THE MASTODON AND THE WOOLLY RHINOCEROS.
"Of one departed world
I see the mighty show."
Another elephantine monster, evidently allied to the Mammoth, was the
Mastodon, a creature which there is reason to think was contemporary,
in America, with the men of prehistoric age. It was so named by Baron
Cuvier to distinguish it from the Mammoth, with which it was by others
considered identical; and his discrimination of the two forms marked
an important and early step in the history of palæontology. The chief
difference between these two extinct types lies in their molar teeth.
These, on cutting the gum, must have exhibited a number of somewhat
conical protuberances of a mammiform appearance; hence the name.[71] As
these points were worn down by mastication, the surface of the tooth
showed a series of discs of various sizes. The teeth were covered by a
very thick coat of dense, brittle enamel. There are, however,
differences in the bony framework of the animal, as well as in its
general proportions, which serve to distinguish it from the Mammoth;
but it will not be necessary to enter into these matters here, for
this is difficult ground, even to the student who is well versed in
anatomy. Notwithstanding a vast amount of observation on the subject,
considerable differences of opinion have prevailed among
palæontologists with regard to the proper relation of the Mastodon to
the Mammoth and living elephants.
[71] Greek--_mastos_, teat; _odous_, _odontos_, tooth.
[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Skeleton _Mastodon arvernensis_, Pliocene,
Europe.]
At the entrance of the Geological Gallery in the Natural History
Museum, South Kensington, the reader will see a magnificent skeleton
of an American Mastodon, of which more presently. On this specimen our
artist has based his restoration, Plate XXI. A large part of the great
gallery referred to is devoted to the fossil remains of proboscideans;
that is, creatures provided with a long proboscis, or trunk, such as
elephants and Mastodons. This collection, from widely different
quarters, is the largest and most complete in the world. By comparing
the specimens of teeth in the cases, and looking at the fine specimens
of skulls, and the numerous bones and tusks in the side cases, the
reader will carry away a better idea than we can convey by
description. Fig. 54 shows the skeleton of Mastodon arvernensis with
two very long tusks. Mastodon augustidens had four tusks, two in each
jaw, but one of those in the lower jaw sometimes dropped out as the
animal grew older.
[Illustration: Plate XXI.
THE MASTODON OF OHIO, M. AMERICANUS.]
No genus of quadrupeds has been more extensively diffused over the
globe than the Mastodon. From the tropics it has extended both north
and south into temperate regions, and in America its remains have been
discovered as high as latitude 66° N. But the true home of the
Mastodon giganteus, in the United States, like that of M. augustidens
in Europe, lies in a more temperate zone, and, as Professor Owen says,
we have no evidence that any species was specially adapted, like the
Mammoth, for braving the rigours of an arctic winter.
Now, we know from trustworthy geological evidence that the Mastodon is
a much older form of life than the Mammoth. The record of the rocks
tells us that it first put in an appearance in an early Tertiary
period known as the Miocene (see Table of Strata, Appendix I.), and in
the Old World lived on to the end of the succeeding Pliocene period.
But in America several species, especially M. giganteus, survived till
late in the Pleistocene period, where it was probably seen by
primitive men. This is all that is known about its geographical range,
and its antiquity or range in time; some day, perhaps before very
long, palæontologists may be able to trace the great proboscideans
further back in time, and to show from what form of animal they were
derived. Strange as it may seem, anatomists declare that they show
some remote affinity with the rodents, or gnawing animals, and, in
some respects, even with Sirenians, such as the Manatee (see Chapter
XVI.). But at present the evolution of this remarkable group of
animals is an unsolved problem. Those strange animals, the Dinocerata,
from Wyoming, described in Chapter X., may perhaps give some
indication as to the direction in which we must look for the
elephant's ancestors. We noticed that their limbs were decidedly
elephantine (see p. 150), but they had no trunks, and their skulls
showed curious prominences like horn-cores; their teeth too are very
different.
The visitor to the Geological Collection at South Kensington will also
notice a splendid cranium of an elephant, with very long tusks, from
the famous Sivalik Hills of Northern India[72] (Stand D on plan). It
belonged to Elephas ganesa, one of the largest of all the fossil
elephants known. The total length of the cranium and tusks is fourteen
feet, and the tusks alone measure ten feet six inches in length! This
remarkable specimen was presented by Sir William Erskine Baker, K.C.B.
[72] There is some difficulty in determining the precise geological
age of the strata in question, on account of the curious mixture of
fossil forms of life they contain; but many authorities consider them
to be of older Pliocene age.
But to return to our Mastodon. It was early in the eighteenth century
that the teeth and bones of the Mastodon were first described,[73] and
it is curious to observe how differently scientific discoveries were
regarded in those days; for this society of learned men published in
these _Transactions_ a letter from Dr. Mather to Dr. Woodward, in
which the former gives an account of a large work in manuscript, but
does not name the author. This book, which appears to have been a
commentary on the Bible, Dr. Mather recommends "to the patronage of
some generous Moecenas to promote the publication of it," and
transcribes, as a specimen, a passage announcing the discovery at
Albany, now the capital of New York State, in the year 1705, of
enormous bones and teeth. These relics he considered to belong to a
former race of giants, and appeals to them in confirmation of Genesis
vi. 4 ("The Nephilim (giants) were in the earth in those days").
