[1] For the "drone," the male of the honey bee, see BEE. The musical
sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes from the
buzzing of the bee.
[2] British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), _Roman du Roy
Meliadus_, 14th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end 15th
century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13.
[3] _Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum_, pl. xi. No. 6.
[4] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp.
282-287 and p. 305.
[5] Plato, _Crito_, 54; Aristophanes, _Acharnians_, 865, where some
musicians are in derision dubbed "bumblebee pipers." See BAGPIPE;
also Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of the Organs
of the Ancients," _Intern. mus. Ges._ vol. ii. (1901), Sammelband ii.
pp. 188-202.
DRONFIELD, an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary division
of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield, on the Midland railway.
Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small river Drone, a tributary of the
Rother, in a busy industrial district in which are numerous coal-mines,
and there are iron foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron
and steel goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire,
is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular additions.
DROPSY (contracted from the old word _hydropisy_, derived from the Gr.
[Greek: udrops]; [Greek: udor], water, and [Greek: ops], appearance),
the name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of
the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy of the
subcutaneous connective tissue is termed _oedema_ when it is localized
and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is termed _anasarca_; the
term _oedema_ is also applied to dropsies of some of the internal
organs, notably to that of the lungs. _Hydrocephalus_ signifies an
accumulation of fluid within the ventricles of the brain or in the
arachnoid cavity; _hydrothorax_, a collection of fluid in one or both
pleural cavities; _hydropericardium_, in the pericardium; _ascites_, in
the peritoneum; and, when _anasarca_ is conjoined with the accumulation
of fluid in one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be
general (see also PATHOLOGY).
Dropsy (excluding "epidemic dropsy," for which see below) is essentially
a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely an exaggeration of a
certain state of health. Fluid, known as lymph, is continually passing
through the capillary walls into the tissues, and in health this is
removed as fast as it is exuded, in one or more of three ways: part of
it is used in the nutrition of the tissues, part is returned to the
general circulation by the veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any
accumulation constitutes dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a
disease in itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not
included under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in
composition according to its position in the body, but varies only
slightly according to the disease which has given rise to it. Its
specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the mineral salts present
are the same and in about the same proportion as those of blood, nor do
they vary with the position of the exudation. The quantity of albumin,
however, depends much on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the
underlying disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a
pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous. Also an
effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin than one due to
kidney disease. In appearance it may be colourless, greenish or reddish
from the presence of blood pigment, or yellowish from the presence of
bile pigment; transparent or opalescent or milky from the presence of
fatty matter derived from the chyle. The membrane from which the
dropsical fluid escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only
somewhat sodden by long contact with the fluid--the morbid condition on
which the transudation depends lying elsewhere.
The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood pressure being
raised beyond a certain point owing to venous obstruction. This may be
due to thrombosis of a vein as in phlegmasia dolens (white leg),
retardation of venous circulation as in varicose veins, or obstruction
of a vein due to the pressure of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and
renal dropsy are more complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is
probably due to diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when
unassociated with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the
starting point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring
in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the blood.
For accounts of the various local dropsies see HYDROCEPHALUS; ASCITES;
LIVER, &c.; general dropsy, or dropsy which depends on causes acting on
the system at large, is due chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or
lungs, occasionally on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes
or one of the anaemias.
Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to disease of
the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The natural tendency of
all diseases of the heart is to transfer the blood pressure from the
arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this has reached a sufficient
degree, dropsy in the form of local _oedema_ commences to appear at
whatever may be the most depending part of the body--the instep and
ankle in the upright position, the lower part of the back or the lungs
if the patient be in bed--and this tends gradually to increase till all
the cavities of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The
diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which obstruct the
passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema and fibrosis, and
thus act precisely like disease of the heart in transferring the blood
pressure from the arteries to the veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a
similar manner. The dropsy of renal disease is dependent for the most
part on an excess of exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial
and cardiac tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and
cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged,
brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases, in the
absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to appear first
about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes, where the vessels,
turgid with watery blood, have less efficient support. The dropsy of
chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy, a toxic condition of blood
being present in both; also other forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia,
tend to produce or assist in the production of dropsical effusions.
