The sternum, or breast-bone, upon which all these parts rest, is

scarcely less singular in its structure (see figure). The body of the

sternum consists of four short pieces, which receive the ends of the

ribs. Behind these is a slender ensiform process (_e_), and in front

of them a manubrium (_m_), or presternum, of peculiar form, and quite

as long as the whole middle part of the sternum. This part is widened

in part of its length, receives a single pair of ribs in its hinder

division, has a strong keel for the attachment of the pectoral muscles

along its lower surface, and is much thickened at its front extremity,

to the sides of which the collar-bones (_c_) are articulated. By

this arrangement the whole fore-limb is thrown forward close to the

head, and placed in the most favourable position for facilitating the

burrowing operations of the animal, which are effected by bringing

forward the fore-feet to the level of the nose, and then separating

them and pushing backward, with an action that might almost be

styled _swimming_ through the ground. The hind feet, which are much

smaller than those just described, are perfectly plantigrade in their

structure. They also contain five toes, armed with small sharp claws,

and are used only for the purpose of progression.

When we consider the structure of the Mole, and its perfect adaptation

to its mode of life, we may agree with Mr. Bell in the belief that

although superficial observers may regard it as a miserable creature,

such a notion is an absolute mistake. It is true that the Mole, like so

many of our own race, is condemned to almost perpetual exertion; but

in the case of human beings we find that physical exertion at any rate

is of itself so little of an absolute evil that many of our favourite

amusements involve no small amount of it, and moral writers are rather

fond of dwelling on the pleasure of earning one’s dinner before eating

it. Now this is no more than our friend the Mole has to do, so that he

can hardly be looked upon as an object either of pity or contempt; and

in fact, in his own quiet way, he probably manages to enjoy his life as

much as his neighbours. In going about in his subterranean galleries

the Mole is constantly engaged in looking out for suitable food, a very

large supply of which is necessary for his comfortable existence. M.

Geoffroy St. Hilaire says that the appetite of hunger in the Mole is a

sort of frenzy, the animal when in view of its prey becoming violently

agitated, and throwing itself on its victim as if maddened with rage.

Vegetable substances constitute no part of its diet, although it is

said sometimes to gnaw the roots of plants in search of the insects and

larvæ which feed upon them. Its favourite food consists of earthworms,

in pursuit of which it sometimes comes to the surface so eagerly as to

throw itself out of its burrow. It is in search of these animals, and

especially of the larvæ of various insects which feed upon the roots

of grasses and other plants, that the Mole makes its most superficial

galleries.

The Mole appears not to be particular in its tastes in the matter of

food, and will readily make a meal upon animals much larger and higher

in the scale of organisation than those above mentioned, should they

happen to come in its way. Mice, small birds, Lizards, and Frogs, if

placed within its reach, it will seize and hold with the ferocity and

tenacity of a thoroughbred Bull-dog, and even weaker individuals of

its own species are killed and devoured. According to M. Geoffroy,

in attacking birds it makes use of a good deal of stratagem to get

unobserved within reach of its prey, and then by a sudden and violent

attack seizes the bird by the belly, tears it open with its powerful

claws, and thrusts its muzzle among the unfortunate creature’s

entrails, with every appearance of intense enjoyment. M. Flourens gives

a similar account of its proceedings. Professor Lenz also describes

the voracity of the Mole, and its determined mode of destroying larger

animals than one would suppose it capable of managing. A Mole in his

possession destroyed and devoured, in the course of twenty-four hours,

a large Slowworm, a large Snail, two Chrysalids, and a Snake about

thirty-two inches long. Of the reptiles he left nothing but the skin

and the bones.

It is probably by the sense of smell chiefly that the Mole is guided

in its search for prey. Brehm found that when he had got a Mole buried

in some earth in a box, and placed a few fragments of chopped meat on

the surface, in a few minutes the earth rose, the muzzle of the Mole

appeared, and the meat was devoured. The sense of sight is perhaps

in general of little use to the animal; but there are times in its

life when to see is an advantage; and time-honoured as the belief may

be, there is no doubt that the supposition that the Mole is blind is

merely a popular error. It has indeed long been known to naturalists

not only that the Mole had eyes, but that these were sufficiently open

to enable him to see, and at one time considerable obloquy was heaped

upon the memory of Aristotle for having given origin to a statement to

the contrary. It would appear, however, that Aristotle’s statement was

approximately correct with respect to the southern European species

upon which his observations were probably made, and the error was

that of those naturalists who applied the assertions of the Greek

philosopher to a different animal.

Like other great gormandisers, the Mole is an exceedingly thirsty

creature. “Where a colony of Moles exists,” says Mr. Bell, “a run is

always made towards the nearest ditch or pond;” and the same writer

states, on the authority of Mr. Jackson, an intelligent Mole-catcher,

that where water cannot conveniently be reached, “the animal sinks

deep, perpendicular shafts, at the bottom of which water is always

found, to which the Mole has easy access. Sometimes, also according to

the observations of Mr. Jackson, these wells are full to the brim.”

These statements are confirmed by a German Mole-catcher, cited by Brehm.

We have already seen that the essential conditions of the Mole’s life

consist in continual burrowing. Hence, not unnaturally, the animal

shows a marked preference for light soils, and through these he makes

his way with remarkable ease and rapidity. Oken says of a Mole, which

he kept for six months, that when put into a box of sand, it would make

its way through the sand almost as quickly as a fish through the water.

In its natural mode of life, however, it by no means confines itself to

such vagarious proceedings, but constructs a most complex habitation,

which is formed with wonderful art.

[Illustration: MOLE’S FORTRESS.]

Each Mole has his own encampment, frequently entirely separate from

those of his fellows, but sometimes the animals evince a rather more

sociable disposition, and condescend to make use of a common passage.

But in his encampment, each Mole always has his own dwelling, which

has been, not inappropriately, styled his fortress, and this certainly

displays great ingenuity and skill in its design and construction

(see figure). It is formed under a hillock of earth, in a situation

which affords some protection to the little domicile. Its roof is a

firm dome, the earth composing it being pressed into a solid mass by

the Mole while excavating the internal passages and chambers. Beneath

this there are two circular galleries, one above the other, the lower

one considerably larger than the upper, with which it communicates by

five nearly equi-distant passages, running slantingly upwards. Within

the lower circular gallery is situated the actual dwelling-place or

chamber, to which access is obtained by three passages descending

from the upper gallery, so that when within his house the Mole has

to go both up and down stairs to reach his bedroom. But the chamber

has another issue by a passage which at first descends for a short

distance, and then rises again to lead into the high road running to

and from the fortress, which is always single; and, on the other hand,

the lower and larger gallery gives off about nine other passages,

which either terminate at a short distance from the fortress, or,

after making a detour, return into the high road. So cautious is the

Mole, that the apertures of these passages are said seldom to be made

opposite to those which lead from the lower to the upper circular

gallery. With these arrangements it must be confessed that the Mole has

provided admirably for being “not at home” to unwelcome visitors.

The same caution that prompts the Mole to the formation of so

complicated a castle leads him to take equal care in the construction

of the road leading into it. This usually runs in a direct line from

one end of the animal’s camping-ground to the other, and forms a

highway by which he can go quickly about his business. It is large

enough to enable him to pass through it easily, but in making it he is

careful not to throw out the earth as he does in his ordinary runs,

and the whole passage appears to be chiefly formed by compression of

the earth by the little engineer. By his constant passing to and fro,

its walls become singularly smooth and compact. Occasionally a Mole

will form two or more high roads leading from his fortress, probably

when supplies fall short and it is necessary to open up new ground; and

sometimes several Moles share the same highway, perhaps in localities

where worms and grubs are peculiarly fat and abundant. But in the

latter case, as there is not room in the little tunnel for one Mole

to pass another, if two of them meet by accident one must give way

or retire into a side alley, otherwise a violent combat ensues, when

the weaker is ruthlessly killed and devoured. The road varies in its

depth from the surface according to the nature of the soil and other

circumstances; in safe localities it is usually at a depth of four or

five inches.

It is through this well-beaten path that the Mole goes out to his

hunting-grounds, and by it also that he is obliged to return. The

Mole-catchers are well aware of this peculiarity in the habits of

the animal, and one of their most successful devices for its capture

consists in placing traps in the course of the high road at a time when

the Mole is sure to be out on a foraging expedition, so as to intercept

him on his way home. The rapidity of its motion along the high road,

especially when alarmed, was demonstrated by an amusing experiment

shown to M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire by M. Le Court. The latter, having

ascertained the direction of a Mole’s road, and found that the animal

was hunting at its furthest extremity, placed all along the line at

certain distances pieces of straw, passing one end of each into the

little tunnel, and attaching little paper flags to the other. He then

inserted a horn close to the extremity of the tunnel, and, blowing into

it, produced a frightful noise, upon hearing which the Mole naturally

made the best of his way home to his fortress, indicating his progress

by throwing off the little flags as he passed the successive straws. It

was estimated that the speed of the frightened animal was equal to that

of a Horse at full trot.

The extreme voracity of the Mole has already been mentioned, but it may

be urged in his excuse that the hard labour he has to perform renders

a considerable amount of good nourishment absolutely essential to him.

Mr. Bell says that his activity in search of food is principally in the

morning and evening, and that he sleeps the greater part of the day. In

seeking his food, the course adopted by him in making his highway would

not answer: he must now dig through the ground to see what it contains,

and in doing this he is of course embarrassed by the loose stuff that

he dislodges. To get rid of this he makes his way to the surface from

time to time, breaks through, and pushes the troublesome rubbish out

with his nose, producing those well-known “Mole-hills” of loose earth

which so commonly betray his progress in our fields and meadows. The

depth at which the Mole works in his hunting-grounds depends very much

upon circumstances. In light and newly-worked soils, after rain, when

the earthworms especially come to the surface, the Mole will travel

along in a sort of shallow trench in pursuit of his prey. In winter we

have the reverse of this picture, for then the Moles are compelled to

go far down in pursuit of the worms, which have been driven from the

surface by the frost.

It must not be supposed, however, that eating and sleeping make up the

whole life-history of the Mole. Very early in the year a time comes

when he feels strange emotions stirring within him, and then he goes

off gallantly, in his velvet coat, in search of a partner in his lonely

encampment. That he will not be allowed to bring home his bride without

many an appeal to his weapons is almost a matter of necessity, for

by some singular dispensation the number of male Moles is very much

greater than that of the opposite sex, a disproportion which, as might

be expected, gives rise to a good deal of jealousy and its natural

consequences among such fierce and untamed spirits. As the male goes on

his wooing he makes numerous but very shallow tracks in all directions.

