FLYING DRAGONS.
"Geology does better in reclothing dry bones and revealing lost
creations than in tracing veins of lead or beds of iron."--Ruskin.
The great Ocean of Air was not uninhabited during the long ages of the
Mesozoic era, when fishes swarmed in the seas, and reptiles, such as
we have attempted to describe in the last five chapters, trod the
earth, or swam across lakes and rivers. With such an exuberance of
life in various forms, it would indeed have been strange if the
atmosphere had only been tenanted by humble little insects like
dragon-flies, locusts, or butterflies and moths, all of which we know
were living then.
Now, the record of the rocks tells us that one great order of reptiles
somehow acquired the power of flying, and flitted about as bats or
flying-foxes do now. Since they were undoubtedly reptiles--in spite of
certain resemblances to birds--we have ventured to call them "flying
dragons," as others have done. The notion of a flying reptile may
perhaps seem strange, or even impossible to some persons; but no one
has a right to say such and such a thing "cannot be," or is "contrary
to Nature," for the world is full of wonderful things such as we
should have considered impossible had we not seen them with our eyes.
Charles Kingsley, in his delightful fairy tale, _The Water-Babies_,
makes some humorous remarks on that matter, which we may quote here.
He says, "Did not learned men too hold, till within the last
twenty-five years, that a flying dragon was an impossible monster?
And do we not now know that there are hundreds of them found fossil up
and down the world? People call them Pterodactyls; but that is only
because they are ashamed to call them flying dragons, after denying so
long that flying dragons could exist."
The illustrious Cuvier observes that it was not merely in magnitude
that reptiles stood pre-eminent in ancient days, but they were
distinguished by forms more varied and extraordinary than any that are
now known to exist on the face of the earth. Among these extinct
beings of ages incalculably remote, are the Pterodactyls,[30] or
"wing-fingered" creatures, which had the power of flight, not by a
membrane stretched over elongated fingers as in bats, nor by a wing
without distinct or complete fingers, as in birds, but by a membrane
supported chiefly by a greatly extended little finger, the other
fingers being short and armed with claws.
[30] From the Greek--_pteron_, wing, and _dactylos_, finger.
The only reptile now existing which has any power of sustaining itself
in the air is the little _Draco Volans_, or "flying lizard," so
called; but this can scarcely be regarded as a flying animal. Its
hinder pair of ribs, however, are prolonged to such an extent that
they support a broad expansion of the skin, so spread out from side to
side as to perform the office of a parachute, thus enabling the
creature to spring from tree to tree by means of extended leaps; and
this it does with wonderful activity.
Many forms of Pterodactyl are known. Some were not larger than a
sparrow; others about the size of a woodcock; yet others much larger,
the largest of all having a spread of wing (or rather of the flying
membranes) of twenty-five feet! It has been concluded that they could
perch on trees, hang against perpendicular surfaces, such as the edge
of a cliff, stand firmly on the ground, and probably crawl on all
fours with wings folded. It may be well at once to point out that the
Pterodactyl had no _true_ wings like those of a bird, but a thin
membrane similar to that of a bat, only differently supported; so it
must be understood that, when we use the word "wing," it is not in
the scientific sense that we are using it, but in the popular sense,
just as we might speak of the wing of a bat, although the bat has no
true wing. Figs. 32, 33, 34, and 35 will give the reader some idea of
the various forms presented by the skeletons of Pterodactyls, or, as
some authorities call them, Pterosaurians (winged lizards). Great
differences of opinion have existed among palæontologists as to
whether they are more reptilian than bird-like, or even mammalian.
More than a hundred years ago, in 1784, Collini, who was Director of
the Elector-Palatine Museum at Mannheim, described a skeleton which he
regarded as that of an unknown marine animal. It was a long-billed
Pterodactyl from the famous lithographic stone of Solenhofen in
Bavaria. The specimen was figured in the _Memoirs of the Palatine
Academy_. Collini was able from this specimen to make out the head,
neck, small tail, left leg, and two arms; but beyond that, he was at a
loss. His conclusion was that the skeleton belonged neither to a bat
nor to a bird, and he inquired whether it might not be an amphibian.
