[1] For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H.
Chamard, _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900).
DUBLIN, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded N. by
Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow, and W. by Kildare and
Meath. With the exception of Louth and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest
county in Ireland, having an area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m.
The northern portion is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the
borders of Meath; but on the southern side the land rises into
elevations of considerable height. The mountains are chiefly covered
with heath, except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus
for the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered. There
are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of the county.
The mountain district is well adapted for timber. The northern coast of
the county from Balbriggan to Howth has generally a sandy shore, and
affords only the small harbours of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the
promontory of Howth, the coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and
between the town of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland's Eye an
unsuccessful artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on
the south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best in
the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies about midway
between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful bay of Killiney. North of
Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600 acres in area. Shell fish,
especially lobsters, are taken here in abundance. Small islets lie
farther north off Skerries; the most interesting of which is that known
as Inispatrick, reputed as the first landing-place of St Patrick, and
having the ruins of a church said to be the saint's first foundation,
though it shares this reputation with other sites. Ireland's Eye, off
Howth, is a very picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It
has afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river in
the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains about 12
m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m., empties itself into
Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so tortuous that 40 m. may be
traversed and only 10 gained in direction. The scenery along the banks
of the Liffey is remarkably beautiful. The mountains which occupy the
southern border of the county are the extremities of the great group
belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal summits are the
group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two Rock (1699 ft.) within the
county, and the border group of Kippure, reaching in that summit a
height of 2475 ft. The grandest features of these hills are the great
natural ravines which open in them, the most extraordinary being the
Scalp through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.
_Geology._--On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the
sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous
volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and
andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same series
occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large mass of
dark green porphyritic andesite (the "Lambay porphyry"). Silurian
rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the granite of
Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft. in height
only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone, seen at Donabate
and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone, which is often
darkened by mud and even shaly ("calpy" type). This rock produces a
fairly level country, both north and south of the valley of the
Liffey, although the beds are greatly folded. Beds of a higher
Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals near Rush. The rugged
peninsula of Howth, connected by a raised bench with the mainland, is
formed of old quartzites and shales, crushed and folded, and probably
of Cambrian age. The rocks of the county show many signs of
ice-action, and boulder-clays and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the
latter being banked up on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft.
or more. Much of this glacial material has been imported from the area
of the Irish Sea. Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at
Ballycorus.
_Industries._--The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no
doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage
and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live
stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large
proportion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those
beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures of
the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there is
manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, herring and
other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, and
Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The salmon
fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. As
containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications of the county
are naturally good, several important railways and two canals
converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of which they are
considered.
_Population and Administration._--The population (148,210 in 1891;
157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however, is not
consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman Catholics, the
Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next. The chief towns, apart
from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop. 2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey
(3398), Killiney and Ballybrack (2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and
Rathgar (32,602), and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These
are urban districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns.
There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city of
Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant and
Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in Dublin, and
quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan, Kilmainham,
Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the union with Great Britain, this
county returned ten representatives to the Irish Parliament,--two for
the county, two for the city, two for the university, and two for each
of the boroughs of Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary
divisions are now two, north and south, each returning one member. The
city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.
_History._--Dublin is among the counties generally considered to have
been formed by King John, and comprised the chief portion of country
within the English pale. The limits of the county, however, were
uncertain, and underwent many changes before they were fixed. As late as
the 17th century the mountainous country south of Dublin offered a
retreat to the lawless, and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of
the county received definition in this direction, along with the
formation of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government
67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of 1641
and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the most formidable
of the Fenian risings took place near the village of Tallaght, about 7
m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered from 500 to 700, were found
wandering at dawn, some by a small force of constabulary who, having in
vain called upon them to yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the
great bulk of them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn,
who captured them with ease and marched them into the city. There are
numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments are frequent,
and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan, with the large specimen at
Shankill or Rathmichael near the Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs
occur in Phoenix Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine
round towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump of
one at Rathmichael.
DUBLIN, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough and seaport, and
the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. It lies at the
head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which it gives name, about midway on
the eastern coast of the island, 334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead
route, and 70 m. W. of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For
map, see IRELAND.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.