These have received the elegant name of _traces d’amour_ from the

French naturalists. The lady having been found, the next business is

to secure possession of her, and this is attended with considerable

difficulties, both from the impertinent intrusion of other males, and

from a tendency on the part of the lady herself to run away from the

proffered happiness. The intending bridegroom must have rather a hard

time of it. But at length the bride’s coyness and the assiduities of

rivals are got rid of, and the pair settle down to inhabit for a time

the same encampment, and to bring up their little family. It would

appear that the affection of the male for his mate continues to be of a

very warm kind, at least M. Le Court states that he several times found

a female caught in a trap with the male lying dead beside her. The

possession of strong family affections by the Mole would seem further

to be proved by an observation communicated to M. Le Court, according

to which, when the Mole’s nest is invaded by a sudden flood, both

parents may be seen struggling bravely, and risking their own lives

to save their young, and mutually assisting and protecting each other

while thus engaged.

The period of gestation in the Mole does not appear to be very

accurately known, but it is supposed to be about two months. The young

are brought forth earlier or later, according to the season, but most

commonly in April. There are generally four or five, but sometimes

only three, and occasionally six or even seven in a litter. They are

produced in a nest lined with grass, fine roots, dried leaves, and

similar materials collected in a sort of chamber, which is formed

by the enlargement of the point of junction of three or four of the

ordinary passages, always separate from the fortress, and often at a

considerable distance from it. Only a single brood is produced in the

year.

We have devoted so much space to the natural history of the Mole

because, whilst it is really the most interesting, from this point of

view, of all our British Mammals, there is no other which is exposed

to such constant and severe persecution. In all parts of the country

we find professional Mole-catchers, who make it their business to

ascertain the habits of the animals, and taking advantage of this

knowledge, capture them in great numbers. We shall not attempt to

describe the various contrivances used to effect these massacres. It

will suffice to state that the principle on which most of them are

worked is the insertion into the ascertained run of the Mole of a trap

of some kind, which catches him as he is passing. The grounds upon

which this war of extermination is waged against the Mole are chiefly

the mischiefs which it causes by means of its runs and burrows in

fields and pastures; but it may be questioned whether the Mole does not

more than compensate for any damage thus produced by the destruction of

many insects and other noxious animals.

THE BLIND MOLE.[274]

We have already mentioned a southern European species which may have

given origin to Aristotle’s statements as to the blindness of the Mole.

This is an inhabitant of Italy, Dalmatia, and Greece, and is said to

occur rarely in the south of France, in Switzerland, and in some other

parts of Europe. It closely resembles the common species, but has the

eyes covered by a membrane pierced only by a minute hole, so that the

animal’s sole visual consciousness must be limited to a mere perception

of light. Its fur is of a deep greyish-black colour; and it differs

chiefly from the common European Mole in having the middle upper

incisor teeth larger than the rest. In its general habits the Blind

Mole agrees with our British species, but it is said to make its runs

less extensive and nearer to the surface. Its nest also is said to be

made in the chamber within the fortress.

Besides these, several nearly allied species of True Moles are found

in northern India, chiefly among the hills, such as the Short-tailed

Mole (_Talpa micrura_), in which the tail is exceedingly short, the

Long-tailed Mole (_T. macrura_), and the White-tailed Mole (_T.

leucura_). The first-named species inhabits Nepaul and Darjeling, and

at the latter place, according to Mr. Jerdon, it is not uncommon, and

many of the roads and pathways are intersected by its runs, which often

proceed from the base of one great oak-tree to that of another. If the

runs are broken into they are generally repaired during the night,

and no Mole-hills are thrown up like those of the European Mole. The

White-tailed Mole differs from the other species in having only three

premolars on each side in each jaw, making forty teeth in all. Upon

this ground Mr. Gill establishes the genus _Parascaptor_ for it.

Still further east, in Japan, we find the Woogura Mole (_Talpa

woogura_), which resembles the European Mole in general form and

habits, but has the fur of a dingy tawny colour, and the nose unusually

produced. In this species there are two incisors less in the lower jaw

than in _T. europæa_, and M. Pomel forms for it the genus _Mogera_.

The Abbé Armand David, during his travels in Chinese Mongolia,

discovered a Mole closely resembling the European species in its

general appearance and characters, which has been called the Musky

Mole (_Scaptochirus moschatus_). It was found, however, to possess

one premolar less on each side in each jaw than the True Moles

(_Talpa_); and from certain peculiarities in the form of the teeth M.

Milne-Edwards infers that the animal is less exclusively insectivorous

than the Common Mole. It is remarkable for the strong musky odour

which it diffuses. The Musky Mole has fur even softer than that of the

European Mole, of a bright greyish-brown colour with a tawny tinge,

and presenting a brilliant lustre. The muzzle is shorter than in the

European Mole, and no trace either of ears or eyes can be detected

externally. The tail is nearly naked, but almost concealed in the hairs

of the body. Nothing seems to have been ascertained about the habits of

this animal.

The Scaptonyx (_Scaptonyx fusicaudatus_) is another of the curious

Eastern forms which so remarkably unite to each other different types

of these small Mammals. In its external characters it resembles

_Urotrichus_, but it has the dentition of the genus _Talpa_, and the

nostrils are not elongated into a proboscis. Its length is about two

inches and a half, and the length of its tail about one inch and

two-fifths. The fur is thick and soft, and the hairs are blue-black at

the base, with a brownish tint towards the tip. The single specimen

described was obtained on the borders of Kokonoor and Setchouan, but

nothing is recorded of its habits.

THE STAR-NOSED MOLE.[275]

Besides the Eastern forms to which we have just referred, there are

a few American species of this family, which differ rather more

decidedly from the ordinary Moles. Perhaps the most remarkable of them

is the Star-nosed Mole, an inhabitant of Canada and the United States,

extending from South Carolina to Hudson’s Bay, and stretching right

across the continent, from ocean to ocean.

[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SNOUT OF STAR-NOSED MOLE.]

The most striking characteristic of this animal, which constitutes the

genus _Condylura_, is the presence at the extremity of its elongated

nose of a sort of fringe of about twenty long fleshy processes,

forming a regular star, having the nostrils towards its centre. The

names _Rhinaster_ and _Astromycter_, both meaning “Star-nose,” have

been given to the genus by different writers. The name _Condylura_ is

founded on a mistake, the tail having been supposed to have a knob or

knot. The tail is nearly as long as the body, the general appearance

of which is mole-like, but the shoulders are stouter and heavier in

proportion to the hind-quarters than in our Common Mole, although

the digging hands are hardly so powerful. The last phalanges of the

fingers are not cleft, as in the Mole. The skull is elongated, and the

jaws contain in all forty-four teeth--namely, besides canines, three

incisors, four premolars, and three true molars on each side in each

jaw. The arrangement of the teeth in the long jaws is rather peculiar.

In the upper jaw the two middle and the two outer incisors are of large

size, and the latter are quite like canines; between them is a third

minute tooth on each side. The true canine is very small; the first

three premolars are thin and sharp, and the fourth much larger than the

rest. In the lower jaw we find four projecting incisors, and behind the

outer ones on each side a much smaller one, followed at an interval by

a small canine with two roots. The eyes are very minute, and there are

no external ears.

[Illustration: FRONT VIEW OF SNOUT OF STAR-NOSED MOLE.]

This curious little animal, which measures about five inches in length,

and has a tail about three inches long, is of a brownish-black colour,

a little paler beneath, but appearing in certain lights perfectly black

throughout. The naked, or nearly naked parts, such as the nose, with

its singular appendages, and the feet, are generally of a flesh-colour,

the tips of the fringes and of the claws being, in fact, quite rosy.

The tail is well covered with hair.

The Star-nosed Mole, like the other members of its family, lives

beneath the surface of the ground, where it is able to burrow rapidly

in soft earth. It prefers the vicinity of brooks or swampy places. The

galleries do not run so near the surface as those of the Common Shrew

Mole of America. The nest is composed of dried grass, and placed in

an excavation made under some protective object, such as a stump or

the root of a tree. The young show scarcely any trace of the nasal

appendages. The precise use of these curious organs in the adult does

not seem to be ascertained; probably they aid as sensory organs in the

discovery of the worms and larvæ of insects on which the creature feeds.

THE COMMON SHREW MOLE.[276]

The Shrew Mole, which is often called simply the Mole in the United

States, is another very widely-distributed species in North America,

throughout the whole eastern part of which it is found abundantly.

Like the other species of its genus, which inhabit the territories

farther west, the Common Shrew Mole has an elongated, slender snout,

which is cut off obliquely at the end, so that the nostrils, which are

situated in this sloping surface, are turned forwards and upwards, and

are not visible from below; a short and nearly naked tail; and only

thirty-six teeth, which present the following characters:--In the upper

jaw there are on each side three incisors, of which the foremost is

very large and pyramidal, whilst the other two are very small; then

four compressed teeth, gradually increasing in size, of which the first

may be regarded as a canine and the rest as premolars; and beyond these

three large, true molars, each having the crown furnished with strong

cusps, and distinctly divided into two parts. The lower jaw has only

four instead of six incisors, and these are nearly horizontal, and the

two inner ones are much smaller than the outer; these are followed

immediately by three simple, gradually increasing teeth, regarded as

premolars; and these again by three large true molars. According to

this interpretation there are no lower canines. The feet are like those

of the Mole, but the toes of the hind feet are webbed.

Two other species of _Scalops_ are found in the western parts of the

United States. One of them, the Prairie Mole, or the Silvery Shrew Mole

(_S. argentatus_), which is about seven inches long, and has the hairs

annulated with white and lead colour, giving it a silvery appearance,

inhabits the western prairies, advancing as far to the eastward as

Ohio and Michigan; the other, the Texan Shrew Mole (_S. latimanus_),

which is still larger, and has the fore feet broader than in any other

species, and the black hair longer, thinner, and slightly crisped, is a

native of Mexico and Texas.

Two other Shrew Moles have been formed into a distinct genus

(_Scapanus_) by M. Pomel. They resemble the preceding in general

characters, but agree with the Star-nosed Mole in having forty-four

teeth. These are Brewer’s Shrew Mole (_Scapanus Brewerii_), a black

species, about six inches long, which inhabits the eastern United

States, and is supposed to have given the foundation for the reports

of the existence of the Common Mole in North America; and the Oregon

Mole (_Scapanus Townsendii_), a considerably larger species, which is

said to extend all along the Pacific coast, from California to 47° 10′

N. lat. In their habits these animals seem to agree closely with the

Star-nosed Mole. The western species occurs abundantly in the banks of

rivers.

