THE PAPACY
See bibliography, chap. iv. (b). Ciacconius, /Vitae et res gestae
Romanorum Pontificum/, 1677. Sandini, /Vitae Rom. Pontif./, etc.,
1753. Guarnacci, /Vitae et res gestae Rom. Pontif./, etc., 1751.
Ranke, op. cit., Reumont, op. cit. Della Gattina, /Histoire
diplomatique des conclaves/, 1865. /Bullarium Romanum/.
Difficult as had been the situation with which the Popes were
confronted during the sixteenth century and the first half of the
seventeenth century, when heresy was rampant throughout Europe, and
when Catholic nations were obliged to fight for their very existence,
it was not a whit more difficult or more critical than that created by
the increasing and selfish demands of Catholic rulers, which
confronted their successors during the age of absolute government. The
Peace of Westphalia (1648), by giving official sanction to the
principle of state neutrality, meant nothing less than a complete
revolution in the relations that had existed hitherto between Church
and State. So long as the Christian world was united in one great
religious family, acknowledging the Pope as the common Father of
Christendom, it was not strange that in disputes between princes and
subjects or between the rulers of independent states the authority of
the Pope as supreme arbitrator should have been recognised, or that
his interference even in temporal matters should not have been
regarded as unwarrantable.
But once the religious unity of Europe was broken by the separation of
entire nations from the Church, and once the politico-religious
constitution of the Holy Roman Empire was destroyed by the acceptance
of the principle of religious neutrality, the Popes felt that their
interference even indirectly in temporal matters, however justifiable
it might be in itself, could produce no good results. Hence apart from
their action as temporal sovereigns of the Papal States, a position
that obliged the Popes to take part in political affairs, the whole
tendency was to confine themselves strictly to spiritual matters, and
to preserve harmony if possible between Church and State. This policy
did not, however, satisfy the selfish designs of rulers, who had
determined to crush all representative institutions and to assert for
themselves complete and unlimited authority. Catholic rulers, jealous
of the increased powers secured by Protestant princes through the
exercise of supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction, determined to assert
for themselves a somewhat similar authority over the Catholic Church
in their own territories. It was no longer the supposed inroads of the
Church upon the domain of the State but the attacks of the State upon
the rights of the Church, that were likely to disturb the good
relations between Catholic princes and the Pope. These rulers demanded
an overwhelming voice in all ecclesiastical appointments; they
insisted upon exercising the /Royal Placet/ upon papal documents and
episcopal pronouncements; they would tolerate no longer the privileges
and exemptions admitted by their predecessors in favour of clerics or
of ecclesiastical property; they claimed the right of dictating to the
cardinals who should be Pope and of dictating to the Pope who should
be cardinals; of controlling education in their own dominions; of
determining the laws and rules concerning marriages and matrimonial
dispensations, and of fixing the constitutions of those religious
orders the existence of which they were willing to tolerate.
Unfortunately in their designs for transferring ecclesiastical
jurisdiction from the Popes to the crown the princes were favoured by
many of the bishops, who were annoyed at the continual interference of
Rome and who failed to realise that the king was a much greater danger
to their independence than the Pope; by a large body of clerics and
laymen, who looked to the civil authority for promotion; by the
Jansenists who detested Rome, because Rome had barred the way against
the speculative and practical religious revolution which they
contemplated; by the philosophers and rationalists, many of whom,
though enemies of absolute rule, did not fail to recognise that
disputes between Church and State, leading necessarily to a weakening
of Church authority, meant the weakening of dogmatic Christianity; and
by liberal-minded Catholics of the /Aufklarung/ school, who thought
that every blow dealt at Rome meant a blow struck for the policy of
modernising the discipline, government, and faith of the Church. The
eighteenth century was a period of transition from the politico-
religious views of the Middle Ages to those of modern times. It was a
period of conflict between two ideas of the relations that should
exist between Church and State. The Popes were called upon to defend
not indeed their right to interfere in temporal matters, for of that
there was no question, but their right to exercise control in purely
spiritual affairs. It is necessary to bear this in mind if one wishes
to appreciate the policy of those, upon whom was placed the terrible
responsibility of governing the Church during the one hundred and
fifty years that elapsed between the Peace of Westphalia and the
outbreak of the French Revolution.