_Site, Streets and Buildings._--Dublin lies on the great central
limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish Sea
to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river Liffey. Its
situation is justly admired. The populous shores of the bay are
exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west the country is
comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland here reaching to the
coast, but to the south the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains
practically touch the confines of Greater Dublin, affording
comprehensive views of the physical position of the city, and forming a
background to some of the finest streets. The municipal boundary lies
generally a little outside the so-called Circular Road, which may be
taken as encircling the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this
name on both the north and south sides of the river. As the city is
approached from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from
west to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a
fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the North Wall
quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this vicinity are the
docks. At the opposite (western) end of the city, the Phoenix Park may
be taken as a convenient landmark. Between this and North Wall the river
is crossed by twelve bridges, which, in order from west to east, are
these:--Sarah Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway;
King's, commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack;
Queen's; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a bridge has
stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan and Wellington;
O'Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying a loop railway. Of these
O'Connell bridge (formerly known as Carlisle) is the principal, as it
connects the chief thoroughfare on the north side, namely Sackville (or
O'Connell) Street, with Great Brunswick Street and others on the south.
Sackville Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth,
contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine Ionic
portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street and Earl
Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft. in height,
consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive pedestal, and
crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern end of the street is
Daniel O'Connell's monument, almost completed by John Henry Foley before
his death, and erected in 1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end,
is the Rotunda, containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it,
the Rotunda hospital with its Doric facade.
From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares
radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately joining the
Circular Road at various points. To the west there are the Broadstone
station, Dominion Street, and beyond this the large workhouse, prison,
asylum and other district buildings, while the Royal barracks front the
river behind Albert Quay. Two other notable buildings face the river on
the north bank. Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the "Four
Courts" (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican monastery of
St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796, and is adjoined by
other court buildings, the public record office, containing a vast
collection, and the police offices. Below the lowest bridge on the
river, and therefore in the neighbourhood of the shipping quarter, is
the customs house (1781-1791), considered one of the chief ornaments of
the city. It presents four fronts, that facing the river being of
Portland stone, in the Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The
centre is crowned by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This
building provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of
Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.
It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting
buildings are found. Crossing O'Connell bridge, the short Westmoreland
Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses the entire city
parallel with the river, and is known successively (from west to east)
as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame, College and Great Brunswick
streets. At the end of Westmoreland Street a fine group of buildings is
seen--Trinity College on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right.
Barely half a mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300
yds. beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These, with
the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently described in
the inverse order.
Christ Church.
The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older of the two
Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which Dublin is remarkable,
was founded by Sigtryg, a Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in
1038, but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from 1541. It was
restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge of Mr Henry Roe, a
merchant of Dublin, who also presented the Synod House. The restoration
involved the complete rebuilding of the choir and the south side of the
nave, but the model of the ancient building was followed with great
care. The crypt embodies remains of the founder's work; the rest is
Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the monuments is
that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to whom the earlier part of
the superstructure (1170) is due. Here the tenants of the church lands
were accustomed to pay their rents. The monument was injured by the fall
of one of the cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a
smaller tomb, ascribed to Strongbow's son, whom his father killed for
showing cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this
church, and parliaments also, before the Commons' Hall was destroyed in
1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. Here also the pretender
Lambert Simnel was crowned.
St Patrick's.
A short distance south from Christ Church, through the squalid quarter
of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the other Protestant cathedral
dedicated to St Patrick, the foundation of which was an attempt to
supersede the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies,
both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman
invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin;
but there was a church dedicated to the same saint before. It was burnt
about two hundred years later, but was raised from its ruins with
increased splendour. At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as
a cathedral, and the building was used for some of the purposes of the
courts of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university,
but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign of Mary, St
Patrick's was restored to its primary destination. The installations of
the knights of St Patrick, the first of which took place in 1783, were
originally held here, and some of their insignia are preserved in the
choir. This cathedral contains the monuments of several illustrious
persons, amongst which the most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of
this cathedral), of Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of
"Stella"; of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke
Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over
Schomberg's grave contains what Macaulay called a "furious libel,"
though it only states that the duke's relatives refused the expense of
the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the chain ball which killed
General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim, and the spurs which he wore.
The cathedral was restored by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a
fine statue by John Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed
by his son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh's
library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh, archbishop
of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological works and of
manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is deficient in modern
publications.
The Castle.
Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of ground, but
excepting St Patrick's Hall, the apartments are small, and the building
is of a motley and unimposing appearance, with the exception of the
chapel (a Gothic building of the early 19th century) and great tower.