FAMILY IX.--MYOGALIDÆ.--THE DESMANS.

Some very curious and interesting animals, placed with the Shrews by

some zoologists, and with the Moles by others, may, perhaps, for our

purpose, be best placed as a distinct family. The Desmans are, in fact,

Shrew-like animals, with some important points of resemblance to the

Moles. Thus, the teeth in the true Desmans are forty-four in number,

and the large upper front incisor is pyramidal, and rather resembles

that of some Moles than that of the Shrews; the general character of

the skull is Mole-like, especially the presence of a slender zygomatic

arch, which does not exist in the Shrews; the shoulder-blade is

long, narrow, and strong, the collar-bone short and stout, and the

front portion of the sternum is slightly keeled. Many other slight

osteological peculiarities point to an alliance with the Moles; but on

the other hand, Shrew-like characters are not wanting, and the general

structure of the body and limbs is that of the Shrews, the tail being

well developed, and the limbs all formed for walking. In the true

Desmans the hind limbs are considerably larger than the fore-limbs, and

all the feet are palmated, or have their toes united by webs.

THE DESMAN.[277]

The Desman in general form resembles a big Rat, but with a long snout

formed by the nostrils, which are produced in a tubular form, and

united in the middle, producing a regular trunk, provided with muscles

which enable it to be turned in various directions, and employed as an

organ of touch. The tail is compressed, scaly, and nearly naked.

In the arrangement of the teeth we see a considerable resemblance to

the Shrew Moles. Thus, in the upper jaw we have the same gigantic

front incisors, larger here than in any other species, and these are

followed on each side by a series of seven teeth, gradually increasing

in size, the first of which is an incisor, the second a canine, and the

remaining five premolars. In the lower jaw, there are four projecting

incisors, the outer much larger than the inner ones, as in the Shrew

Moles, then, on each side we have six gradually enlarging teeth, a

canine, and five premolars. The true molars are three in number on each

side in both jaws. They are broad, powerful teeth, with strong acute

tubercles, and crowns divided transversely into two parts. The eyes are

small, and there are no visible ears.

Another peculiarity of these animals is the presence, under the root

of the tail, of a large gland, which secretes a substance of a strong

musky odour, whence they are sometimes called Musk Shrews. This gland

is composed of from twenty to forty lobes, each having a dilated upper

part, and a narrow lower portion, and containing in their walls a great

number of small secreting sacs.

[Illustration: DENTITION OF DESMAN.]

The Desman, or Wychuchol of the Russians, is an inhabitant of Southern

Russia, where it lives in the banks of streams and pools, in the region

between the Don and the Volga. It is also said to occur in some parts

of south-western Asia. Its body is about ten inches long, and its tail

measures about seven inches and a half. The latter organ is narrowed at

the root, and then nearly cylindrical for some distance, and finally

compressed from near the middle to the extremity, thus forming a most

powerful swimming organ, by means of which, aided by the broad webbed

feet, the Desman makes its way through the water with great rapidity.

The surface of the tail is scaly, with a scanty sprinkling of short

hairs, and with a great number of small follicles, which secrete a

greasy material.

The body of the Desman is covered with a dense fur, composed of a

thick coat of fine downy hairs next the skin, and of longer smooth

hairs, which form the outermost coat. It is reddish-brown on the back,

ashy-grey on the belly, and shows a silvery lustre in certain lights.

The feet are naked and scaly above, and fringed with hairs at the

sides. At the eye, and over the auditory aperture, there are whitish

spots.

In its habits the Desman is described as greatly resembling an Otter

on a small scale. It lives by preference about standing waters and

slow streams, especially when these, as is so commonly the case in

Russia, are confined by steep banks of considerable height. In these

banks it makes its residence, which is something like that of the

Otter, consisting of a passage running obliquely upwards from below

the surface of the water, often to a length of twenty feet or more,

and then terminating in a sort of fortress-chamber, three or four feet

above the water level. But this retreat is only occupied by the animal

as a resting place; the greater part of its time, both in summer and

winter, being passed in the water. Here it disports itself with an

agility of which its rather heavy and clumsy figure would hardly appear

to give promise; swimming and diving readily, making its way among the

water-plants, and seeking constantly for the animals which constitute

its food. These are chiefly leeches, worms, and aquatic mollusca and

larvæ of insects, but in all probability no small aquatic animal would

come greatly amiss. The curious movable trunk with which the animal is

endowed is brought actively into play during the search for provisions.

It is turned and twisted in various directions, touching the various

objects that come in the way, and is used to feel about for prey, which

it is said to seize and convey to the neighbouring mouth after the same

fashion as the trunk of an elephant. The animal is said frequently

to put its trunk into its mouth, and then to cry like a duck; when

irritated or threatened, it hisses, and tries to bite. The Desman is

supposed to produce more than one litter in the course of the year. It

is pursued for the sake of its skin, which somewhat resembles that of

the Beaver and Ondatra in its qualities; and great numbers are taken

by means of nets, especially in the autumn. Its flesh is uneatable, on

account of its strong musky flavour, which is communicated even to that

of the carnivorous fishes, such as the Pike, which, being less nice in

their tastes, do not object to an occasional Desman.

THE PYRENEAN DESMAN.[278]

The only other species of Desman is found in the small streams of

the Pyrenees both in France and Spain, where it lives after the same

fashion as its Russian relative, but is said to feed principally upon

trout. It is much smaller than the preceding species, being only ten

or eleven inches in total length, nearly one-half of which is occupied

by the long tail. The fur is chestnut-brown on the back, greyish-brown

on the sides, and silvery grey on the belly; the upper lip bears some

pectinated whiskers, the sides of the trunk are covered with white and

the fore-feet with brownish hairs; while the hind-feet are naked and

scaly. This animal also diffuses a strong musky odour.

THE HAIRY-TAILED MOLE-SHREW.[279]

Besides the true Desmans this group is considered to include two or

three singular little creatures which lead directly towards the true

Moles. One of these is a Japanese species, discovered by Professor

Siebold, and described by Professor Temminck under the name of

_Urotrichus talpoides_, which we may call the Hairy-tailed Mole-Shrew.

It differs from the Desmans, and agrees with the true Shrews in having

only two incisor teeth in the lower jaw. There are thirty-eight teeth

in all. It is about the size of the common Water Shrew, with the nose

greatly elongated, not into a flexible proboscis, but into a snout with

the nostrils placed at the sides of the tip; the tail is about an inch

long, stout, scaly, and covered with long hairs, which form a tuft; the

fur is brown and velvety, and the snout and feet flesh-coloured, and

nearly naked.

This animal is common at elevations of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet in the

mountains of the southern and eastern parts of Japan, but becomes more

rare towards the north. In its habits it resembles the Moles, digging

out galleries in the earth, but going down deeper, and rarely if ever

forming heaps of loose earth at the surface.

A nearly allied species, Gibbs’ Mole Shrew (_Urotrichus Gibbsii_), is

found in North America.

Another species, leading more towards the Shrews, was discovered in

eastern Tibet by the Abbé David, and described by M. A. Milne-Edwards

under the name of _Uropsilus soricipes_, or the Shrew-footed

Uropsile. The general characters of the animal are very like those of

_Urotrichus_, but it has one premolar less on each side in each jaw,

making the total number of teeth only thirty-four. The tail is naked

and scaly; and the fur is of a slate-colour, with a slight brownish

tinge.

FAMILY X.--SORICIDÆ, OR THE SHREWS.

A great number of small mouse-like and rat-like animals, presenting

shades of character which render their classification almost

insuperably difficult, constitute the family of the Shrews, which,

as we have already stated, may be regarded as representing the

generalised or central idea of the Insectivorous Mammal. On all sides

the other families include anomalous species, and the characters which

distinguish these from their immediate fellows generally tend in the

direction of the Shrews.

In these creatures we find a mouse-like body, terminated in front

by a small head, with a long pointed muzzle, and behind by a nearly

naked, scaly tail of variable length. The eyes are small, as also are

generally the ears; the limbs are short, and nearly equal in size; the

skull is long and narrow, and has on each side of its base a space not

filled up with bone; the teeth are from twenty-eight to thirty-two

in number, and the middle incisors in both jaws are very large; the

skull has no zygomatic arch or tympanic bony bubble; the bones of the

shank (tibia and fibula) are united; and the intestine has no cæcum.

On the sides of the body or at the root of the tail the Shrews possess

peculiar glands, which secrete a fluid of strong odour, serving no

doubt to protect them from many enemies.

The Shrews are distributed over all parts of the Old World and in

North America. They live generally on the ground, although some take

freely to the water, and they feed upon worms, insects, and other small

animals such as they can overcome. The difficulty of classifying these

animals to which we have already alluded has led to their being divided

into an infinity of generic groups, of which we shall endeavour to

illustrate those which are now most generally accepted.

THE COMMON SHREW.[280]

The Common Shrew, or Shrew-mouse, as it is often called, may be noticed

first, as being the species most likely to be met with by our readers,

in England at any rate. It is one of the species for which the Linnæan

generic name _Sorex_ has been retained, the group as restricted

including Shrews with from thirty to thirty-two teeth, there being

four or five premolars in the upper and only two in the lower jaw; with

a basal tubercle to the upper inner incisors; with ears of moderate

size directed backwards, a long tail, and the feet not fringed with

hairs.

[Illustration:

1. PIGMY SHREW. 2. COMMON SHREW. 3 AND 4. WATER SHREW.

]

Our Common Shrew is a pretty little mouse-like creature (its

figure will be seen in Plate 12), measuring about two inches and

three-quarters in length, with a tail rather more than an inch and a

half long. Its fur is generally of a reddish-grey colour above, and

greyish beneath; but the colour varies considerably, being sometimes

blackish or chestnut above, and tinged with yellow beneath. The fore

teeth are of a rich brown colour. The tail is four-sided,[281] with the

angles rounded off, and is nearly of equal thickness throughout; it is

covered with short, close, stiffish hairs. Mr. Bell states that the

Shrew sometimes occurs spotted with white, and that he possesses one

specimen “which is beautifully pied, having a broad white band over the

loins, which extends all round the animal.”

[Illustration: DENTITION OF COMMON SHREW.]

The food of the Common Shrew consists chiefly of insects and worms, but

it also eats the smaller mollusca, and even the common Slug (_Limax

agrestis_), according to Mr. Bell, who says that he has not only found

the remains of that animal in its stomach, but has also fed it upon

slugs in confinement. Like its ally, the Mole, it is very pugnacious,

and two Shrews rarely come together without a battle, when the weaker

one is killed and eaten. The breeding season of the Shrew is in the

spring, when the female makes a comfortable nest of soft dry herbage in

some convenient hole in the ground, and there brings forth from five

to seven young ones. Their increase is checked to a certain extent

by natural enemies. Thus, the Mole is said to kill and eat them when

they come in his way; and Cats, Weasels, Owls, and some other animals,

will also kill them; and some at least do not disdain to make a meal

upon them. The Barn Owl especially seems to make great havoc among the

Shrews.