In the conclave that followed the death of Innocent X., Cardinal
Chigi, who had been nuncio at Cologne, envoy-extraordinary of the Holy
See during the negotiations that ended in the Peace of Westphalia, and
afterwards Secretary of State, was elected, and took the title of
Alexander VII.[1] (1655-67). At first the people were rejoiced because
the new Pope had shown himself so determined an opponent of that
nepotism, which had dimmed the glory of so many of his predecessors,
but at the request of the foreign ambassadors and with the approval of
the cardinals he changed his policy after some time, brought some of
his relatives to Rome, and allowed them too much influence. His
election had been opposed by Cardinal Mazarin in the name of France,
and throughout his reign he was doomed to suffer severely from the
unfriendly and high-handed action of Louis XIV., who despatched an
army to the Papal States to revenge an insult to his ambassador, the
Duc de Crequi, and forced the Pope to sign the disgraceful Peace of
Pisa (1664). Alexander VII. condemned the Jansenistic distinction
between law and fact by the Bull, /Ad Sanctam Petri Sedem/ (1665), to
enforce which he drew up a formulary of faith to be signed by the
French clergy and religious. He observed an attitude of neutrality in
the disputes between Spain and Portugal, secured the return of the
Jesuits to Venice, and welcomed to Rome Queen Christina of Sweden, who
abandoned Lutheranism to return to the Catholic Church.
His successor, Cardinal Rospigliosi, formerly nuncio at Madrid and
Secretary of State was proclaimed Pope as Clement IX. (1667-69). He
was deeply religious, generous in his donations to the poor and to
hospitals, and uninfluenced by any undue attachment to his relations.
He put an end to the religious disorders that had reigned in Portugal
since 1648, when that country seceded from Spain to which it had been
united since 1580, and proclaimed the Duke of Braganza king under the
title of John IV. Matters had reached such a crisis that many of the
bishoprics in Portugal and the Portuguese colonies were left vacant.
In 1668 after the conclusion of the Peace of Lisbon the Pope appointed
those who had been nominated to the vacant Sees. Deceived by the false
representations made to him from France, he restored the French
bishops who had adhered publicly to the distinction between law and
fact. He offered generous assistance to Venice more especially in its
defence of Crete against the Turks. During his reign he canonised Mary
Magdalen de Pazzi, and Peter of Alcantara.
On the death of Clement IX. the cardinals could not at first agree
upon any candidate, but finally as a compromise they elected, much
against his own will, Cardinal Altieri, then an old man eighty years
of age.[2] He was proclaimed as Clement X. (1670-76). Unable to
transact much business himself he left too much in the hands of
others, especially to Cardinal Paoluzzi. He encouraged and assisted
the Poles in their struggles against the Turks, and resisted the
demands of Louis XIV. concerning the /Regalia/. He canonised John
Cajetan, Philip Benitius, Francis Borgia, Louis Bertrand, and Rose of
Lima.
In the conclave that followed the demise of Clement X. Cardinal
Odescalchi, against whom France had exercised the veto on a previous
occasion, was elected and took the name of Innocent XI.[3] (1676-
1689). He was zealous for religion, charitable to the poor, economic
and prudent in the administration of the Papal States, anxious for an
improvement in clerical education, and a strong opponent of everything
that savoured of nepotism. His whole reign was troubled by the
insolent and overbearing demands of Louis XIV. in regard to the
/Regalia/, the right of asylum, and the Declaration of the French
Clergy (1682), but Innocent XI. maintained a firm attitude in spite of
the threats of the king and the culpable weakness of the French
bishops. He encouraged John Sobieski, King of Poland, to take up arms
against the Turks who had laid siege to Vienna, and contributed
generously to help Hungary to withstand these invaders.
After the short and by no means glorious reign of Alexander VIII.
