonial Congregation (_Sacra Congregatio caeremonialis_),
the prefect of which is the cardinal dean, was instituted by Sixtus V.;
its mission is to settle questions of precedence and etiquette,
especially at the papal court; it is nowadays but little occupied.
Indulgences.
(12) The Congregation of Indulgences and Relics (_Sacra Congregatio
Indulgentiarum et Sacrarum Reliquiarum_), founded in 1669 by Clement
IX., devoted itself to eradicating any abuses which might creep into the
practice of indulgences and the cult of relics. It had also the duty of
considering applications for the concession of indulgences and of
interpreting the rules with regard to them. In 1904 Pius X. attached
this Congregation to that of Rites, making the _personnel_ of both the
same, without suppressing it. In 1908, however, it was suppressed, as
stated above, and its functions as to indulgences were transferred to
the Holy Office, and those as to relics to the Congregation of Rites.
Fabric of St Peter's.
(13) The Congregation of the Fabric of St Peter's (_Sacra Congregatio
reverendae Fabricae S. Petri_) is charged with the upkeep, repairs and
temporal administration of the great basilica; in this capacity it
controls the famous manufacture of the Vatican mosaics. It also formerly
enjoyed certain spiritual powers for the reduction of the obligations
imposed by pious legacies and foundations, the objects of which, for
want of funds or any other reason, could not be fully carried out, and
for the condonation of past omission of such obligations, e.g. of
priests to celebrate the foundation masses of their benefices. In 1908
these powers were taken away from it by Pius X., and transferred to the
Congregation of the Council, which already exercised some of them.
(14) The Congregation of Loretto (_Congregatio Lauretana_) discharged
the same functions for the sanctuary of that name; its temporal
administration was latterly very much reduced, and in 1908 it was united
by Pius X. with the Congregation of the Council.
Extraordinary affairs.
(15) The Congregation for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs (_Sacra
Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis extraordinariis_), established
by Pius VI. at the end of the 18th century to study the difficult
questions relative to France, was afterwards definitively continued by
Pius VII.; and there has been no lack of fresh extraordinary matters. It
also dealt with the administration of the churches of Latin America, not
to mention certain European countries, such as Russia, under the same
conditions as the Propaganda in countries under missions. Since the
constitution _Sapienti_, its competency has been confined to the
examination, at the request of the secretary of state, of questions
which are submitted to it, and especially those arising from civil laws
and concordats.
Studies.
(16) The Congregation of Studies (_Congregatio pro Universitate studii
Romani, Congregazione degli Studi_), founded by Sixtus V. to act as a
higher council for the Roman university of La Sapienza, had ceased to
have any functions when in 1824 it was re-established by Leo XII. to
supervise education in Rome and the Papal States; since 1870 it has been
exclusively concerned with the Catholic universities, so far as the
sacred sciences are concerned. With this should be connected the
commission for historical studies, instituted in 1883 by Leo XIII., at
the same time as he threw the Vatican archives freely open to scholars.
Tribunals and offices.
III. _The Tribunals and Offices._--Though it has been relieved of the
functions allotted to the Congregations of cardinals, the old machinery
of the ecclesiastical administration has not been abolished; and the
process of centralization which has been accentuated in the course of
the last few centuries, together with the facility of communication,
ensured for them a fresh activity, new offices having even been added.
The chief thing to be observed is that the prelates who were formerly at
the head of these departments have almost all been replaced by
cardinals. The following is the list of the tribunals and offices,
including the changes introduced by the reorganization of the Curia by
Pius X. in 1908. The tribunals are three in number: one for the _forum
internum_, the Penitentiary; the other two for judicial matters _in foro
externo_, the Rota and the papal Signatura.
Penitentiary.
(1) The Penitentiary (_Sacra poenitentiaria Apostolica_) is the tribunal
having exclusive jurisdiction in matters of conscience (_in foro
interno_), e.g. dispensations from secret impediments and private vows,
the absolution of reserved cases. These concessions are applied for
anonymously. It also had, previously to the constitution _Sapienti_, a
certain jurisdiction _in foro externo_, such as over matrimonial
dispensations for poor people. Its concessions are absolutely
gratuitous. Since the 12th century, the papal court had already had
officials known as penitentiaries (_poenitentiarii_) for matters of
conscience; the organization of the Penitentiary, after several
modifications, was renewed by Benedict XIV. in 1748. At the head of it
is the cardinal grand penitentiary (_major poenitentiarius_), assisted
by the _regens_ (It. _regente_) and various other functionaries and
officials.