All sorts of evil qualities were attributed to the Shrew by our

ancestors, some of which are still believed in. One old writer says

that the Shrew-mouse is “a kind of Field-mouse of the bigness of a Rat

and colour of a Weasel, very mischievous to cattel; which, going over a

beast’s back, will make it lame in the chine; and the bite of it causes

the beast to swell at the heart and die.” The running of a Shrew over

the leg of a beast was generally believed to cause the latter great

pain, and to produce lameness. The proper cure for these imaginary ills

was on a par with the mischief; the remedy was the application to the

part affected of a branch or twig of a shrew-ash, which, says Gilbert

White, “was made thus: into the body of the tree a deep hole was bored

with an auger, and a poor devoted Shrew-mouse was thrust in alive, and

plugged in, no doubt with several quaint incantations since forgotten.”

There is one circumstance in the natural history of the Shrew that

must have struck everybody, although it is still entirely unexplained.

This is the death of great numbers of these animals in autumn without

any apparent cause. Residents in the country will know that at that

season Shrews may be seen lying dead on almost every footpath; in

fact, the observation is so general as to have given rise to another

superstition, namely, that a Shrew cannot cross a public path without

paying the penalty of death. The individuals thus found dead are of

both sexes, and of various ages.

The Common Shrew occurs not only in the British Islands, but also over

the whole continent of Europe, from Sweden and Russia to the shores of

the Mediterranean.

The Lesser Shrew (_Sorex pygmæus_, whose figure will be seen in Plate

12) is a second British species nearly allied to the preceding, but

smaller, measuring rather less than two inches in length, and with

a proportionately longer tail. The lower parts of the body are also

whiter. It is the smallest of British Mammals.[282]

DEKAY’S SHREW.[283]

Some small species of American Shrews agree with the restricted genus

_Sorex_ in the number of teeth, but have no lobe at the base of the

upper incisors; the external ear is small, turned forward, and the tail

short, usually not longer than the head. These form the genus _Blarina_.

Dekay’s Shrew is about four inches and a half long, and the tail about

an inch. Its fur is of a rusty yellow-grey colour above, paler beneath;

the nose and feet are reddish-brown, and the front incisors black. From

Dr. Bachman’s description it would appear that this animal burrows

rather deeply in the ground, after the fashion of the Mole. It is found

in the northern United States.

THE GARDEN SHREW.[284]

A very considerable number of Shrews, distributed in all parts of the

Old World, and including two or three well-known European species, have

been formed into the genus _Crocidura_, which in its turn has been

divided again and again by means of characters generally of very slight

importance.

The _Crociduræ_ have from twenty-eight to thirty teeth, all white, or

with white tips; the lower incisors are not toothed; the teeth between

the incisors and the molars in the upper jaw gradually decrease in

size; and the tail is covered with short hairs, among which there are a

good many longer ones.

The Garden Shrew (_Crocidura aranea_) is a small species, usually

measuring a little over four inches in total length, of which the tail

occupies about an inch and a third. It has twenty-eight teeth which

are all white. The fur is of a mouse-grey colour, shading off into

whitish ash on the lower surface; the feet are light ashy, with the

toes flesh-coloured, as is also the tip of the snout; and the ears,

which are well exposed, are ash-coloured above and whitish below. The

fur occasionally has a reddish-brown tinge; and, as in the Common

Shrew, specimens spotted with white, and even albinos, sometimes occur.

This is a common species almost all over Europe, but does not occur in

Sweden or in the British Islands. It lives in woods and plantations, in

the fields and in gardens, and in the winter approaches close to the

houses, sheltering itself under stones and other objects, and sometimes

even entering stables and other outbuildings. Like the other species,

it feeds upon insects, worms, and other small animals, and like them

also it has the reputation of injuring domestic animals by walking over

them.

The Tuscan Shrew (_Crocidura etrusca_) is another well-known European

species, but its distribution is much more limited than that of the

Garden Shrew. It is found generally in the extreme south of Europe,

from France to the Black Sea, and also in the north of Africa, but

does not appear to extend north of the Alps. Like the Garden Shrew,

it frequents gardens, and not unfrequently comes into houses and

outbuildings. In the open country it selects dry and warm situations.

The total length of the Tuscan Shrew is from two inches and a half

to two inches and three-quarters, and as the tail is nearly an inch

long, the head and body may measure little more than an inch and a

half. It is the smallest of living Mammals. The teeth are thirty in

number. The colour of the fur is ashy with a reddish tinge above, light

ashy beneath; the tail is clothed with short hairs, and with a series

of rings of longer white hairs; and the ears are of moderate size,

projecting distinctly from the fur. In its habits it agrees with the

other species.

THE RAT-TAILED SHREW.[285]

Amongst a number of Indian species, some of which are of doubtful

distinctness, we may notice one which seems to be widely distributed in

the East, and well known in India and elsewhere, under the name of the

Musk Shrew, or Musk Rat. It is usually of a dark brown or even blackish

colour above, and much paler beneath, but it varies considerably in

this respect, and thus has probably given origin to several so-called

species. The ears are of considerable size, and the tail, which is

about three-fourths the length of the body, is thickened towards the

root--a character of the sub-genus _Pachyura_. The animal is about six

inches long. It is a very common Indian species, and frequents houses

at night, hunting round the rooms in search of the Cockroaches and

other insects which abound there. From time to time it utters a sharp,

shrill cry. Its musky odour is exceedingly strong, and is said to

impregnate everything that the animal passes over; in fact, the popular

belief in India is that in running over a bottle of wine or beer, it is

capable of infecting the contents! This, however, is rather more than

doubtful. Mr. Jerdon distinguishes two species--an Indian one which he

calls _Sorex cœrulescens_, which is usually of a bluish ash colour,

and a somewhat smaller species, chiefly inhabiting Further India and

China, to which he gives the Linnæan name of _Sorex murinus_. If they

are distinct, it is probably to the latter that Mr. Swinhoe refers in

his notes on Chinese Mammals under the name the “Musk Rat.” He says

that it is found throughout China, Formosa, and Hainan, in houses in

large towns, being carried about in junks with the cargo. It has an

unpleasant musky odour, and makes a peculiar chattering noise, which

sounds like the chinking of money, and, he adds, often disturbed him in

his room at night. Such a sound heard in the dark in a strange place

would certainly be rather alarming to any one who had money to lose.

The “Musk Rat” of Ceylon is a reddish species, described by Kelaart as

_Sorex kandianus_, and by Mr. Jerdon as _S. serpentarius_. It is rather

smaller than the preceding, but takes its place in the houses of Ceylon

and Southern India, and renders itself equally offensive by its strong

musky odour.

[Illustration: RAT-TAILED SHREW.]

Several other Indian species are referred to _Crocidura_, one of which,

_C. Perroteti_, is said to be even smaller than the Tuscan Shrew.

Others occur in Africa, in Egypt, Mozambique, and Madagascar, and in

the neighbourhood of the Cape.

THE WATER SHREW.[286]

Our British Water Shrew is the type of a distinct genus, all the

species of which appear to haunt the margins of water. They have thirty

teeth, all of which are tipped with brown or red. The upper front teeth

are large and curved, and have a basal cusp behind; the lower ones are

nearly horizontal, and have a single tubercle and no notch at the tip.

Behind these teeth there are on each side in the upper jaw four small

teeth, the last of which is very minute; and in the lower jaw two small

teeth. The molars are four on each side in the upper, and three in the

lower jaw. The snout is pointed, and furnished with very long whiskers;

the eyes small; the ears of moderate size, and valvular; and the feet

and lower surface of the tail fringed with stiff hairs.

Our Water Shrew (its figure will be seen in Plate 12), which measures

about three inches and one-third in length, and has a tail rather

more than two inches long, is generally nearly black on the upper

surface and white beneath, the colours being usually separated by a

distinct line of demarcation. The hairs fringing the feet and the

lower surface of the tail are white. There is, however, considerable

variation in the colour of different specimens, some of which have

been described as distinct species. One especially, in which the whole

of the fur is of a black colour, has been called the Oared Shrew

(_Sorex ciliatus_ or _remifer_), but the existence of intermediate

steps has led to the recognition of the identity of even this with the

Common Water Shew. Mr. Bell is of opinion that the differences of

coloration depend on the season and the age of the specimen. The tail

is slender, four-sided, and compressed towards the tip. The Water Shrew

is distributed over the whole continent of Europe, as far north as the

shores of the Baltic. It is found in many localities in England and in

Scotland, but is not known to occur in Ireland.

The Water Shrew is one of the prettiest of our British Mammals. Its

movements, especially in the water, are very agile; and although,

from its swimming by alternate strokes of its hind feet, its course

is of a somewhat wriggling character, the peculiar mode in which it

flattens its body so as to show a narrow white border on each side,

and the silvery lustre of the coat of air-bubbles which adheres to

its back, give it a very elegant appearance when thus engaged. It is

found chiefly about the rivulets of mountainous and hilly countries,

generally showing a preference for those quieter parts where the water

flows smoothly over a sandy bottom, but it will also make its way

through more broken water, in shallow parts full of stones. Clear water

seems to be the great desideratum, and if this can be secured the Water

Shrew will put up with a lake or pond. It is not, however, absolutely

confined to the water-side, but will at times wander about the fields,

sheltering itself under haycocks, and other heaps of dried plants, and

even making its way into houses, barns, and outbuildings.

Nevertheless, as may be judged from the fringed tail and feet, it is

essentially an aquatic animal, and its regular habitation seems to

be always constructed in the immediate vicinity of water. Here the

Water Shrew burrows into the soft ground of the bank, and forms a

subterranean dwelling, usually with several openings, one of which is

situated beneath the surface of the water, to give the little creature

an opportunity of slipping quietly and unperceived into or out of its

house. Its food is principally obtained in the water, and consists of

aquatic insects, worms, mollusca, and crustacea, which it snaps up

in its rapid fittings to and fro. In Bell’s “British Quadrupeds” the

pursuit of the Freshwater Shrimp (_Gammarus pulex_) in a shallow but

rapid streamlet by the Water Shrew is described. The little animal was

seen busily pushing about among the stones at the bottom of the water,

sometimes poking its nose under them, sometimes turning them over in a

fashion which might be thought beyond its strength. The result was the

same in either case; the Shrew captured some small article of food,

with which it made off to the side of the stream, where it was heard

crunching the crustaceans between its teeth.