For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the articles on
the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly, however, tapping
of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are constantly resorted to in
severe cases. Dehydration by diet is very valuable under certain
circumstances when the dropsy is other than renal. And there is the
routine treatment by drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the
symptoms of the case may demand.
It may be well to mention that there are certain affections which may be
termed _spurious dropsies_, such as _ovarian dropsy_, which is only a
cystic disease of the ovary; _hydrometria_, dropsy of the uterus, due to
inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri; _hydronephrosis_, dropsy of the
kidney, due to obstruction of the ureter, and subsequent distension of
these organs by serous accumulations; other hollow organs may also be
similarly affected.
Having no known relation to the preceding is _epidemic dropsy_, the
first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the year 1877.
It disappeared during the hot weather of the following year, only to
recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878 to 1879, and once
again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then only isolated cases have
been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood of Calcutta, though
epidemics have broken out in other places both by land and sea. At the
end of 1902 an outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which
nearly one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable
feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or occurred
early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and upper limbs later
in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was accompanied by pyrexia,
gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in limbs and body, and burning and
pricking of the skin. Various rashes appeared early in the attack, while
eczema, desquamation and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was
very marked, giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic
dropsy. The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being
three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden, resulting chiefly
from cardiac and respiratory complications. The cause of the disease has
remained obscure, but there is reason to suppose that it was originally
imported from the Madras famine tracts.
DROPWORT, in botany, the common name for a species of _Spiraea_, _S.
filipendula_ (nat. ord. _Rosaceae_), found in dry pastures. It is a
perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an erect stem 2 to
3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence of small white
flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly allied species _S.
Ulmaria_, or meadowsweet.
Water Dropwort, _Oenanthe crocata_ (nat. ord. _Umbelliferae_), is a tall
herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The stem, which springs
from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout, branched, hollow and 2 to 5
ft. high; the leaves are large and pinnately divided, and the flowers
are borne in a compound umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial
umbels of small white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is
often mistaken for celery.
DROSHKY (Russ. _drozhki_, diminutive of _drogi_, a wagon), a light
four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Properly it consists of
two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This forms a seat for the
passengers who sit sideways, while the driver sits astride in front. The
word _Droschke_, however, is applied especially in Germany to light
carriages generally which ply for hire.
DROSTE-HULSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH, FREIIN VON (1797-1848), German poet,
was born at the family seat of Hulshoff near Munster in Westphalia on
the 10th of January 1797. Her early mental training was largely
influenced by her cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu
Vischering, who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his
extreme ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more liberal
education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman's lot. After
prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at Coblenz, Bonn and
Cologne, she retired to the estate of Ruschhaus near Munster, belonging
to her mother's family. In 1841, owing to delicate health, she went to
reside in the house of her brother-in-law, the well-known scholar,
Joseph, Freiherr von Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the
Lake of Constance, where she met Levin Schucking (q.v.); and there she
died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-Hulshoff is, beyond
doubt, the most gifted and original of German women poets. Her verse is
strong and vigorous, but often unmusical even to harshness; one looks in
vain for a touch of sentimentality or melting sweetness in it. As a
lyric poet, she is at her best when she is able to attune her thoughts
to the sober landscape of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her
narrative poetry, and especially _Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard_
and _Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch_ (both 1838), belongs to the best
German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic, and her
religious poems, published in 1852, after her death, under the title
_Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religiuser Gedichte_, enjoyed
great popularity.
Annette von Droste-Hulshoff's _Gedichte_ were first published in 1844
during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated into
English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her works is
that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hulshoff (Munster, 1886). The
_Ausgewahlte Gedichte_ were edited by W. von Scholz (Leipzig, 1901).
See Levin Schucking, _Annette von Droste-Hulshoff, ein Lebensbild_
(2nd ed., Hanover, 1871)--her letters to L. Schucking were published
at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, _Annette von Droste-Hulshoff und
ihre Werke_ (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten, _Annette von
Droste-Hulshoff_ (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900).
DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST, BARON VON (1773-1845), German Roman
Catholic divine, was born at Munster on the 21st of January 1773. He was
educated in his native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807
the local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned in
1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it again after the
battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement with the Prussian
government in 1820 led to his abdication. He remained in private life
until 1835, when he was appointed archbishop of Cologne. Here again his
zeal for the supremacy of the church led him to break the agreement
between the state and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his
installation, and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November
1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was not
re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His chief works
were: _Uber die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken_ (1817), and _Uber den
Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten_ (1843).