Rota.
(2) The court of the Rota (_Sacra Rota Romana_) used to be the supreme
ecclesiastical tribunal for civil affairs, and its decisions had great
authority. This tribunal goes back at least as far as the 14th century,
but its activity had been reduced as a result of the more expeditious
and summary, and less costly, procedure of the Congregations. The
constitution _Sapienti_ restored the Rota to existence and activity: it
is now once more the ecclesiastical court of appeal for both civil and
criminal cases. Pius X. also made special regulations for it, by which
its ancient usages are adapted to modern circumstances. The tribunal of
the Rota consists of ten judges called auditors (_uditori_), of whom the
most senior is president with the title of dean. Each judge has an
auxiliary; to the tribunal are attached a _promotor fiscalis_, charged
with the duty of securing the due application of the law, and an
official charged with the defence of marriage and ordination; there is
also a clerical staff (notaries, scribes) attached to the court. Cases
are judged by three auditors, who succeed each other periodically (_per
turnum_) according to the order in which the cases are entered, and in
exceptional cases by all the auditors (_videntibus omnibus_). Under the
jurisdiction of the Rota, in addition to cases of first instance
submitted to it by the pope, are such judgments of episcopal courts as
are strictly speaking subject to appeal; for petitions against
non-judicial decisions are referred to the Congregations. Appeal is
sometimes allowed from one "turn" to another; if the second sentence of
the Rota confirms the first, it is definitive; if not, a third may be
obtained.
Signatura.
(3) The supreme tribunal of the papal Signatura (_Signatura
Apostolica_). There were formerly two sections: the Signatura Justitiae
and the Signatura Gratiae; by the constitution _Sapientis_ they were
suppressed and amalgamated into one body, the Signatura Apostolica,
which is the exact equivalent of other modern courts of cassation. This
tribunal is composed of six cardinals, one of whom is the prefect,
assisted by a prelate secretary, consultors and the necessary inferior
officials. It judges cases in which auditors of the Rota are concerned,
such as personal objections, but especially objections (_querelae_)
lodged against sentences of the Rota, with a view to their being
annulled or revised (_restitutio in integrum_).
Next come the offices, now reduced to six in number.
Chancery.
Bull.
(1) The Chancery (_Cancellaria Apostolica_), the department from which
are sent out the papal letters, has for a long time drawn up only those
letters written in solemn form known as bulls. The bull, so called from
the leaden seal (_bulla_), is written on thick parchment; the special
writing known as Lombard, which used to be used for bulls, was abolished
by Leo XIII., and the leaden seal reserved for the more important
letters; on the others it has been replaced by a red ink stamp bearing
both the emblems represented on the leaden seal: the two heads, face to
face, of St Peter and St Paul, and the name of the reigning pope. Bulls
are written in the name of the pope, who styles himself "(_Pius_)
_Episcopus servus servorum Dei_; (Pius), bishop, servant of the servants
of God." They were formerly dated by kalends and from the era of the
Incarnation, which begins on the 25th of March, but in 1908 Pius X.
ordered them to be dated according to the common era. It is practically
only bulls of canonization which are signed by the pope and all the
cardinals present in Rome; the signature of the pope is then "(_Pius_)
_Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae_," while his ordinary signature bears
only his name and number, "Pius PP. X." Ordinary bulls are signed by
several officials of the chancery, and a certain number only by the
cardinal at its head, who until 1908 was styled vice-chancellor, because
the chancellor used formerly to be a prelate, not a cardinal; but since
the constitution _Sapienti_ has been entitled chancellor. He is assisted
by several officials, beginning with the regens of the chancery. To the
chancery were attached the _abbreviatores de parco majori vel minori_
(see ABBREVIATORS), formerly charged with the drawing up or "extension"
of bulls; they were suppressed by Pius X., and their functions
transferred to the _Protonotarii apostolici participantes_ (i.e.
active). Further, Pope Pius confined the functions of the chancery to
the sending out of bulls under the leaden seal (_sub plumbo_), for the
erection of dioceses, the provision of bishoprics and consistorial
benefices, and other affairs of importance, these bulls being sent out
by order of the Consistorial Congregation.