In 1809 this specimen came into Cuvier's hands, who at once perceived
that it belonged to a reptile that could fly, and it was he who
proposed the name Pterodactyl. Until the oracle at Paris was
consulted, the greatest uncertainty prevailed, one naturalist
regarding it as a bird, another as a bat. Cuvier, with his penetrating
eye and patient investigation, combated these theories, supported
though they were by weighty authorities. The principal key by means of
which he solved the problem, and detected the saurian relationship of
the Pterodactyl, seems to have been a certain bone belonging to the
skull, known as the quadrate bone. In his great work, _Ossemens
Fossiles_, he says, "Behold an animal which, in its osteology, from
its teeth to the end of its claws, offers all the characters of the
saurians.... But it was, at the same time, an animal provided with the
means of flight--which, when stationary, could not have made much use
of its anterior extremities, even if it did not keep them always
folded as birds keep their wings, which nevertheless might use its
small anterior fingers to suspend itself from the branches of trees,
but when at rest must have been ordinarily on its hind feet, like the
birds again; and also, like them, must have carried its neck sub-erect
and curved backwards, so that its enormous head should not interrupt
its equilibrium."
Pterodactylus macronyx, or, as it is now called, Dimorphodon macronyx
(Fig. 32), was about the size of a raven. It was discovered in 1828 by
the late Miss Mary Anning, the well-known collector of fossils from
the Liassic rocks that form the cliffs alone: the coast of
Dorsetshire, near Lyme-Regis. This important specimen was figured and
described by Dr. Buckland, in the _Transactions of the Geological
Society_. He suggested the specific name macronyx on account of the
great length of the claws.
[Illustration: Fig. 32--Skeleton of _Dimorphodon macronyx_. (After
Owen.)]
This authority pointed out an unusual provision for giving support and
power of movement to the large head at the extremity of a rather long
neck, namely, the occurrence of fine long tendons running parallel to
the neck-vertebræ. This does not occur in any modern lizards, whose
necks are short, and require no such aid to support the head. They are
a compensation for weakness that would otherwise arise from the
elongation of the neck, supporting, as it did, such a large head. The
neck-vertebræ in this species are large and strong, and capable of
great flexibility forwards and backwards, so that the creature, by
bending its neck during flight into the shape of an S, could throw its
head back towards the centre of gravity. The restoration of the
skeleton seen in the figure is by Professor Owen. It is probable that
this Pterodactyl could walk on the ground with its wings folded, and
perhaps it was also capable of perching on trees, by clinging on to
their branches with its feet and toes. When the flying membrane was
stretched out it must, on account of the long tail to which it was
also attached, have presented a triangular shape, somewhat like a
boy's kite.
[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Skeleton of _Scaphognathus crassirostris_.
1/3 natural size.]
Another genus, also from the lithographic slate of Bavaria, namely,
Scaphognathus crassirostris (so called on account of its large beak
and jaws), had a very short tail, and its skeleton looks somewhat
clumsy for a creature adapted to fly through the air (Fig. 33).
Pterodactylus spectabilis, from the same strata, also possessed a very
short tail, but has a more elegant and bird-like skull. This pretty
little flying dragon was only about as large as a sparrow (see Fig.
34). Its neck is comparatively short, with but few joints. The long
slender beak was probably sheathed in horn, and the skull in several
ways approaches that of a bird. Since there are no teeth in the jaws,
we may suppose that it devoured dragon-flies or other insects, such as
we know were in existence during the period when the lithographic
stone of Bavaria was being deposited. Those forms that were provided
with teeth probably devoured such fishes as they could catch by
swooping down upon the surface of the water.
[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Skeleton of _Pterodactylus spectabilis_.]
Cuvier thought, from the magnitude of their eyes, that Pterodactyls
were of nocturnal habits. "With flocks of such creatures flying in the
air, and shoals of no less monstrous Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri
swarming in the ocean, and gigantic crocodiles and tortoises crawling
on the shores of the primæval lakes and rivers--air, sea, and land
must have been strangely tenanted in these early periods of our infant
world."[31]
[31] Buckland, _Bridgewater Treatise_.