See Carl Mirbt's article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._
v. 23.
DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN (1763-1788), French historical painter, was born
at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His father, Francois Hubert
Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert Drouais, were well-known portrait
painters; and it was from his father that he received his first artistic
instruction. He was afterwards entrusted to the care of Brenet, an
excellent teacher, though his own pictures did not take high rank. In
1780 David, who had just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting
in Paris, and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils.
He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole time to
study--painting during the day, and spending a great part of every night
in designing. For weeks together it is said that he never left his
studio. In 1783 he was admitted to compete for the great prize of
painting offered by the Academy, the subject being the "Widow of Nain."
After inspecting the works of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost
hope and destroyed his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of
his master David that had he not done so he would have won the prize.
Next year he was triumphantly successful, the "Woman of Canaan at the
Feet of Christ," with which he gained the prize, being compared by
competent critics with the works of Poussin. He was carried shoulder
high by his fellow-students through the streets to his mother's house,
and a place was afterwards found for his picture in the Louvre. His
success making him only the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he
accompanied David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in
Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient art and
by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome at the time it was
finished, has recorded the deep impression made by his "Marius at
Minturno," which he characterizes as in some respects superior to the
work of David, his master. The last picture which he completed was his
"Philoctetus on the Island of Lemnos." He died on the 15th of July
1788. A monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students in the
church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata.
DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1763-1824), French Revolutionist, chiefly noted
for the part he played in the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born
at Sainte-Menehould. He served for seven years in the army, and
afterwards assisted his father, who was post-master of his native town.
The carriages conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier
stopped at his door on the evening of the 21st of June 1791; and the
passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized by Drouet,
who immediately took steps which led to their arrest and detection on
reaching Varennes. For this service the Assembly awarded him 30,000
francs, but he appears to have declined the reward. In September 1792 he
was elected deputy to the Convention, and took his place with the most
violent party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed
implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter of all
English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the army of the
north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge and imprisoned at
Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then became a member of the Council
of Five Hundred, and was named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the
conspiracy of Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into
Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in the
successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island, in 1797,
and later visited India. The first empire found in him a docile
sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second Restoration he was
compelled to quit France. Returning secretly he settled at Macon, under
the name of Merger and a guise of piety, and preserved his incognito
till his death on the 11th of April 1824.
See G. Lenotre, _Le Drame de Varennes_ (Paris, 1905).
DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING. To "drown" (a verb used both transitively and
intransitively, of which the origin, though traced to earlier forms, is
unknown) is to suffer or inflict death by submersion in water, or
figuratively to submerge entirely in water or some other liquid. As a
form of ancient capital punishment, the method of drowning is referred
to at the end of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly
associated with rescue-work in cases of accident.
Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the stoppage of a
supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain amount of
stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused oxygen from the
fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which it has taken from the
blood through the walls of the capillaries is driven out. This process
of exchange is ever proceeding, the whole of it being regulated from the
nervous centre at the base of the brain. When a person gets under water
and cannot swim, there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the
efforts to respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought
on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which threatened
to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to respire more water
is taken in and has to be swallowed. Meanwhile, the oxygen in the lungs
is gradually diminishing, the quantity of carbonic acid is increasing,
and at length the air in the lungs becomes too impure to effect an
exchange with the blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes
venous and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial blood
to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening pain becomes
apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility rapidly ensues. This
arises from the affection of the respiratory nerve centre. In a short
space of time the face becomes dark and congested through the veins
being gorged with blood, and the heart ultimately ceases to beat.
When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually rises to
the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This, with the water
swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms are moved above the head
when under water, he will, as a natural consequence, sink still lower.
The struggle will be prolonged a few seconds, and then probably cease
for a time, allowing him to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently
high to enable him to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he
will renew his struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result.
As soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing to the
loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There is a
general belief that a drowning person must rise three times before he
finally sinks, but this is a fallacy. The question whether he rises at
all, or how often he does so, entirely depends upon circumstances. A man
may get entangled among weeds, which prevent his coming to the surface,
or he may die through heart failure from the shock or fright of entering
the water.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--1st Release Method.]