(Cardinal Ottoboni, 1689-91), the cardinals were divided into two
parties, the French and the Spanish-Austrian. When the conclave had
continued five months without any result they agreed finally to elect
a compromise candidate (Cardinal Pignatelli) who took the name of
Innocent XII. (1691-1700). In every respect he showed himself worthy
of his holy office. Nepotism was condemned in the Bull /Romanum Decet
Pontificum/, better arrangements were made for the administration of
justice throughout the Papal States; the disputes with Louis XIV.
regarding the Declaration of the French Clergy were settled when the
bishops who signed these articles expressed their regret for their
conduct (1693); and several propositions taken from the /Maximes/ of
Fenelon were condemned. The Pope was involved in a serious dispute
with the Emperor Leopold I. concerning the right of asylum attached to
the imperial embassy in Rome, and the aggressive policy of Martinitz,
the imperial ambassador. As a result of this quarrel the Pope, without
consulting Charles II. of Spain who had no heirs, favoured the
pretensions of Philip Duke of Anjou (Philip V.) to the throne of Spain
in preference to the Emperor's son the Archduke Charles.
In the conclave that assembled after the death of Innocent XII. the
majority of the cardinals favoured Cardinal Mariscotti, but, as his
election was vetoed by France, they concentrated their votes on
Cardinal Albani. For three days he refused to accept the onerous
office, but at last he gave way to the earnest entreaties of the
cardinals, and allowed himself to be proclaimed as Clement XI.[4]
(1700-21). His election was acclaimed in Rome, in Italy, and
throughout the Catholic world. He was a man of great sanctity of life,
devoted to prayer and labour, who set an example to others by
preaching and hearing confessions regularly in St. Peter's. While he
was Pope there was no danger of nepotism at the papal court, and no
prospect for unworthy or greedy officials in the Papal States. During
his entire reign he was involved in disputes with the Catholic powers.
The death of Charles II. of Spain led to a conflict between Louis
XIV., who claimed the crown for his grandson Philip of Anjou (Philip
V.), and the Emperor Leopold I., who supported the cause of his son,
the Archduke, Charles III. Clement XI. endeavoured at first to
maintain an attitude of neutrality, but as Philip had been crowned and
had established himself apparently on the throne of Spain the Pope was
obliged to acknowledge him. This action gave great offence to Leopold
I. and to his successor, Joseph I., who retaliated by interfering in
ecclesiastical affairs and by despatching an army against the Papal
States. Clement XI., abandoned by Louis XIV. and by Philip V. was
obliged to come to terms with the Emperor, and to acknowledge Charles
III. as king of Spain. Immediately Louis XIV. and Philip V. were up in
arms against the Pope. The nuncio was dismissed from Madrid and
relations between Spain and Rome were interrupted for a long period;
the papal representatives were excluded from the negotiations
preceding the Peace of Utrecht (1713); and feudal territories of the
Holy See were disposed of without consulting the wishes of the Pope,
Sicily being handed over to Victor Amadeus of Savoy (1675-1713) with
whom Clement XI. was then in serious conflict.
To put an end to difficulties with the foreign bishops, who exercised
jurisdiction in portion of his territory, the Duke of Savoy had
demanded full rights of nomination to episcopal Sees. When this demand
was refused he recalled his ambassador from Rome (1701), and took upon
himself the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs. He appointed an
administrator to take charge of the revenues of vacant Sees, enforced
the /Royal Placet/ on episcopal and papal documents, and forbade the
publication of Roman censures (1710). A partial agreement was arrived
at when the royal administrator consented to accept his appointment
from the Pope, but the transference of Sicily to the Duke of Savoy led
to a new and more serious quarrel. The latter attempted to revive the
privileges known as the Sicilian Monarchy, accorded formerly to the
ruler of Sicily. The Pope refused to recognise these claims, and as
the king remained stubborn nothing was left but to place the island
under interdict. To this the king replied by expelling those priests
who observed the interdict. This state of affairs lasted until Sicily
passed into the hands of the King of Spain (1718).
The Turks were active once more and threatened Europe by land and sea.