Besides this small prey, the Water Shrew is said by Continental writers

to attack almost any small animal that comes in its way--frogs,

fishes, and even small birds and quadrupeds are described as among

its victims. It is also said to feed on the spawn of fishes, and,

according to Brehm’s testimony, will even destroy large fish, such as

Carp, by eating out their eyes and brains. Carrion and dead animals

will also furnish it with a meal. One of Mr. Bell’s editors gives a

striking instance of this. A steel rat-trap had been set, and in the

morning contained a large Rat, “on which was perched a small black

object, which proved on closer approach to be a Water Shrew. The Rat

was dead, and the Shrew was devouring it. Although the slender snout

and projecting and comparatively weak teeth of the Shrew were but ill

adapted, one would have thought, for devouring prey of the size of a

full-grown Rat, yet the animal had succeeded in making a small hole

through the skin, and this it was most energetically employed, by means

of both teeth and claws, in enlarging. So ferocious were its actions,

that it might very properly be said to be _fighting_ the Rat; and so

intent was it on its work as to suffer itself to be captured by the

observer, who laid the loading-rod of his gun across its back.”

The breeding season begins in April or May, when the courtship of the

little creatures commences by a persevering pursuit of his intended

partner by the male. The lady exhibits a becoming coyness, leading her

suitor a long chase through the water; but while thus engaged both

parties keep the main chance in view, and seize everything eatable that

comes in their way. The young are brought forth in a chamber in the

bank, and are from five to seven or eight in number.

A nearly allied, but larger species, the Himalayan Water Shrew

(_Crossopus himalaicus_), occurs in the streams of the Himalayas. Mr.

Jerdon, who obtained it from the Little Rungeet River at Darjeling,

describes it as five or six inches long, dark brown or blackish above,

paler beneath, and with a bunch of hairs at the tip of the tail. It was

said to kill small fish, tadpoles, aquatic insects, &c. Another species

(_C. platycephalus_) inhabits Japan.

The Marsh Shrew (_Sorex palustris_), of North America, has bean

referred to this genus by some authors; but it has a long slender,

cylindrical tail, with a pencil of hairs at the tip, and Professor

Baird refers it to the genus _Sorex_. The teeth are the same in number

as in _Crossopus_, and likewise have their tips reddish-brown. This

species inhabits the northern parts of North America up to Hudson’s Bay

Territory.

THE TIBETAN WATER SHREW.[287]

This is another of the Mammals for the knowledge of which we are

indebted to the Abbé David, and it is one of the most curious species

of this family, presenting a combination of characters peculiar to

itself with those of the True Shrews and the Desmans. “Its head and

skull,” says M. A. Milne-Edwards, “refer this animal to the _Soricidæ_,

whilst its palmated feet and compressed tail indicate close affinities

with the _Myogalidæ_; but the sucking discs with which the lower

surfaces of its feet are furnished belong to itself alone, and nothing

of the same kind is to be found in the allied groups.”

In some respects the Tibetan species is allied to the European Water

Shrew, but it has only twenty-eight instead of thirty teeth, namely,

incisors, (3–3)/(1–1), canines, (1–1)/(1–1), molars, (4–4)/(4–4); the

skull is flattened; the body robust, and supported on short limbs; the

muzzle short, broad, and conical, with large whiskers at the sides, and

the nostrils opening laterally near the extremity; the eyes exceedingly

small; and the ears entirely concealed by the hair and quite destitute

of a conch. The tail is stout, longer than the body, quadrangular

at the base, then triangular, and finally flattened at the sides;

and the feet are large and broadly palmated, so as to form vigorous

swimming organs, very closely resembling those of the Desmans. As in

the latter animals, the feet are fringed with stiff hairs of peculiar

construction; but the nails, which in the Desmans are strong, are here

small and weak. The sucking discs, already mentioned as peculiar to

this animal, are certainly among its most remarkable characteristics.

They occur upon the feet of both pairs, and consist of large pads,

depressed in the middle to form cups, which are doubtless of service to

the animal in its aquatic mode of life.

The Tibetan Water Shrew is rather a large species, measuring, when

adult, nearly eight inches in total length, more than half of which,

however, is occupied by the tail. It is thus much larger than the

British Water Shrew. Its body is covered with hair of two kinds.

Close to the skin is a very thick soft down of a slaty grey colour,

through which pass numerous longer hairs, which are grey at the base

and white at the extremity, causing the animal to vary considerably in

appearance, according as these longer hairs are raised or laid flat.

The lower parts of the body are white.

In its compressed tail and largely webbed feet this Shrew possesses

most admirable instruments for progression in the water; in fact, it

must be regarded as the most thoroughly aquatic of all the family of

the Shrews. According to its discoverer, it lives habitually on the

banks of the impetuous torrents which descend from the mountains of

Moupin in Tibet; and notwithstanding the rapidity of these streams, it

swims and dives in them with the greatest facility, chasing the small

fishes which constitute its principal food. Although not uncommon

in its native region, its activity in the water renders its capture

exceedingly difficult. In order to procure specimens, it is necessary

to divert the course of a stream, and then pursue the animals into the

holes in which they take refuge.

THE TAILLESS SHREW.[288]

Another curious little Mammal, brought from Tibet by the Abbé David,

is described by M. A. Milne-Edwards as forming a distinct genus, under

the name of _Anurosorex_, or the Tailless Shrew. It has only twenty-six

teeth in all, namely, incisors, (2–2)/(1–1), canines, (1–1)/(1–1), and

molars, (4–4)/(4–4). The tail is remarkably short, scarcely passing

beyond the hairs of the body, slender, slightly flattened, of the same

thickness throughout, and covered with small scales, from between

which project a few very short hairs. The general form of the body

is mole-like, the head is large, the muzzle conical, flesh-coloured,

having the nostrils on each side near its extremity, and furnished with

long whiskers. The eyes are scarcely perceptible, and the ears are

entirely concealed beneath the hairs. The feet are short and scaly,

whence the name given to the species, and the fore-feet are broader and

stronger than the hind-feet, thus furnishing all additional indication

of affinity to the Moles.

This species was found abundantly both in the Plains and mountains of

Setchouan and Tibet, where it lives in burrows which it digs in the

earth. Its total length is little more than four inches, and its fur,

which is very silky and thick, is of a grey colour with a greenish

brown tinge. The feet are whitish and the nails white.

* * * * *

In the preceding sketch of the Insectivorous order of Mammals, we

have followed in general the classification proposed by Professor

Mivart, and slightly modified by Mr. Gill. The following summary of the

arrangement will be useful for reference:--

SUB-ORDER I.--DERMOPTERA.

Family 1. GALEOPITHECIDÆ.

Genus--Galeopithecus.

SUB-ORDER II.--INSECTIVORA VERA.

Family 2. TUPAIDÆ.

Genera--Tupaia, Ptilocereus, Hylomys.

Family 3. MACROSCELIDÆ.

Genera--Macroscelides, Petrodromus. Rhynchocyon.

Family 4. ERINACEIDÆ.

Genera--Erinaceus, Gymnura.

Family 5. CENTETIDÆ.

Genera--Centetes, Hemicentetes, Ericulus, Echinops, Oryzorictes,

Solenodon.

Family 6. POTAMOGALIDÆ.

Genus--Potamogale.

Family 7. CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ.

Genera--Chrysochloris, Chalcochloris.

Family 8. TALPIDÆ.

Genera--Talpa, Parascaptor, Mogera, Scaptochirus, Scaptonyx,

Condylura, Scalops, Scapanus.

Family 9. MYOGALIDÆ.

Genera--Myogale, Urotrichus, Uropsilus.

Family 10. SORICIDÆ.

Genera--Sorex, Blarina, Crocidura, Crossopus, Nectogale, Anurosorex.

Only in one respect have we thought it desirable to depart from

Professor Mivart’s system, namely, in raising the Desmans (_Myogalidæ_)

to the rank of a distinct family. This course was adopted for the sake

of simplicity in the classification, as the combination of characters

presented by those animals places them so remarkably between the Moles

and the Shrews, that from a zoological point of view they cannot

satisfactorily be referred to either.

One thing that will strike the reader at once is the great number of

family types, for the most part strongly characterised, that can be

distinguished in so small an order. Mr. Wallace estimates the total

number of species of Insectivora at 135, and of these about 65, or

nearly one-half, belong to the single family of the Shrews, leaving

about 70 species for all the other families; and of these 34 species,

or again nearly one-half, are referred to the two widely distributed

groups the Hedgehogs and the Moles.

Considering these facts, and the clear differentiation of most of the

forms, notwithstanding the existence of those types already alluded to,

which in several of the families seem to lead towards the _Soricidæ_,

we can hardly avoid agreeing with Mr. Wallace in regarding the existing

Insectivora as “the detached fragments of a much more extensive group

of animals, now almost extinct,” a view which is strongly corroborated

by the geographical distribution of the animals.

Curiously enough several of the smaller and more peculiar families are

limited much in the same way as the Pteropine Bats and Lemurs, chiefly

to the countries surrounding the great Indian ocean, beneath which,

as we have already stated, the hypothetical continent of Lemuria is

very probably submerged. The Galeopithecidæ and Tupaiidæ are almost

confined to the Malayan region, and the Centetidæ (with the exception

of the anomalous genus _Solenodon_) are peculiar to Madagascar; the

Macroscelididæ have their home on the eastern coast of Africa, except

a single species which occurs in the northern part of that continent;

the Chrysochloridæ are exclusively South African; and the curious

_Potamogale_ inhabits some of the West African rivers. Thus, except in

the case of _Solenodon_, the whole of these groups are now represented

solely within the region inhabited by the Pteropine Bats. Does this

point to a “Lemurian” origin, or at any rate to a great former

development in the Lemurian land, of the Insectivorous Mammalia?

Of the more widely distributed families, the Erinaceidæ occur chiefly

in the northern temperate regions of the Eastern hemisphere, stretching

away continuously from Europe and the North African deserts, through

Asia Minor and Persia, and across Central Asia to the Pacific Coast,

whilst one or two species occur in South Africa, and one very aberrant

form, the Bulau (_Gymnura_), is found in the Malayan region, along with

the Bangsrings, to which it is allied through the genus _Hylomys_.

The true Moles and the Shrews occur in the northern parts of both

hemispheres, and the latter family, indeed, is represented in all

parts of the world except South America and the Australian region.