[73] _Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society_, 1714, vol.
xxix.
Portions of the skeleton of Mastodon, discovered in 1801, were sent to
England and France, and two complete specimens were at length put
together in America. One of these was exhibited as a Mammoth, in
Bristol and London, by Mr. C. W. Peale, a naturalist, by whom they
were found in marly clay on the banks of the Hudson, near Newburgh, in
the State of New York.
Previous to this, in 1739, a French officer, M. de Longueil, traversed
the virgin forests bordering on the river Ohio, in order to reach the
Mississippi, and the Indians who escorted him accidentally discovered,
on the borders of a marsh, various bones, some of which seemed to be
those of unknown animals. In this turfy marsh, known as the Big Bone
Lick, or Salt Lick, in consequence of the saltness of its waters,
herds of wild animals collect together, attracted by the salt, for
which they have a great liking. This is probably the reason why so
many bones have accumulated here. M. de Longueil carried away some
bones and teeth, and, on his return to France, presented them to
Daubenton and Buffon. The former declared the teeth to be those of a
hippopotamus, and the tusk and gigantic thigh-bone he reported to
belong to an elephant. Buffon, however, did not share this opinion,
and succeeded in converting Daubenton, as well as other French
naturalists, to his views. He gave to this fossil animal the name of
"the Elephant of Ohio," but formed an exaggerated idea of its size.
This discovery produced a great impression in Europe. The English,
becoming masters of Canada by the peace of 1763, sought eagerly for
more remains. Croghan, the geographer, visited the Big Bone Lick, and
found there some more bones of the same kind. He forwarded many cases
to different naturalists in London.
Sir Henry Howorth, in his recent work, _The Mammoth and the Flood_ (in
which are brought forward certain views not shared by most
geologists), mentions that in 1762 the Shawnee Indians found, some
three miles from the river Ohio, the skeletons of five Mastodons, and
reported that one of the heads had a long nose attached to it, below
which was the mouth. Several explorers report discoveries of a like
nature, which, if they may be trusted, and if they really refer to the
Mastodon, and not the Mammoth, seem to show that portions of the skin
and hairy covering have been seen. If so, their preservation is
probably due to the saltness of the waters of this marsh, for salt is
a good preservative. In _The American Journal of Science_,[74] Dr. Koch
reports the discovery of a Mastodon's skeleton, of which the head and
fore foot were well preserved, also large pieces of the skin, which
looked like freshly tanned leather. But some of these accounts refer
to tufts of hair--in one case three inches long.
[74] Vol. xxxvi. p. 199.
The great skeleton of Mastodon americanus already referred to was
purchased by the trustees of the British Museum, of Mr. Albert Koch, a
well-known collector of fossil remains, who had exhibited it in the
Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, in 1842 and 1843, under the name of "the
Missouri Leviathan," an enormous and ill-constructed monster, made up
of the bones of this skeleton, together with many belonging to other
individuals, in such a way as to horrify an anatomist and appeal all
the more forcibly to the imagination of the public. From this
heterogeneous assemblage of bones those belonging to the same animal
have now been selected and articulated in their proper places. The
height of this specimen is nine feet and a half, and the total length
about eighteen feet.
According to Mr. Koch, the remains exhibited by him were found in
alluvial deposits on the banks of a small tributary of the Osage
River, in Benton County, Missouri. The bones were embedded in a brown,
sandy deposit, full of vegetable matter, in which were recognised
remains of the cypress, tropical cane, swamp moss, etc., and this was
covered by blue clay and gravel to a thickness of about fifteen feet.
Mr. Koch personally assured Dr. Mantell that an Indian flint
arrow-head was found beneath the leg-bones of this skeleton, and that
four similar weapons were embedded in the same stratum. He declared
that he took them out of the bed with his own hands.
In the Pier-case (No. 38), near the Mastodon americanus, may be seen
fifteen heads and jaws, together with other parts of the skeleton,
mostly obtained from the same locality, but some of them came from the
"Big Bone Lick," Kentucky.
A fine specimen, obtained from a marsh near Newburgh, by Dr. Warren,
measured eleven feet in height, and seventeen in length, while the
tusks were nearly ten feet long, not including the portion in the long
sockets of the cranium. Twenty-six species of Mastodon are known.
An interesting find was that of Dr. Barton, a professor of the
University of Pennsylvania. At a depth of six feet, and under a great
bank of chalk, bones of the Mastodon were found sufficient to form a
skeleton, and in the middle of the bones was seen a mass of vegetable
matter enveloped in a kind of sac (which probably was the stomach of
the animal). This matter was found to be composed of small leaves and
branches, amongst which was recognised a species of rush yet common in
Virginia. In North America, where the Mastodon survived into the
period of primitive man, various strange legends exist that seem to
refer to it. Traditions were rife among the Red Men concerning this
giant form and its destruction.