Clement XI. sent generous supplies to Venice to equip its fleet,
encouraged Stanislaus Augustus of Poland who had joined the Catholic
Church, granted tithes upon ecclesiastical property to help him in the
struggle, and allowed Philip V. of Spain portion of the revenues
derived from the benefices in Spain and in the Spanish-American
colonies, on condition that the Spanish fleet should be sent into the
Mediterranean to take part in the war against Turkey. The victories of
Prince Eugene (1716-18) dealt a severe blow to the power of the
Sultan, but the Spanish fleet instead of assisting the Christian
forces was used for the capture of Sardinia from the Emperor. As
evidence of the difficult position of Clement XI. in face of the
powers of Europe it is sufficient to point to the fact that at one
time or another during his reign, his nuncios were driven from Vienna,
Turin, Madrid, and Naples.
The conclave that followed was, as might be expected, a stormy one;
but in the end Cardinal Conti, who had been nuncio in Lucerne and
Lisbon, was elected and took as his title Innocent XIII. (1721-24). He
granted the kingdom of Naples to the Emperor, who in turn without
consulting the Pope bestowed the papal fiefs of Parma and Piacenza on
Prince Charles of France. Peace was restored between the Holy See and
Spain (1723), and Innocent XIII., yielding very unwillingly to the
importunate demands of France, conferred a cardinal's hat on Dubois,
the prime minister.
His successor was Benedict XIII. (1724-30). Cardinal Orsini, as he was
known before his election, belonged to the Dominican Order, and at the
time of the conclave held the Archbishopric of Benevento. As
archbishop he was most zealous in the administration of his diocese,
and as Pope he followed the same strict simple life to which he had
been accustomed when a Dominican friar. He made peace with the Emperor
by granting him practically all the rights contained in the Sicilian
Monarchy, reserving to the Holy See only the final decision of
important cases (1728), and with the King of Savoy by acknowledging
his title over Sardinia and by granting him the right of episcopal
nomination in the island. With the demand of King John of Portugal,
namely, that Portugal should enjoy the privilege of presenting
candidates for appointment to the college of cardinals, Benedict XIII.
refused to comply, and as a consequence the Portuguese ambassador was
recalled from Rome and communications with the Holy See were
interrupted. The extension of the feast of Gregory VII. (Hildebrand)
to the whole Church gave great offence to many rulers both Catholic
and Protestant, because such a step was interpreted as a direct
challenge to the new theories of secular intervention in
ecclesiastical affairs. Benedict XIII. was a saintly ruler, whose only
misfortune was that he relied too much on unworthy councillors like
Cardinal Coscia and Cardinal Lercari, who deceived him in their
negotiations with the governments of Europe and in the administration
of the Papal States. A rebellion against these men broke out in Rome
when the news of the Pope's death became public. Cardinal Coscia was
deprived of his dignity and imprisoned, while many of his associates
and subordinates were punished no less severely.
Cardinal Corsini who succeeded as Clement XII. (1730-1740) was faced
with a very difficult situation in Rome and in the Papal States. The
treasury was empty, the finances were in disorder, and the discontent
was general. The Pope, though very old, delicate, and almost
completely blind, showed wonderful energy and administrative ability.
The financial affairs of the government were placed upon a proper
footing. Instead of a deficit there was soon a surplus, which was
expended in beautifying the city, in opening up the port of Ancona,
and in the drainage and reclamation of the marshes. Like his
predecessors, Clement XII. had much to suffer from the Catholic rulers
of Europe. He was engaged in a quarrel with the King of Savoy because
he tried to limit the privileges that had been conceded to this
sovereign by his predecessor. Philip V. of Spain demanded that the
Pope should confer a cardinal's hat together with the Archbishoprics
of Seville and Toledo on his son, then only nine years of age. The
Pope endeavoured to satisfy the king by granting the temporal
administration of Toledo until the boy should reach the canonical age
for the reception of Orders (1735), but owing to an attack made upon
the Spanish ambassador in Rome during a popular commotion the courts
of Naples and Madrid dismissed the papal ambassador and broke off
relations with the Holy See. Peace, however, was restored with Spain
in 1737, and with Naples in the following year. Clement XII. condemned
the Freemasons (1738). He canonised Vincent de Paul, John Francis
Regis, and Juliana Falconieri.