The Desmans, which stand in so peculiar a position between the Shrews

and the Moles, present a curious instance of what has been called

“discontinuous distribution,” the two nearly allied species being

found only in two localities, separated from each other by the whole

breadth of the European continent. The entire absence of Insectivora

from the South American continent, and the presence of the Solenodons,

which seem to be most nearly related to the Centetidæ of Madagascar, in

Cuba and St. Domingo, are further remarkable facts in the geographical

distribution of these animals. Scarcely less singular is the

distribution of the two species of _Urotrichus_, one of which occurs in

Japan, and the other on the Pacific coast of North America.

The evidence derived from the fossil remains of Insectivora, as to

the former history of the order, in its bearing upon the present

geographical distribution of its members, is very inconclusive; but

the principal facts to be gathered from it is that from Miocene times

to the present day the representatives of the order in different

localities, so far as these are known, have generally belonged to the

same types, and no undoubted remains of Insectivora are known from

earlier formations than the Miocene. At one time, indeed, some of the

beautiful Mammalian fossils of the Stonesfield slate (Lower Oolite) of

Oxfordshire were regarded as probably representing Insectivora, but

their Marsupial character is now generally recognised; and this is the

case also with the _Dromotherium_ from the Trias of North Carolina,

which was at one time believed to carry the present order so far back

in time.

Species of the existing genera _Erinaceus_, _Sorex_, _Myogale_, and

_Talpa_, and of several nearly-allied extinct genera, have been

determined from Miocene and subsequent deposits in various parts of

Europe, and especially from the lacustrine beds of the Auvergne; and

in North America also a few species have been found and referred to

genera for the most part almost identical with those still living on

that continent. In some instances even the Miocene species appear to be

nearly identical with those now inhabiting the same regions.

The principal apparent exceptions to this rule are to be found in a

fossil species from the Miocene of the Auvergne, described by M. Pomel

under the name of _Echinogale Laurillardii_ (Centetidæ), and two forms

described by Hermann von Meyer, as forming a new genus (_Oxygomphius_),

allied to the Bangsrings, from the Tertiary basin of Weisenau, in

Southern Germany. But the true position of these fossils is, to say the

least of it, exceedingly doubtful; and this is still more strikingly

the case with the Eocene American genus _Omomys_ supposed to be an

animal allied to the Hedgehogs and the Bangsrings, but which Professor

Leidy himself, in describing it, compares with nearly all the types of

true Insectivora and with the Opossums.

This last comparison leads us, perhaps, towards the origin of the

Insectivora. In the East, the Bangsrings, and notably the beautiful

little Ptilocerque, and the curious genus _Hylomys_, which, again,

seems to unite the Bangsrings with the Hedgehogs through the anomalous

genus _Gymnura_, present manifest relationships with the Phalangers,

some of which abound in the islands further to the east. From these

animals to the true Shrews, many of which abound in the east, is

no great step. On the other hand, we have already seen that Brandt

recognised Opossum-like characters in his _Solenodon_, but it must be

confessed that these are almost exclusively external. Professor Leidy

describes, besides _Omomys_ above referred to, some other fossils

from the Eocene of Wyoming, which he seems to regard as Insectivorous

in habit, but Marsupial in structure; and the Stonesfield Mammals,

although plainly Marsupial, have Insectivorous tendencies, so that

the derivation of the type Insectivora from the Marsupials, or at all

events the near affinity of the two orders, perhaps at several points

of contact, may be looked upon as established.

In the other direction the affinities of the order would seem to be

through the Shrews, Hedgehogs, and Centetidæ with the Carnivora,

towards which also the curious West African _Potamogale_ seems clearly

to point. The Bangsrings, again, show some traces of an affinity to the

Lemurs; and _Galeopithecus_ seems almost to constitute a central point

of alliances, uniting the Insectivora with the Lemurs and Bats, and

further exhibiting, as Mr. Wallace thinks, certain peculiarities which

smack strongly of direct Marsupial relations. The relationship of the

Insectivora to the Rodentia can hardly be regarded as a true affinity,

although the analogies between different types in the two orders

are among the most striking phenomena of the kind with which we are

acquainted. The type of the Mice and Rats is reproduced by the Shrews,

the Squirrels by the Bangsrings, the Porcupines by the Hedgehogs and

Tanrecs, the Jerboas by the Jumping Shrews, and the Ondatra by the

Desmans; whilst even the highly specialised Moles are reflected among

the Rodents by the various species of Mole-Rats. But none of these

resemblances indicate affinity, and the Rodent type may be regarded as

differentiated from the old probably Marsupial ancestral forms quite

independently of the Insectivora.

W. S. DALLAS.

PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON,

E.C.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] πλατύς, flat or broad; ῥινές, nostrils.

[2] κατά, downwards; ῥινές, nostrils.

[3] Ἄνθρωπος, man; μορφή, form or shape.

[4] The back edge of the hard, bony palate, with which the soft palate

and uvula are continuous, forms a wide concave notch, whilst that of

man projects in the centre of the notch.

[5] The tongue has the same kind of papillæ, or slight projections of

its surface, as in man; some called fungiform are seen at the tip, and

on the surface generally, and others more or less cup-shaped. These

last are found at the back, and are not arranged in any definite shape

or order.

[6] The Gibbons have no air sacs.

[7] See page 16.

[8] _Troglodytes Tschiégo_ (Duvernoy); _Troglodytes calvus_ (Du

Chaillu).

[9] _Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba_ (Du Chaillu); _Troglodytes Aubryi_

(Gratiolet and Alix).

[10] Koolo is the cry, and Kambe means “to say.”

[11] _Troglodytes niger._

[12] This interesting animal died in 1876.

[13] They have several muscular peculiarities. Thus the great muscle

of the hind part of the loins (sacro lumbalis) is vast and fleshy in

man, but it is reduced to very small proportions in the great Apes.

The great oblique muscle of the body is not attached to the hip, and

the muscles of the buttocks are reduced excessively in the Apes. All

this renders their erect position difficult and not usual. The motions

of the shoulder and arms are assisted by extra muscles; one stretches

from the sixth neck-vertebra to the first rib, another reaches from the

outer part of the collar-bone to the neck in front, to the bone under

the tongue (hyoid bone), and a third from the collar-bone to the side

of the first vertebra. The small muscle of the chest (pectoralis minor)

reaches to the capsule which surrounds the shoulder-joint. There is

an extra muscle, which reaches from the back to the elbow, and which

allows the animals, when hanging by one hand, to turn and twist the

body slightly. The metacarpal bone of the little finger has a special

muscle, which tends to enlarge the grasp of the hand. The great Apes

have, however, an imperfect or deficient proper flexor to the thumb,

and the extensor of the first joint of the thumb is wanting. The

ill-developed “calf” has not its two great muscles combined in the one

tendo Achillis, as in man, and the muscles of the foot are so arranged

that they permit of much more independent motion than those of man have.

[14] _Simia satyrus._ _Simia morio._

[15] The _Transversus pedis_.

[16] A muscle, called the _accessory flexor_ of the toes, is absent

in the Orangs, and one termed _scansorius_, or climber, exists on the

outside of the hip and the joint of the thigh.

[17] * Is the intermediate bone.

[18] _Hylobates._

[19] _Hylobates syndactylus._

[20] The abductor of the third joint of the second finger. The thumb

counts as the first finger.

[21] _Hylobates lar._

[22] _Hylobates hoolook._

[23] _Hylobates pileatus._

[24] _Hylobates agilis._

[25] _Cynomorpha._

[26] _Semnopithecus melalophus._

[27] _Semnopithecus maurus._

[28] _Semnopithecus nasalis._

[29] _Semnopithecus entellus._

[30] _Semnopithecus frontatus._

[31] _Semnopithecus rubicundus._

[32] _Semnopithecus nemæus._

[33] _Semnopithecus nigripes._

[34] _Semnopithecus Nestor._

[35] _Semnopithecus ursinus._

[36] The kinds of Monkeys included in this genus have a very wide

geographical range. Mr. Wallace states that a species has been seen

at an altitude of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas; and _Semnopithecus

roxellana_, which resembles a young _Semnopithecus nasalis_, occurs in

Eastern Tibet (about lat. 30° N.) in the highest forests. Elsewhere,

they extend over the forest land of the Oriental region of natural

history.

[37] Thumbless Monkeys.

[38] _Colobos guereza._

[39] _Cercopithecus._

[40] _Cercopithecus Diana._

[41] _Cercopithecus Mona._

[42] _Cercopithecus petaurista._

[43] _Cercopithecus talapoin._

[44] _Cercopithecus callitrichus._

[45] _Cercopithecus erythrogaster._

[46] _Cercopithecus ruber._

[47] _Cercopithecus æthiope._

[48] In the Cercopitheci the skull has a large brain-case, and that

part on which the brain and cerebellum rest is concave or pitted on the

petrosal bone, and on each side of the crista galli in the fore part of

the skull. In general there is a laryngeal pouch. The first premolar is

like that of the Semnopitheci. The other anatomical peculiarities of

these and of the Semnopitheci will be found in the description of the

Macaques and Baboons.

[49] _Macacus_, or _Inuus_.

[50] A name of the Roman divinity Faunus.

[51] _Macacus cynomolgus._

[52] _Macacus cyclopis._

[53] _Macacus radiatus._

[54] _Macacus rhesus._

[55] _Macacus maurus._

[56] _Macacus brunneus._

[57] _Macacus nemestrinus._

[58] _Macacus sylvanus, or Inuus ecaudatus._

[59] _Macacus silenus._

[60] _Cynocephalus._

[61] _Cynocephalus hamadryas._

[62] _Cynocephalus gelada._

[63] _Cynocephalus porcarius._

[64] _Cynocephalus sphinx._

[65] _Cynocephalus anubis._

[66] _Cynocephalus papio._

[67] _Cynocephalus mormon._

[68] The _Acromio-trachelian_. It does not exist in the Chimpanzees.

[69] _Cynocephalus leucophæus._

[70] _Cynocephalus niger._

[71] Some zoologists make a new genus (_Cynopithecus_) of the Black

Asiatic Baboons. We demur.

[72] The Siamang is included in this genus.

[73] This spelling is preferable to “Colobus.”

[74] Some zoologists separate the Talapoin Monkey, and place it in a

genus by itself; and the Mangabeys are sometimes included in a genus

Cercocebus.

[75] The Gelada is included by some in a genus Theropithecus, from its

nostrils opening high up; and the Black Baboon is placed in a genus

Cynopithecus. These are all inadvisable complications.

[76] _Platyrrhini._

[77] _Mycetes._

[78] _Mycetes chrysum._

[79] _Mycetes villosus._

[80] _Lagothrix._

[81] _Lagothrix olivaceus._

[82] _Ateles._

[83] κρίκος, a ring; εἶδος, shape.