Dataria Apostolica.
(2) The Apostolic Dataria is the department dealing with matters of
grace, e.g. the concession of privileges, nominations to benefices and
dispensations _in foro externo_, especially matrimonial ones; but its
functions have been greatly reduced by the reforms of Pius X.; the
matrimonial section has been suppressed, dispensations for marriages now
belonging to the Congregation for the discipline of the sacraments; the
section dealing with benefices, which is the only one preserved, deals
with non-consistorial benefices reserved to the Holy See; it examines
the claims of the candidates, draws up and sends out the letters of
collation, gives dispensations, when necessary, in matters concerning
the benefices, and manages the charges (i.e. pensions to incumbents who
have resigned, &c.) imposed on the benefices by the pope. It has at its
head a cardinal formerly called the _pro-datarius_, the _datarius_
having formerly been a prelate; and now _datarius_, since the reform by
Pius X. The cardinal is assisted by a prelate called the _sub-datarius_,
and other officials.
Apostolic chamber.
(3) The Apostolic Chamber (_Reverenda Camera Apostolica_) was before the
abolition of the temporal power of the papacy the ministry of finance,
at once treasury and exchequer, of the popes as heads of the Catholic
Church as well as sovereigns of the papal states. Although it is
necessarily diminished in importance, it has retained the administration
of the property of the Holy See, especially during a vacancy. At its
head is the cardinal camerlengo (_Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalis
Camerarius_), who, as we know, exercises the external authority during
the vacancy of the Holy See.
Secretaryship of State.
Briefs.
(4) Next come the palatine secretariates, the first and principal of
which is the secretariate of state (_Secretaria status_). The cardinal
secretary of state is as it were the pope's prime minister, gathering
into one centre the internal administration and foreign affairs, by
means of the nunciatures and delegations depending on his department.
The secretary of state is the successor of what was called in the 17th
century the cardinal nephew; his functions and importance have increased
more and more. The secretariate of state is the department dealing with
the political affairs of the Church. To it belongs the internal
administration of the apostolic palaces, with the library, archives,
museums, &c. In 1908 Pius X. divided the departments of the secretariate
of state into three sections, under the authority of the cardinal
secretary. The first is the department of extraordinary ecclesiastical
affairs, having at its head the secretary of the Congregation of the
same name; the second, that of ordinary affairs, directed by a
substitute, is the department dealing, among other things, with the
concession of honorary distinctions, both for ecclesiastics and laymen;
the third is that of the briefs, which hitherto formed a separate
secretariate. It is this department which sends out, at the command of
the secretary of state or the various Congregations, those papal letters
which are written in less solemn form, _brevi manu_, hence the word
"brief." They are written in the pope's name, but he only takes the less
solemn style of: "Pius PP. X." The brief is written on thin parchment,
and dated by the ordinary era and the day of the month; they were
formerly signed only by the cardinal secretary of briefs or his
substitute, but now by the cardinal secretary of state or the head of
the office, called the chancellor of Briefs (_cancellarius Brevium_).
The seal is that of the fisherman's ring, hence the formula of
conclusion, "_Datum Romae, sub annulo Piscatoris_." The "Fisherman's
ring" is a red ink stamp representing St Peter on a boat casting out his
nets, with the name of the reigning pope.
Other offices.
The reform of Pius X. maintained untouched the two offices called the
secretariate of briefs to princes, and the secretariate of Latin
Letters, the names of which are sufficient indication of their
functions. The secretariate of memorials (_Secretaria Memorialium_),
through which pass requests addressed to the pope for the purpose of
obtaining certain favours, was formerly of great importance; it is now
suppressed and the requests are addressed to the proper departments.
Finally, the pope has his special secretary, his _auditor_, with his
offices, as well as the papal almonry, the officials of which administer
the papal charities.