The conclave that followed lasted six months before any of the
candidates could secure the required majority. At last Cardinal
Lambertini was elected and proclaimed under the title of Benedict
XIV.[5] (1740-58). In many particulars, but more especially as a
scholar and a writer, he may be regarded as one of the greatest Popes
of modern times. He was born in 1675, was educated at Rome and
Bologna, and even as a very young man he was looked upon as a leading
authority on canon law and theology. He rose steadily from position to
position in Rome till at last he found himself cardinal and Archbishop
of Bologna. As archbishop he was most successful in the discharge of
all the duties that appertained to his office. He held diocesan synods
regularly, visited the most distant parishes of his diocese,
superintended the education of his clerical students for whom he drew
up a new plan of studies, and above all he strove to maintain most
friendly relations with both priests and people. But notwithstanding
his cares of office he found time to continue his studies, and to
prepare learned volumes on Canon Law, Theology, and History, that
placed him amongst the leading scholars of his time.
Nor did he change his policy or his course of life after his election
to the papal throne. Benedict XIV. was convinced that a better
training would help to strengthen the influence of the clergy, and
would enable them to combat more successfully the rising spirit of
unbelief. Hence he was anxious to introduce into the colleges more
modern educational methods. He founded four academies, one for
Christian Archaeology, one for Canon Law, one for Church History, and
one for the special study of the history of the Councils. He gave
every encouragement to priests who wished to devote themselves to
literary pursuits, and in his own person he showed how much could be
done in this direction without any neglect of duty. His instructions
and encyclicals were learned treatises, in which no aspect of the
subject he handled was neglected. His decrees on marriage, especially
on mixed marriages (/Magnae Nobis admirationis/, 1748), on Penance,
and on the Oriental Rites were of vital importance. Both before and
after his elevation to the papacy he published many learned works, the
most important of which were the /Institutiones Ecclesiasticae/, /De
Synodo Diocesana/, /De Servorum Dei Beatificatione et de Beatorum
canonizatione/, /Thesaurus Resolutionum Sacrae Congregationis
Concilii/, and the /Casus Conscientiae/.
In his administration of the Papal States Benedict XIV. was no less
successful. The enormous expenses incurred by his predecessor had
depleted the papal treasury, but the schemes of retrenchment enforced
by Benedict XIV. produced such good results that in a few years money
was available for the development of agriculture, industries, and
commerce. With the civil rulers of Europe he had a difficult part to
play. Convinced that disputes between the civil and ecclesiastical
authority resulted only in promoting the schemes of the enemies of
religion, he was determined to go to the very limits of concession for
the sake of peace and harmony. For a time at least he was able to
secure a partial reconciliation, and had his overtures been met in the
proper spirit a working arrangement might have been established, that
would have enabled both powers to combine against the forces at work
for the overthrow of Church and State.
The title of King of Prussia assumed by the Elector of Brandenburg was
recognised by the Pope; peace was made with Portugal by granting to
the crown rights of patronage over bishoprics and abbeys (1740), and
to set the seal on this reconciliation the title of /Rex Fidelissimus/
was bestowed on the King of Portugal. With the court of Turin the Pope
had still greater difficulties, but an agreement was arrived at,
whereby the king was to have the right of nomination to ecclesiastical
benefices; the foreign bishops having jurisdiction in the territory of
Savoy were to appoint vicars-general for the administration of these
portions of their dioceses, and the administrator of vacant benefices
appointed by the king was to act as the deputy of the Pope (1741).
With Spain a formal concordat was concluded in 1753. The dispute in
Naples regarding the Sicilian Monarchy was settled by the appointment
of a mixed tribunal composed of laymen and clerics, presided over by a
cleric for the settlement of ecclesiastical affairs. The Pope's
decision that only those who refused publicly to accept the papal
condemnation of Jansenism were to be excluded from the sacraments
helped to ease considerably the situation in France. He condemned the
Freemasons (1751), and reduced the number of holidays for Spain in
1742 and for Austria, Tuscany, and Naples in 1748.
His successor Clement XIII. (1758-69) found himself in a peculiarly
unhappy position. Despite the friendly policy adopted by Benedict XIV.
towards the civil rulers, or, as some would say, as a result of the
concessions that he made, their demands became still more exorbitant.