[84] _Ateles paniscus._

[85] _Ateles sub-pentadactylus._

[86] _Ateles variegatus._

[87] _Ateles cucullatus._

[88] _Cebus._

[89] _Cebus albifrons._

[90] _Cebus fatuelius._

[91] _Cebus capuchinus._

[92] This genus is sometimes divided into two--_Callithrix_ and

_Chrysothrix_.

[93] _Callithrix sciurea._

[94] It appears to be a long-backed little thing, and this is not

because it has more rib-bearing back-bones than the Monkeys of the Old

World; on the contrary, they usually number only eleven. As regards the

skeleton, the hips appear to be weakly joined on to the spine and to

each other by one bone, instead of there being a long and strong sacrum

to unite them. The breast-bone has only four pieces between the upper

one (or the manubrium), and the cartilage at the lower end.

[95] _Callithrix lugens._

[96] _Callithrix discolor._

[97] _Nyctipithecus trivirgatus._

[98] _Nyctipithecus rufipes._

[99] _Nyctipithecus oseryi._

[100] _Pithecia._

[101] _Pithecia Satanas._

[102] _Pithecia hirsuta._

[103] _Pithecia monachus._

[104] _Pithecia, or Brachyurus calvus._

[105] _Pithecia melanocephala._

[106] _Pithecia leucocephala._

[107] _Arctopithecini._

[108] _Hapale._

[109] _Hapale Jacchus._

[110] _Hapale humeralifer._

[111] _Midas._

[112] _Midas ursulus._

[113] _Midas Devillii._

[114] _Midas rosalia._

[115] An exception must be made in favour of the “Histoire Physique,

Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar,” of M. Alfred Grandidier.

[116] _Indris diadema._

[117] _Indris laniger._

[118] _Indris brevicaudatus._

[119] This classification is not that adopted by comparative

anatomists, but rather by zoologists.

[120] _Lemur albifrons._

[121] _Lemur mayottensis._

[122] _Lemur mongoz._

[123] _Lemur varius._

[124] _Lemur niger._

[125] χείρ (hand), γαλῆ (weasel).

[126] _Cheirogale furcifer._

[127] _Cheirogale Coquerellii._

[128] _Cheirogale nain._

[129] _Galago_.

[130] _Galago Demidoffii and Galago murinus._

[131] _Galago senegalensis._

[132] _Galago sennaariensis._

[133] _Galago maholi._

[134] This species, which intervenes between the Maholi and Grand

Galago, we have already figured and described (see pp. 215, 216).

[135] _Galago crassicaudatus_ (GEOFFROY).

[136] _Galago Monteiri_ (BARTLETT).

[137] _Perodicticus potto._

[138] A very surprising term, as it applies to a Lemuroid.

[139] _Arctocebus calabarensis._

[140] _Nycticebus._

[141] _Loris_, or _Stenops gracilis_.

[142] _Tarsius spectrum_ (GEOFFROY).

[143] _Cheiromys Madagascariensis._

[144] The formula of the milk set is--I. 4/2, C. 2/0, M. 2/2, = 12.

That of the permanent set is--I. 2/2, C. 0/0, P. M. 2/0, M. 6/6 = 18.

Professor Peters of Berlin moreover states his having found in a very

early stage of development in the Aye-Aye, rudimentary teeth yielding a

milk dentition--I. 6/2, C. 2/0, M. 6/2 = 18.

[145] The simplicity of this classification is its great merit. The

student will, however, find many other genera mentioned in books or

placed before the specific names in museums. Thus, the beautiful

Lemuroids in the British Museum of our genus Indris are called

Propithecus, when the animals have tails, and the genus Lemur is

termed _Varecia_. The genus Galago includes the animals called by some

zoologists _Otolicnus_ and _Otogale_, &c.

[146] _Pteropus medius._

[147] Colonel Sykes states that he had met with individuals more than

fourteen inches long.

[148] _Pteropus edulis._

[149] _Pteropus nicobaricus_, _jubatus_, _dasymallus_, and _griseus_.

[150] _Pteropus poliocephalus._

[151] _Pteropus Gouldii._

[152] _Pteropus vulgaris._

[153] _Cynonycteris ægyptiaca._

[154] _Cynonycteris collaris._

[155] _Cynonycteris amplexicaudata._

[156] _Cynopterus marginatus._

[157] _Epomophorus Whitii._

[158] _Hypsignathus monstrosus._

[159] _Harpyia cephalotes._

[160] _Cephalotes Peronii._

[161] _Macroglossus minimus._

[162] _Melonycteris melanops._

[163] _Notopteris Macdonaldii._

[164] _Rhinolophus luctus_, _Phyllorhina armiger_, _Nycticejus luteus_

(=_Scotophilus Temminckii_), _Miniopterus blepotis_, and _Vespertilio

Blythii_.

[165] _Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum._

[166] To this lobe the name of “antitragus” has been given.

[167] _Rhinolophus hipposideros._

[168] Besides the two species found in Britain, two others inhabit

southern Europe, the Levant, and Northern Africa, namely, _Rhinolophus

euryale_ and _R. Blasii_, the latter often described under the name

of _R. clivosus_. Both these species are nearly allied to the English

Horseshoe Bats.

[169] _Rhinolophus luctus._

[170] The commonest of the numerous Eastern species of the genus are

Pearson’s Horseshoe Bat (_R. Pearsonii_), which has a very large

nose-leaf and greatly developed ear lobes, and is found throughout the

lofty hill-countries from the Himalayas to the mountains of Burmah and

China; Roux’s Horseshoe Bat (_R. affinis_), which varies in colour from

orange-brown to greyish-brown, and is found among the hills all over

India, and in Ceylon, Burmah, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; and the Dwarf

Horseshoe Bat (_R. minor_), only about one inch and three-quarters in

length, which occurs in Burmah, Yunnan, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and

Japan. Several varieties of the last two species have been described as

distinct forms.

[171] _Rhinolophus megaphyllus._

[172] _Rhinonycteris aurantia._

[173] _Phyllorhina armigera._

[174] Other common Eastern species are the Masked Leaf Bat

(_Phyllorhina larrata_), which occurs in Bengal, Further India, Siam,

and Java; the Bicolorous Leaf Bat (_P. bicolor_), which inhabits India,

China, and many of the Eastern islands; and the Indian Horseshoe Bat

(_P. speoris_), an abundant form in Central and Southern India and in

Ceylon, and which has also been met with in Burmah. A single species

(_P. taitiensis_) has been described from Tahiti. It is very nearly

related to the last-named Indian form, if not merely a variety of it.

A single species (_P. cerrina_) also inhabits North Australia, where

it has been met with at Cape York, and in sandstone caverns in Albany

Island. It is about two inches long; above, tawny-brown, darker on

the face, head, and shoulders; below, paler, with a grey tinge on

the belly. Several species of the genus inhabit the warmer parts of

Africa, and one of these (_P. tridens_), a small species, only two

inches in length, an inhabitant of Egypt and Nubia, has the posterior

nose-leaf divided into three teeth towards the forehead, a character

which it displays in common with an Indian species (_P. Stoiiczkana_),

and another from Amboyna and Batchian, of still more diminutive

proportions. A distinct genus (_Asellia_) has been proposed for the

reception of these Bats. The largest species of the genus comes from

Guinea and the Gold Coast, on the west coast of Africa. It is nearly

five inches in length, and has received the name of _Phyllorhina

gigas_. It is associated with two or three smaller species, and two or

three others occur in Southern and Eastern Africa.

[175] _Triænops persicus._

[176] This character is of special importance here, as serving

to distinguish the Megaderms from the species of another family

of Leaf-nosed Bats belonging to the second principal group of

Microchiroptera.

[177] _Megaderma lyra._

[178] See also some general remarks on the supposed carnivorous

propensities of the _Rhinolophidæ_, p. 281.

[179] _Megaderma frons._

[180] _Nycteris thebaica._

[181] Other described African species are _N. capensis_ (Smith); _N.

macrotis_ (Dobson); _N. hispida_ (Schreber); and _N. grandis_ (Peters).

The only species found out of Africa is the Javanese Desert Bat (_N.

javanica_).

[182] _Plecotus auritus._

[183] _Synotus barbastellus._

[184] _Corynorhinus macrotis._

[185] _Nyctophilus Geoffroyi._

[186] _Vesperugo pipistrellus._

[187] A name derived from the Italian equivalent of the word “Bat.”

[188] Mr. R. McLachlan, F.R.S., mentioned to the present writer an

instance which fell within his own experience of the dislodgment of a

Bat from beneath a large piece of bark which was torn from a tree by an

entomologist in search of Beetles or larvæ. When the bark was detached,

the Bat fell, but the entomologist, being unprepared probably for such

large game, omitted to secure it, and the species was not ascertained.

[189] _Vesperugo noctula._

[190] _Vesperugo serotinus._

[191] _Vesperugo discolor._

[192] _Vesperugo abramus._

[193] _Vesperugo pachypus._

[194] Another Eastern species, furnished with pads on the thumbs and

feet, is the Club-footed Bat (_V. tylopus_), from Northern Borneo,

which is distinguished from the above by the presence of two pre-molars

on each side in the upper jaw. A small African species, the Dwarf

Club-footed Bat (_V. nanus_), is similarly provided.

[195] _Scotophilus Temminckii._

[196] _Scotophilus Welwitschii._

[197] _Chalinolobus tuberculatus._

[198] _Vespertilio murinus._

[199] _Vespertilio Nattereri._

[200] _Vespertilio Daubentonii._

[201] _Vespertilio mystacinus._

[202] Other European species are Bechstein’s Bat (_Vespertilio

Bechsteinii_), which has occurred in the New Forest; the Marsh Bat

(_Vespertilio dasycneme_), which inhabits the Altai Mountains, and

in Europe extends, according to Mr. Dobson, from Russia to England;

Capaccini’s Bat (_V. Capaccinii_), an inhabitant of Italy, with which

specimens from the Philippine Islands and Japan have been identified;

and the Notched-eared Bat (_V. emarginatus_), found in Central and

Southern Europe, and extending eastward into Persia.

[203] _Vespertilio formosus._

[204] _Kerivoula picta._

[205] _Harpiocephalus harpia._

[206] _Atalapha novæboracensis._

[207] Other recorded species of this genus are: _A. intermedia_, from

Mexico, _A. Pfeifferi_, from Cuba, _A. Frantzii_, from Brazil and Costa

Rica, _A. varia_, from Peru and Chili, _A. paltescens_, from Venezuela,

and _A. Grayi_, from Chili, all with molars (5–5)/(5–5); and _A.

egregia_, from Brazil, _A. Ega_, from Brazil, and _A. caudata_, from

Pernambuco and Chili, with molars (4–4)/(5–5). _A. Grayi_ has been said

to occur at Juan da Fuca, in North America, and in the Sandwich Islands.