The castle was originally built in the first two decades of the 13th
century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly the whole is
of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick's hall where the knights of
St Patrick are invested, are the banners of that order. Opposite the
castle is the city hall (1779), in the possession of the corporation,
with statues in the central hall of George III., of Grattan (a superb
work by Sir Francis Chantry), of Daniel O'Connell, and of Thomas
Drummond by John Hogan and several others.
Bank of Ireland.
The Bank of Ireland (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 85) occupies five acres, and
was formerly the House of Parliament. There are three fronts; the
principal, towards College Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order,
with facade and two projecting wings; it connects with the western
portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the quadrant of a
circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance of the House of Lords,
is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian order, made conformable
with the rest of the building not without difficulty to the architect.
The House of Lords contains tapestry dating from 1733, and remains in
its original condition, but the octagonal House of Commons was
demolished by the bank directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The
building was begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the
century; the remodelling took place in 1803.
Trinity College.
Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with a
Palladian facade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of Goldsmith
and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall called the Regent House. The
first quadrangle, Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with a
Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall (1787),
containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux, Burke, Bishop
Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted dining hall, also
containing portraits. A beautiful modern campanile (1853), erected by
Lord John George Beresford, archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the
university, occupies the centre of the square. Library Square takes its
name from the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the
Copyright Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in
the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early Irish
manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented Book of Kells,
containing the gospels. The building was begun in 1712. In this square
are the oldest buildings of the foundation, dating in part from the
close of the 17th century, and the modern Graduates' Memorial buildings
(1904). These contain a theatre, library and reading-room, the rooms of
the college societies and others. The schools form a fine modern pile
(1856), and other buildings are the provost's house (1760), printing
house (1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three
blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings of the
20th century include chemical laboratories. The College Park and
Fellows' Garden are of considerable beauty. In the former most of the
recreations of the students take place; but the college also supports a
well-known rowing-club. The college observatory is at Dunsink, about 5
m. north-west of Dublin; it is amply furnished with astronomical
instruments. It was endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity
College, was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under
the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose official
residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin was erected in the
years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to Trinity College, at the
expense of the university. A normal climatological station was
established in the Fellows' Garden in 1904. The botanic garden is at
Ball's Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the college.
The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College, Dublin
(commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that the
university consists of only one college, that of "the Holy and
Undivided Trinity." This was founded under charter from Queen
Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the
country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows, 25
junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is filled
up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after
examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics,
experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew.
Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were
bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except
five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until
1872. The scholars on the foundation (or "of the House") are chosen
from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathematics or
experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching to
scholarship (L20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge
made to other students) last for four years. Students after an
examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars.
Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times, pay
higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and have
certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining at the
fellows' table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to students of
limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees. They were
formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen, noblemen's sons
and baronets (_nobilis, filius nobilis, eques_) have the privilege of
forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the payment of
additional charges. The mode of admission to the university is in all
cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are awarded both
in connexion with the entrance of students and at subsequent stages of
the course of instruction, which normally lasts four years. There are
three terms in each year--Michaelmas (beginning the Academic year),
Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is called in his first year a
junior freshman, in his second a senior freshman, in his third a
junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior sophister. The usual arts
and scientific courses are provided, and there are four professional
schools--divinity, law, physic and engineering. The undergraduate has
certain examinations in each year, and four "commencements" are held
every year for the purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered
to students who wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or
certain colonial universities to Trinity College, by the recognition
of terms kept in the former institutions as part of the necessary
course at Trinity College. In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on
women, and in 1904 to establish women's scholarships. The funds of the
college, arising from lands and the fees of students, are managed
solely by the provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to
which and to the academic council the whole government of the
university, both in its executive and its legislative branches, is
committed. The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of
the senate elected by the fellows, professors, &c; the senate consists
of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep their
names on the books. The average number of students on the books is
about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett's Act, all
tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all grades
hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church were
thrown open to all. The university returns two members to parliament.
(See _Dublin University Calendar_, annual.)