The Rationalists, liberal Catholics, Jansenists, and Freemasons united
their forces for a grand attack upon the Society of Jesus, the
suppression of which they were determined to secure. Already rumblings
of the storm had been heard before the death of Benedict XIV. His
successor, who had the highest admiration for the Jesuits, stood
manfully by the Society, and refused to yield to the threats of the
Bourbon rulers thirsting for its destruction. His sudden death was
attributed not without good reason to the ultimatum, demanding the
immediate suppression of the Jesuits, addressed to him by the
ambassadors of France, Spain, and Naples.
In the conclave the cardinals were divided into two parties, the
/Zelanti/ who stood for resistance to the demands of the civil rulers,
and the moderate men who supported the policy of conciliation. The
representatives of France, Spain, Portugal, and Naples, left no stone
unturned to prevent the election of a /Zelanti/, and the veto was used
with such effect that the choice of the cardinals was at last limited
to only three or four. Threats were made that, if a candidate was
elected against the wishes of the Bourbons, Rome might be occupied by
foreign troops, and obedience might be refused to the new Pope. In the
end a Franciscan friar, Cardinal Ganganelli, who was not an extreme
partisan of either party among the cardinals, received the required
majority of votes, and was proclaimed as Clement XIV. (1769-74). The
new Pope was not unfriendly to the Jesuits, nor had he any evidence
that could induce him to reverse the very favourable judgment
delivered in their favour by his immediate predecessor. He endeavoured
to avert the storm by making generous concessions to the Bourbons and
to Portugal, by adopting an unfriendly attitude towards the Society,
and by offering to effect serious changes in its constitution. But
these half-way measures failed to put an end to the agitation, and at
last Clement XIV. found himself obliged to make his choice between
suppression and schism. In the circumstances he thought it best for
the sake of peace to sacrifice the Society (1773) but he was soon to
realise that peace could not be procured even by such a sacrifice. His
weakness led only to more intolerable demands from France, Spain and
Naples.
The cardinals assembled in conclave after his death found it difficult
to agree upon any candidate, but finally after a conclave lasting more
than four months they elected Cardinal Braschi, who took the title of
Pius VI.[6] (1775-99). The new Pope was a zealous ecclesiastic,
anxious to promote a policy of conciliation, but immovable as a rock
when there was a question of the essential rights of the Church. He
withstood manfully the Febronian policy of Joseph II. and of the
prince-bishops of Germany, and condemned the decrees of the Synod of
Pistoia (1794). He endeavoured to maintain friendly relations with
Portugal, Spain, Naples, and Sardinia, though the old policy of state
supremacy was still the guiding principle of the rulers and
politicians. The storm that had been gathering for years broke over
Europe during the latter years of his reign; the Bourbon throne in
France was overturned, and no man could foretell when a similar fate
awaited the other royal families of Europe. Pius VI., though not
unwilling to recognise the new order, was stern in his refusal to
permit the constitution of the Church to be changed. For this reason
his capital was occupied; his cardinals were dispersed, and he himself
was brought as a prisoner to Valence, where he died in exile (1799).
The enemies of religion could not conceal their delight. They declared
triumphantly that with him the long line of Peter had ceased to exist,
but the conclave at Venice and the election of Pius VII. (1800) soon
showed the world that though kingdoms and dynasties might disappear
the Papacy still survived, as Christ had foretold it should survive.
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[1] Pallavicini, /Vita de Alessandro VII./, 1849.
[2] De Bildt, /The Conclave of Clement X./, 1905.
[3] Bonamici, /Da Vita Innocenti XI./, 1776.
[4] Lafiteau, /Vie de Clement XI./, 1752.
[5] /Benedicti XIV. Opera/, 17 vols., 1839-46. Heiner, /Opera
inedita/, 1904. Guarnacci, /Vie du Pape Benoit XIV./, 1783.
[6] Ferrari, /Vita Pii VI./, 1802. Bourgoing, /Memoires historiques et
philosophiques sur Pie VI. et son pontificat/, 1800.