[208] _Miniopterus Schreibersii._

[209] Other recorded species are _Miniopterus tristis_, from the

Philippine Islands, and _M. australis_, from the Loyalty Islands.

[210] _Thyroptera tricolor._

[211] Mr. Dobson’s paper above referred to (“Proceedings of the

Zoological Society,” 1876, p. 526) contains some interesting

particulars as to the occurrence of adhesive organs in Bats and other

Mammals.

[212] A second species, _Thyroptera albiventer_, has been described by

Mr. Tomes from the vicinity of the Rio Napo, near Quito. It is rather

larger than the preceding, and of a reddish-brown colour above, with

the lower parts pure white.

[213] _Natalus stramineus._

[214] _Furipterus horrens._

[215] _Saccopteryx bilineata._

[216] In one species, _Saccopteryx plicata_, from Costa Rica, of which

Professor Peters makes his genus _Balantiopteryx_, the sac is placed in

the middle of the shoulder membrane. In this species, also, the facial

part of the skull is inflated on each side. In _S. canina_ and its

allies the sac is in the margin of the membrane. These form the genus

_Peropteryx_ of Professor Peters.

[217] Other described species of the genus are _Saccopteryx canina_,

from Brazil, Guiana, Venezuela, and Guatemala; _S. leptura_, from

Surinam; _S. villosa_, from Brazil; _S. Kappleri_, and _S. leucoptera_,

from Surinam; _S. brevirostris_, from Brazil; and _S. plicata_, from

Costa Rica. _Rhynchonycteris naso_, the Sharp-nosed Bat, is allied

to these, but distinguished especially by its very pointed snout. It

inhabits Brazil, Surinam, and Guiana.

[218] _Emballonura monticola._

[219] Other known species are _Emballonura nigrescens_, from Amboyna,

Ternate, and Australia; and _E. semicaudata_, an inhabitant of

the Samoa, Fiji, and Pelew Islands. An allied African species is

_Colëura afra_, which, however, presents some characters indicating a

relationship to the American _Saccopteryx_.

[220] _Taphozous perforatus._

[221] Other described species of the genus are:--_Taphozous

longimanus_, with a large throat-sac in the male, found in India,

Ceylon, and Burmah; _T. melanopagon_, with no throat-pouch, but

usually with a small black beard under the chin (see figure above),

an inhabitant of India, Penang, Burmah, Cochin China, Java, and the

Philippine Islands; _T. Theobaldi_, from Tenasserim; _T. australis_,

from Australia and New Guinea; _T. mauritianus_, with white wings,

from tropical Africa, Madagascar, and the Mascarene Islands; _T.

saccolaimus_, from India and the larger Eastern islands; _T. affinis_,

from Labuan; and _T. Peli_, from tropical Africa. The Valve-tailed Bat

(_Diclidurus albus_), a native of Brazil, is remarkable for its whitish

colour, and especially for the presence of a curious horny case,

composed of two parts, which covers the extremity of the tail, and is

attached to the upper surface of the interfemoral membrane.

[222] _Rhinopoma microphyllum._

[223] _Rhinopoma Lepsianum_ (Peters), is another African species. It

inhabits the banks of the Blue Nile.

[224] _Noctilio leporinus._

[225] The White-bellied Hare-lipped Bat (_N. albiventris_) is also an

inhabitant of South America.

[226] _Nyctinomus Cestonii._

[227] _Nyctinomus tragatus_ (Dobson), from Continental India, is a

nearly allied species, as also _Nyctinomus plicatus_, an inhabitant of

India, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.

[228] _Nyctinomus brasiliensis._

[229] In a paper on the group Molossi, Mr. Dobson distinguishes in all

twenty-one species of the genus _Nyctinomus_, mostly inhabitants of the

Eastern hemisphere. Three species besides the one above described are

found in America.

[230] _Molossus nasutus._

[231] Mr. Dobson (_Proceedings of the Zoological Society_, 1876)

describes nine species of _Molossus_, all from tropical America.

[232] _Chiromeles torquatus._

[233] _Mystacina tuberculata._

[234] _Mormops Blainvillii._

[235] _Chilonycteris Macleayii._

[236] _Phyllostoma hastatum._

[237] _Vampryus spectrum._

[238] _Macrotus Waterhousii._

[239] Other known species are _Macrotus californicus_ and _M.

mexicanus_, the native countries of which are indicated in their

specific names.

[240] _Glossophaga soricina._

[241] _Monophyllus Redmanii._

[242] _Phyllonycteris Sezekornii._

[243] Poey’s Leaf Bat (_Phyllonycteris Poeyi_) is a second species

inhabiting Cuba.

[244] The rest of the species forming the group _Glossophaga_ have

three premolars on each side in each jaw, and the inner upper incisors

smaller than the outer ones. The lower incisors are more or less

deciduous, and sometimes altogether wanting in the adult. _Lonchoglossa

caudifera_ has a well-developed zygomatic arch, and the interfemoral

membrane, tail, and spurs very short. It is from Western Brazil and

Surinam. The tail in this species is liable to be withdrawn, or lost

in preparing the skin of the animal, and hence it has been described

under the rather contradictory names of _caudifera_ and _ecaudata_,

and a distinct genus (_Anura_) was established upon the apparently

tailless specimens. In _Glossonycterus lasiopyga_ the zygomatic arch

is deficient, and the tail is wanting; the spurs and interfemoral

membrane are very short, and the latter is covered with hair. It is

an inhabitant of Mexico. _Chœronycteris mexicana_, from Mexico, and

_C. minor_, from Surinam, have a well-developed interfemoral membrane

enclosing a very short tail. The anterior molars are very narrow, and

the first upper premolar is deciduous.

[245] _Stenoderma perspicillatum._

[246] _Stenoderma jamaicense._

[247] Two other species of Stenoderms are referred to _Artibeus_ by

Professor Peters, namely, his _A. fallax_, and _A. concolor_, both

from Surinam. Both these have five molar teeth in the upper jaw, the

preceding species having only four on each side. Three other species

forming the sub-genus _Dermanura_, with only four molars on each side

of both jaws, are _Artibeus cinereus_ and _quadrivittatus_, from South

America, and _A. toltecum_, from Mexico. _Phyllops albomaculatus_,

from Cuba and Jamaica, and _P. personatus_, from Brazil, have five

molars on each side in both jaws, and the palate is deeply cut out

between the molars. In _Vampyrops lineatus_ and _vittatus_, both South

American species, the number of molars is also five, but the palate

is not so deeply cut. The typical species of the genus _Stenoderma_,

_S. rufum_, resembles this, but has only four molars on each side

in each jaw, as described by Geoffroy, but this may be due to the

youth of the specimen. _Pygoderma bilabiatum_ and _Ametrida centurio_

also have only four molars on each side, and the hindmost of these

is very small. In the latter the face is much flattened. _Chiroderma

villosum_ and _pusillum_, on the contrary, have the fourth or hindmost

molar larger than any of the rest, and are further characterised by

a broad fissure which runs up from the aperture of the nose to the

space between the orbits. _Sturnira lilium_ and _chiliensis_ have five

molars on each side, and no interfemoral membrane. The former is from

Brazil and Paraguay, the latter from Chili. _Brachyphylla cavernarum_,

a curious Bat from caves in the islands of St. Vincent and Cuba,

which is also said to occur in South Carolina, has an oval nose-leaf

surrounded behind by a pit, a triangular fissure in the lower lip, and

a rudimentary tail; and the singular genus _Centurio_, including two

species (_C. senex_ and _McMurtrii_), found in the West Indies and

Central America, has a big, Bull-dog-like head and a flat face covered

with naked cutaneous leaves. The teeth in _Centurio_ resemble those

of the Spectacled Stenoderm. There is no tail, and the wing-membranes

display peculiar translucent patches.

[248] _Desmodus rufus._

[249] According to Professor Gervais; some zoologists make the number

of incisors in the first dentition six. The first teeth differ entirely

in character from those of the adult animal.

[250] The wound is, in fact, very much like that which many of our

readers must occasionally have inflicted on themselves in shaving; and

those who are experienced in such matters will know how long it takes

to stop the bleeding thus produced.

[251] There is sometimes a difficulty in distinguishing between canines

and premolars, and it will be seen, hereafter, that in some cases the

canines are supposed to be wanting; but no Insectivore possesses two

chisel-like, constantly-growing incisors in each jaw, separated by a

long interval from the molars, as in the Rodents, or Gnawing Mammals.

[252] _Galeopithecus volans._

[253] _Tupaia tana._

[254] _Tupaia ferruginea._

[255] _Ptilocercus Lowii._

[256] _Hylomys suillus._

[257] _Macroscelides typicus._

[258] _Macroscelides Rozeti._

[259] _Petrodromus tetradactylus._

[260] _Rhynchocyon Cernei._

[261] _Erinaceus europæus._

[262] _Erinaceus auritus._

[263] _Erinaceus collaris._

[264] _Gymnura Rafflesii._

[265] _Centetes ecaudatus._

[266] _Ericulus spinosus._

[267] _Oryzorictes hova._

[268] _Geogale aurita._

[269] _Solenodon paradoxus._

[270] _Solenodon cubanus._

[271] _Potamogale velox._

[272] _Chrysochloris capensis._

[273] _Talpa europæa._

[274] _Talpa cæca_.

[275] _Condylura cristata._

[276] _Scalops aquaticus._

[277] _Myogale moschata_.

[278] _Myogale pyrenaica._

[279] _Urotrichus talpoides._

[280] _Sorex vulgaris._

[281] Hence the species was called _S. tetragonurus_, by Hermann.

[282] Two or three other Old World species belong to this group,

among which may be mentioned the Alpine Shrew (_S. alpinus_), which

appears to range from the Alps to India; and the Blackish Shrew (_S.

nigrescens_), a very common species in Sikkim and Nepaul. At Darjeling

Mr. Jerdon found many specimens lying dead in the roads without

apparent injury. Several allied species also inhabit North America,

such as Forster’s Shrew (_S. Forsterii_), the Long-nosed Shrew (_S.

longirostris_), &c.

[283] _Blarina Dekayi._

[284] _Crocidura aranea._

[285] _Crocidura myosura._

[286] _Crossopus fodiens._

[287] _Nectogaie ciegans._

[288] _Anurosorex squamipes._