There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in Dublin. The
permanent building of the International Exhibition of 1865 adjoins the
pleasure ground of St Stephen's Green. This building was occupied by the
Royal University of Ireland until its dissolution under the Irish
Universities Act 1908, which provided for a new university at Dublin, to
which the building was transferred under the act (see IRELAND:
_Education_). The new university is called the National University of
Ireland. At the same time a new college was founded under the name of
University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen's University
under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No teaching was carried on,
but examinations were held and degrees conferred, both on men and on
women. On the west side of St Stephen's Green is the Catholic University
(1854), which is under the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal
University. Between Trinity College and St Stephen's Green, a large
group of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1683 to
develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library and gallery of
statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the National Library, the
former with a noteworthy collection of Irish antiquities; the Museum of
Natural History, with a splendid collection of Irish fauna; and the
National Gallery of Ireland, founded in 1853. Here was once a residence
of the duke of Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of
Leinster Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College of
Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish Academy, with an
unequalled collection of national antiquities, including manuscripts and
a library; and the Royal Hibernian Academy of painting, sculpture and
architecture. In 1904 the formation of a municipally supported gallery
of modern art (mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh
Lane) was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended to
constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward VII. laid the
foundation stone of a college of science on a site in the vicinity of
Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupation of the site included,
not only the college, but also offices for the Board of Works and the
Department of Agriculture. The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural
Shows are held at Ball's Bridge in April, August and December.
The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are Roman Catholic
and principally modern. The lofty church of the Augustinians in Thomas
Street; St Mary's, the pro-cathedral, in Marlborough Street, with
Grecian ornamentation within, and a Doric portico; St Paul's on Arran
Quay, in the Ionic style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner
Street, also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the
finest modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, in the
Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre Royal, burnt
down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are chiefly found in the
neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and there should further be mentioned
the Rotunda, at the corner of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street,
a beautiful building of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital,
and used for concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are
used for agricultural shows.
_Suburbs._--To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here, besides
the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are a zoological
garden, a people's garden, the Wellington monument, two barracks, the
Hibernian military school, the "Fifteen Acres," a natural amphitheatre
(of much greater extent than its name implies) used as a review ground,
and a racecourse. The amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by
the purchase for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from
Island bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over.
To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for pensioners
and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison. To the west the
valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery, with the well-known
grounds called the "Strawberry Beds" on the north bank. In this
direction lies Chapelizod, said to take its name from that Iseult whom
Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is
Lucan connected with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin,
with its round tower, marking the site of the important early see of
Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens; Finglas, with
a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish cross; and Clontarf, a
favoured resort on the bay, with its modern castle and many residences
of the wealthy classes in the vicinity. South of the city are Rathmines,
a populous suburb, near which, at the "Bloody Fields," English colonists
were murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated for its
former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey and Killiney, with
the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pembroke, are the most favoured
residential districts. Howth, Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray
to the south, are favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of
actual suburbs.
_Communications._--The direct route to Dublin from London and other
parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by the London &
North Western railway with steamers to the port of Dublin itself, while
the company also works in conjunction with the mail steamers of the City
of Dublin Steam Packet Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m.
S.E. Passenger steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham,
Bristol, the south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and
Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving Dublin
are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus in Amiens
Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running north to Drogheda,
Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications through the northern countries;
the Great Southern & Western (Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone
and Cork; the Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan,
Sligo and Galway; the Dublin & South-Eastern (Harcourt Street and
Westland Row for Kingstown); and there is the North Wall station of the
London & North-Western, with the line known as the North Wall extension,
connecting with the other main lines. The internal communications of the
city are excellent, electric tramways traversing the principal streets,
and connecting all the principal suburbs.
_Trade._--Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so large a
city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A certain spirit of
foolish pride was said to exist which sought to disown trade; and the
tendency to be poor and genteel in the civil service, at the bar, in the
constabulary, in the army, in professional life, rather than prosperous
in business, was one of the most unfortunate and strongly marked
characteristics of Dublin society. This was attributable to the
lingering yet potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some;
while others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the
effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the woollen
trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained great celebrity.
The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists, who started extensive
factories in that quarter of the town known even now as the Liberties.
This quarter was inhabited altogether by workers in wool, and as the
city was small, the aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which
are now miserable memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English
legislature prevailed on William III. to assent to laws which directly
crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to England was
peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manufacture soon decayed. But at
the close of the 18th century there were 5000 persons at work in the
looms of the Liberties. About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture
of linen, and the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon
afterwards introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots,
who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the revocation
of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these enterprises were
passed, and they flourished apace. But the old jealousy arose in the
reign of George I., and in the reign of George III. an act was passed
which tended directly to the ruin of the manufacture. The linen shared
the same fate. Dublin poplins, however, keep their reputation. However
adverse influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little
for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous Guinness
brewery and others; but a considerable export trade, principally in
agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from the country. The total
annual export trade may be valued at about L120,000, while imports
exceed in value L3,000,000. To the manufacturing industries of the city
there should be added mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding.