It was thought at one time that Birds differed from Pterodactyls in
the absence of teeth; but this only holds good for modern birds. If we
go back to the Mesozoic age, we find that birds at that time did
possess teeth. The oldest known bird, the Archæopteryx, had teeth in
its jaws, and presents some very striking points of resemblance to
reptiles. But if we compare the skeleton of a Pterodactyl (such as the
P. spectabilis, now under consideration) with that of a bird, we shall
see in its fore limbs certain very obvious differences. A bird never
has more than three fingers in its hand or wing (viz. the thumb and
next two digits), and the bones that support these fingers,
corresponding to the bones in the palm of a human hand, are joined
together. Neither of the bones corresponding to our fingers are much
elongated, and of these the longest is that which corresponds to the
thumb. But, on referring to the skeleton of our Pterodactyl, we find
that it has four fingers, three of which are fairly developed and
furnished with claws, while the outermost one is enormously elongated.
This is believed to correspond to the little finger of the human hand,
while the thumb seems to be represented by a small bone seen at the
wrist. It was this long outside finger that chiefly served to support
the flying membrane of the Pterodactyl. For this and other reasons, we
are forbidden to look upon these creatures as relatives of birds.
Again, all birds that can fly possess a "merrythought," or furculum;
and such is not found in the Pterodactyl.
As we have already remarked, some authorities, when these creatures
were first brought to light, considered them to be mammals, as bats
are. But equally conclusive arguments may be brought forward against
that view. All mammals have the skull jointed to the backbone by two
articulations, known as "condyles," whereas Pterodactyls have only
one--in that respect resembling reptiles and birds.
Also there are important differences in the structure of their jaws,
showing that they are constructed on the reptilian plan, and not on
that of the mammal.
In order to give rapid movement to their wings during flight, they had
powerful muscles in the region of the chest. These were attached to a
shield-like breast-bone provided with a keel--as in birds. But this
bird-like feature is only a necessary provision to enable them to fly,
and does not point to any relationship.
[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Skeleton of _Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus_, with
delicate impressions of the flying membranes. (After Marsh.)]
In the year 1873 was discovered, in the lithographic stone of Bavaria,
at Eichstädt, a very beautiful new form of Pterodactyl. This was the
Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus. The specimen is in a remarkable state of
preservation; for the bones of the skeleton are nearly all in
position, while those of both wings show very perfect impressions of
the membranes attached to them. Its long tail supported another small
leaf-like membrane, which was evidently used as a rudder in flight
(see Fig. 35). The discovery of this valuable specimen attracted much
attention at the time. It was bought, by telegram, for Professor
Marsh, and so secured for the Yale College Museum; but a cast may be
seen at South Kensington (Wall-case, No. 1, Gallery IV. on plan).
Any one who looks carefully at the beautiful impressions of the wings
of this specimen can see that they must have been produced by a thin
smooth membrane, very similar to that of bats. When this elegant
little creature was covered up by the fine soft mud that now forms the
lithographic stone, its wings were partly folded, so that the
membranes were more or less contracted into folds, like an umbrella
only partly open. These appear to have been attached all along the arm
and to the end of the long finger. They then made a graceful curve
backward to the hind foot, and probably were continued beyond the
latter so as to join the tail. With its graceful pointed wings and
long tail, this little flying saurian must have been a beautiful
object, as it slowly mounted upwards from some cliff overlooking the
Jurassic seas. (See Plate XII.)
Like those already described, it was provided with four short-clawed
fingers, as well as the one which mainly supported its wing. Some of
the Continental museums contain good collections of fossil
Pterodactyls; but the largest collection in the world is that of Yale
College, where Professor Marsh declares there are the remains of six
hundred individuals from the American Cretaceous rocks alone!
[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Skull of _Pteranodon_. 1. Side view. 2. Top
view. (After Marsh.)]
Some of the fragmentary remains from our Cambridge Greensand formation
indicate Pterodactyls of enormous size. Thus the neck-vertebræ of one
species measure two inches in length, while portions of arm-bones are
three inches broad. It is probable that the creatures to which these
bones once belonged measured eighteen or twenty feet from tip to tip
of the wings. Other also fragmentary remains from the chalk of Kent
testify to the existence of Pterodactyls during that period fully
equal in size.