A French officer named Fabri informed M. Buffon, the naturalist, that
the "savages" (Indians) regarded the bones found in various parts of
Canada and Louisiana as belonging to an animal which they named
"Father of the Ox." The Shawnee Indians believed that with this
enormous animal there existed men of proportionate development, and
that the Great Being destroyed both with thunderbolts. Those of
Virginia state that as a troop of these terrible animals were
destroying the deer, bisons, and other animals created for the use of
Indians, the Great Man slew them all with his thunder, except the Big
Bull, who shook off the thunderbolts as they fell on him, till at
last, being wounded in the side, he fled towards the great lakes,
where he lies to this day.
This is one of the songs which Fabri heard in Canada: "When the great
_Manitou_ descended to the earth, in order to satisfy himself that the
creatures he had created were happy, and he interrogated all the
animals, the bison replied that he would be quite contented with his
fate in the grassy meadows, where the grass reached his belly, if he
were not also compelled to keep his eyes constantly turned towards the
mountains to catch the first sight of the 'Father of the Ox,' as he
descended, with fury, to devour him and his companions." Many other
tribes repeat similar legends.
The bones with which Mazuyer practised his famous deception were those
of a Mastodon (see p. 196).
[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Head of Woolly Rhinoceros, partly restored by
M. Deslongchamps.]
Contemporary with the Mammoth in Siberia and in Northern and Western
Europe, was the "Woolly Rhinoceros" (Rhinoceros tichorhinus). Its body
has been found in frozen soil in Siberia, with the skin, the two
horns, the hair, and even the flesh preserved, as in the case of the
Mammoth. It had a smooth skin without folds, covered with a fine curly
and coarse hairy coat, to enable it to withstand the rigours of an
arctic climate. The traveller Pallas gives a long account of one of
these creatures, which was taken out of the ice, with its skin, hair,
and flesh preserved. The following is a brief summary of his
narrative. The body was observed in December, 1771, by some Jakuts
near the river Vilui, which discharges itself into the Lena below
Jakutsk in Siberia, latitude 64° north. It lay in frozen sand upon the
banks of the river. A certain Russian inspector had sent on to
Irkutsk the head and two feet of the animal, all well preserved. The
rest of it was too much decomposed, and so was left. The head was
quite recognisable, since it was covered with its leathery skin. The
eyelids had escaped total decay (see Fig. 55). The skin and tendons of
the head and feet still preserved considerable flexibility. He was,
however, compelled to cross the Baikal lake before the ice broke up,
and so could neither draw up a sufficiently careful description nor
make sketches of those parts which were sufficiently preserved. Plate
XXII. is a restoration.
[Illustration: Plate XXII.
THE WOOLLY RHINOCEROS, RHINOCEROS TICHORHINUS.
Contemporary with the Mammoth.]
The rhinoceros in question was neither large for its species nor
advanced in age; but it was at least fully grown. The horns were gone,
but had left evident traces on the head. The skin which covered the
orbits of the eyes and formed the eyelids was so well preserved, that
the openings of the eyelids could be seen, though deformed and
scarcely penetrable to the finger. The foot that was left--after some
parts had unfortunately been burned while left to dry slowly on the
top of a furnace--was furnished with hairs. These hairs adhering in
many places to the skin, were from one to three lines in length,
tolerably stiff and ash-coloured. What remained proved that the foot
was covered with bunches of hair hanging down.
Like the Mammoth and the Mastodon, its contemporaries, the Woolly
Rhinoceros has given rise to some curious legends. In the city of
Klagenfurt, in Carinthia, is a fountain on which is sculptured the
head of a monstrous dragon with six feet, and a head surmounted by a
stout horn. According to popular tradition, still prevalent at
Klagenfurt, this dragon lived in a cave, whence it issued from time to
time to frighten and ravage the country. A bold cavalier killed the
dragon, paying with his life for this proof of courage. The same kind
of legend seems to be current in every country, such as that of the
valiant St. George and the dragon, and of St. Martha, who about the
same time conquered the famous _Tarasque_ of the city of Languedoc,
which bears the name of Tarascon.
But at Klagenfurt the popular legend has happily found a mouthpiece;
the head of the pretended dragon killed by the valorous knight is
preserved in the Hôtel de Ville, and this head has furnished the
sculptor of the fountain with a model for the head of his statue. Herr
Unger, of Vienna, recognised at a glance the cranium of the fossil
rhinoceros; its discovery in some cave had probably originated the
fable of the knight and the dragon. It is always interesting to
discover a scientific basis for fables which otherwise it would be
difficult to account for.
The same rhinoceros was once a denizen of our country, and its remains
are met with in caves and river-gravels. Specimens of its skull have
also been dredged up by fishermen from the "Dogger Bank" in the North
Sea.