Harbour.
By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available in the
harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was created in 1898 and
consists of the mayor and six members of the corporation, with other
members representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook
considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the 20th century.
These improvements, _inter alia_, enabled vessels drawing up to 23 ft.
to lie alongside the extensive quays which border the Liffey, at low
tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal basin, on the north side of the
Liffey, admits vessels of similar capacity. The Custom House Works on
the north side have about 17 ft. of water. With docks named after them
are connected the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north
and south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of
Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey,
doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon. The
docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller docks, are owned
by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels entering these, but not
those entering the docks under the Board.
_Government._--Dublin was formerly represented by two members in the
imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parliamentary borough was divided
into the four divisions of College Green, Harbour, St Stephen's Green
and St Patrick's, each returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of
Ireland occupies Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park.
Dublin is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of
the Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may be
noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children. On the
constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the positions and
duties of its corporation were left practically unaltered. The
corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen and 60 councillors,
representing 20 wards. The income of the body arises from rents on
property, customs and taxes. Under an act passed in 1875 the corporation
has the right to forward every year three names of persons suitable for
the office of high sheriff to the viceroy, one of which shall be
selected by him. The corporation has neither control over the police nor
any judicial duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing
with debts under 40s. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court for
debts over 40s., and for the settlement of cases between masters and
servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets and supervises weights
and measures and deals with cases of adulteration. Besides the usual
duties of local government, and the connexion with the port and docks
boards already explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the
corporation with such bodies as those controlling the city technical
schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of modern
art. The corporation has shown some concern for the housing of the poor,
and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904 included the provision of
cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at Clontarf, besides improvements
within the city itself. In 1905 a home on the model of the Rowton Houses
in London, provided by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A
competent fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city
coroner is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal
offices, has already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord
mayor is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan
police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being
protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large military
force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin, which is the
headquarters of the military district of Dublin and of the staff of
Ireland (q.v.). The troops are accommodated in several large barracks in
various parts of the city.
_Charities._--The number of charitable institutions is large. The
hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly called the Blue
Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted to the education and
maintenance of the sons of citizens in poor circumstances. Before the
Irish Parliament Houses were erected the parliament met in the school
building. Among hospitals those of special general interest are the
Steevens, the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard
Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes a
laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of Mercy, but
relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the Rotunda lying-in
hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incurables, Donnybrook, which
was founded in 1744 by the Dublin Musical Society; and the Royal
Victoria Eye and Ear hospital, Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904)
two similar institutions. Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick's
hospital, founded in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and
conducted by governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The
Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry, and placed
under the care of officers appointed by government, receives patients
from a district consisting of the counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath and
Wicklow, each of these contributing towards its expenses in proportion
to the number of patients sent in. Besides these public establishments
for the custody of lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various
private asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those
afflicted by gout) is Simpson's hospital (1780), founded by a merchant
of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at the Molyneux asylum
(1815). An institution for the maintenance and education of children
born deaf and dumb is maintained at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816).
The plan of the Royal hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first
suggested by the earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into
effect through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to
Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory of
Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars. The building,
completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir Christopher Wren, is an
oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-rooms, connected by covered
corridors. The fourth contains the chapel, the dining-hall, and the
apartments of the master, who is always the commander of the forces for
the time being. The Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park
(1765) provides for soldiers' orphan sons. The Drummond Institution,
Chapelizod, for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in
1864 by John Drummond, alderman, who left L20,000 to found the asylum.
The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen's sons was
established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at Clontarf. The
Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number of special charities, some
of them educational and some for the relief of suffering.
_History._--The name of Dublin signifies the "Black pool." The early
history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the inhabitants of
Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin in the year 291.
Christianity was introduced by St Patrick about 450. In the 9th century
the Danes attacked Dublin and took it. The first Norseman who may be
reckoned as king was Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in
the country as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel
established himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of
Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf, in which
he and his son and 11,000 of his followers fell. The Irish, however, won
the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city. Constant struggles with
the Irish resulted in intermissions of the Danish supremacy from 1052 to
1072, at various intervals between 1075 and 1118 and from 1124 to 1136.
The Danes were finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172
Henry II. landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court
there in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were
entertained with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them.