But the largest Pterodactyls hail, like so many other big things, from
America. Professor Marsh tells us of monsters in his famous collection
with a spread of wings of twenty to twenty-five feet! These large
forms had no teeth in their jaws, and their skulls are of a peculiar
form. The long-pointed jaws were probably sheathed in horn during
life, as in birds (see Fig. 36). According to Marsh, these toothless
forms (which he calls Pteranodonts) were mostly of gigantic size. With
regard to their food it is almost vain to speculate; but if they _did_
prey upon fishes, they must have had a capacious mouth and gullet, and
must have swallowed their prey whole, after the fashion of pelicans.
But we doubt if they had the peculiar pouch possessed by those birds.
In the absence of more complete accounts of the large forms the artist
has only attempted to restore the small ones. (See Plate XII., showing
four different kinds.)
[Illustration: Plate XII.
GROUP OF SMALL FLYING DRAGONS, OR PTERODACTYLS.
_Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus._
_Pterodactylus crassirostris. Dimorphodon macronyx._
_Pterodactylus spectabilis._]
Whether Pterodactyls were cold-blooded or warm-blooded is a question
on which the authorities are not agreed. Professor Owen argued from
the absence of feathers that they could not have been warm-blooded.
But, in spite of this great authority, who has defended his opinion
somewhat strongly, there are others who argue that the amount of work
involved in sustaining a Pterodactyl in the air make it highly
probable that it was warm-blooded. The absence of feathers to retain
the heat of the body need not be regarded as conclusive, for bats are
warm-blooded animals, and in their case the heat of the body is
retained by a slight downy covering to the skin. Such a covering may
have protected the bodies of Pterodactyls, and we could not expect to
see any trace of it in the Bavarian specimen of Rhamphorhynchus
referred to above. An important fact bearing on this question is the
discovery of perforations in the bones of these animals very similar
to those seen in birds. Now, birds have a wonderful system of
respiration, or breathing. The air they breathe passes, not into their
lungs only, but penetrates to the remotest parts of their system,
filling their very bones with life, and endowing them with activity
and animation adapted to their active aërial existence. It may,
therefore, be argued that Pterodactyls breathed much in the same way;
that their bones, too, were supplied with air by an elaborate system
of air-sacs, and that they had lungs like those of birds. We cannot,
however, stop there, but are led on by physiological reasoning to
conclude that the circulation of the blood must have been rapid, and
that the heart was like that of birds and mammals, four-celled. It
would therefore follow--since birds and mammals are warm-blooded--that
Pterodactyls were also. Such, at least, is the view of Professor H. G.
Seeley, who says of the Cambridge specimens, "That they lived
exclusively upon land and in air is improbable, considering the
circumstances under which their remains are found. It is likely that
they haunted the sea-shores, and, while sometimes rowing themselves
over the water with their powerful wings, used the wing-membranes, as
the bat does, to enclose their prey, and bring it to the mouth.
"The large Cambridge Pterodactyls probably pursued a more substantial
prey than dragon-flies. Their teeth are well suited for fish, but
probably fowl and small mammals, and even fruits, made a variety in
their food. As lord of the cliff, it may be presumed to have taken
toll of all animals that could be conquered with tooth and nail. From
its brain it might be regarded as an intelligent animal. The jaws
present indications of having been sheathed with a horny covering."
Probably the large Pterodactyls of the Cretaceous period, soaring like
albatrosses and giant petrels over the surface of the ocean,
co-operated with the marine reptiles, such as Ichthyosaurs,
Plesiosaurs, crocodiles, and others, as those sea-birds now do with
the whales, porpoises, and dolphins, in reducing the excessive numbers
of the teeming tribes of fishes, and in maintaining the balance of
oceanic life.
With regard to the place of Pterodactyls in the animal kingdom,
Professor Seeley places them as a distinct sub-class, side by side
with birds, and between mammals and reptiles, thus--
Mammalia.
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Reptilia.
The name Ornithosauria (bird-lizards) is frequently used instead of
the other name, because it expresses the idea of their being partly
saurian, and partly bird-like.
They flourished from the period of the Lias to that of the Chalk; and
then, like so many other strange forms, seem to have suddenly
disappeared.