Previous to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government on
Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter "to his subjects of Bristol his
city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and his heirs for ever,
with all the liberties and free customs which his subjects of Bristol
then enjoyed at Bristol and through all England." In 1176 Strongbow,
earl of Pembroke, and chief leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in
Dublin of a mortification in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ
Church Cathedral, where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh
charter was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin,
who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but, like the
settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the native Irish; so
that two years after the date of this charter, whilst the citizens of
Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullenswood, they were set upon by the
Irish of the neighbouring mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene
of slaughter is still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday
denominated Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day,
with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens marched
out to Cullenswood with banners displayed--"a terror to the native
Irish." In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is to be found in the Red
Book of the Exchequer, was granted to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217
the fee farm of the city was granted to the citizens at a rent of 200
marks per annum; and about this period many monastic buildings were
founded. In 1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing
the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates.
During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315 some of the
suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them from falling into his hand.
The inroad of Bruce had been countenanced by the native Irish
ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were recorded in a statement addressed
to Pope John XXII. Some notion of the defence made against Bruce's
invasion may be gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to
supply stones for the building of the city walls. Bruce had seized
Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town, and brought
to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce. He was starved to
death.
Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of Robert de
Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same monarch entered
Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000 cavalry, bringing with him
the crown jewels; but after holding a parliament and making much courtly
display before the native chieftains, on several of whom he conferred
knighthood, he returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the
spoils of his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing
at Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny and
Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he remained a
fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as the chief
magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence of the
invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to England.
In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken Thomas (so called
because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet of his followers), a
young man of rash courage and good abilities, son of the Lord Deputy
Kildare, believing his father, who was imprisoned in the Tower of
London, to have been beheaded, organized a rebellion against the English
Government, and marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls
of Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame's Gate to St Mary's Abbey,
where, in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself a rebel. On his
appearing before the wall with a powerful force, the citizens were
induced through fear to give admission to a detachment of his troops to
besiege the castle; but, on hearing that he had met with a reverse in
another quarter, they suddenly closed their gates and detained his men
as prisoners. He then attacked the city itself; but, finding it too
strong to be seized by a _coup de main_, he raised the siege on
condition of having his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of
some of the principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much
vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this
rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536.
At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the Irish septs,
under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin Castle, was
disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day on which the
attempt was to have been made, and the city was thus preserved for the
king's party; but the Irish outside began an indiscriminate
extermination of the Protestant population. In 1646 Dublin was besieged,
but without success, by the Irish army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse,
under the guidance of the Pope's nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded
together "to restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman
Catholic religion." The city had been put in an efficient state of
defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but in the
following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the Irish, he
surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, commander of the
Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was totally defeated at the battle
of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines, in an attempt to recover possession.
The same year Cromwell landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the
parliament, with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his
career of conquest.
When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right to the
British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which passed acts of
attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants. The governor of the city,
Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued a proclamation ordering all
Protestants not housekeepers, excepting those following some trade, to
depart from the city within 24 hours, under pain of death or
imprisonment, and in various ways restricting those who were allowed to
remain. In the hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king
erected a mint, where money was coined of the "worst kind of old brass,
guns and the refuse of metals, melted down together," of the nominal
value of L1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and tradesmen were
compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged in case of
refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage was put into
circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, James returned
to Dublin, but left it again before daybreak the next day; and William
III. advancing by slow marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with
upwards of 30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St
Patrick's cathedral to return thanks for his victory.
In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps in
Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a reform in
parliament; but the House of Commons refused to entertain the
proposition, and the convention separated without coming to any
practical result. In May 1798 the breaking out of a conspiracy planned
by the United Irishmen to seize the city was prevented by the capture of
Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son of the duke of Leinster and husband of the
celebrated "Pamela." Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received
in the encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection
headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise, broke out,
but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some lives in the tumult,
and the death of its leaders on the scaffold. In 1848 William Smith
O'Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a rebellion in Tipperary, and the
lower classes in Dublin were greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely
and judicious disposition of the military and police forces the city was
saved from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern
conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to light. The
reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden with gunpowder in
the Liverpool docks, and another with L5000 and 2000 pike-heads in
Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended at one sitting by both
Houses of Parliament and about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few
hours. Dublin castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of
terror for several weeks together. For later history, see IRELAND.
See W. Harris, _History and Antiquities of the City of Dublin_
(Dublin, 1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _History of the City of Dublin_
(Dublin, 1859). The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt
with by a Norwegian writer, L. J. Vogt, _Dublin som Norsk By_
(Christiania, 1896).