On seeing a person struggling in the water in danger of drowning, no
time should be lost in going to his assistance, for he may sink at once,
and then there is danger of missing the body when searching under water
for it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer's task
is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the rescue the boots
and heavy clothing should be discarded if possible, and in cases where a
leap has to be made from a height, such as a bridge, high embankment,
vessel or pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best
to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always danger of
entanglement, and therefore progress should be made in the direction of
the stream. When approaching a drowning man there is always the danger
of being clutched, but a swimmer who knows the right way to deal with a
man in the water can easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he
finds himself seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the
swimmer to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and
keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes the effort
of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise be the case. To
the Royal Life Saving Society in England is due the credit of
disseminating, throughout the entire world, the ideas of swimmers, based
on practical experience, as to the safest methods which should be
adopted for release and rescue, and their methods, as well as the
approved ones for resuscitation, are now taught in almost every school
and college.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--2nd Release Method.]
If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms
simultaneously against the drowning person's thumbs, and bring his arms
at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the thumbs of the drowning
person if he does not leave go (fig. 1). If he be clutched round the
neck he must take a deep breath and lean well over the drowning person,
at the same time placing one hand in the small of his back, then raise
the other arm in line with the shoulder, and pass it over the drowning
person's arm, then pinch the nostrils close with the fingers, and at the
same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push away with all
possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the drowning person is
made to open his mouth for breathing, and as he will then be under
water, choking ensues and he gives way to the rescuer, who then gains
complete control (fig. 2). One of the most dangerous clutches is that
round the body and arms or round the body only. When so tackled the
rescuer should lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as
before, and either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of
his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself when
clutched round the neck. In any case one hand must be placed on the
drowning man's shoulder, and the palm of the other hand against his
chin, and at the same time one knee should be brought up against the
lower part of his chest. Then, with a strong and sudden push, the arms
and legs should be stretched out straight and the whole weight of the
body thrown backwards. This sudden and totally unexpected action will
break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the drowning
person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to land (fig. 3).
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--3rd Release Method.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Easiest method of carrying a person not
struggling.]
There are several practical methods of carrying a person through the
water, the easiest assistance to render being that to a swimmer attacked
by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning person who may be obedient and
remain quiet when approached and assured of safety. Then the person
assisted should place his arms on the rescuer's shoulders, close to the
neck, with the arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still,
with the head well back. The rescuer will then be uppermost, and having
his arms and legs free can, with the breast stroke, make rapid progress
to the shore; indeed a good pace can easily be made (fig. 4). In this,
as in the other methods afterwards described, every care should be taken
to keep the face of the drowning person above the water. All jerking,
struggling or tugging should be avoided, and the stroke of the legs be
regular and well timed, thus husbanding strength for further effort. The
drowning person being able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is
likely to cease struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--1st Rescue Method.]
When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems likely to do so
when approached, the best method of rescue is to swim straight up, turn
him on his back, and then place the hands on either side of his face.
Then the rescuer should lie on his back, holding the drowning man in
front of him, and swim with the back stroke, always taking care to keep
the man's face above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a
condition difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as
before, and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then
the man's arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body and the
rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke (fig. 6). He should
take particular care not to go against the current or stream, and
thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms be difficult to grasp, or the
struggling so violent as to prevent a firm hold, the rescuer should slip
his hands under the armpits of the drowning person, and place them on
his chest or round his arms, then raise them at right angles to his
body, thus placing the drowning person completely in his power. The
journey to land can then be made by swimming on the back as in the other
methods (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it will be of
much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the sides, as this
expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his buoyancy. The legs
should be kept well up to the surface and the whole body as horizontal
as possible. This avoids a drag through the water, and will considerably
help the rescuer. In some cases it may happen that the drowning person
has sunk to the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the
rescuer should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in.
In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water they
rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object higher up
the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also well to remember that
in running water a body may be carried along by the current and must be
looked for in the direction in which it flows. When a drowning person is
recovered on the bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or
shoulders, place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the
small of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--2nd Rescue Method.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--3rd Rescue Method.]
When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no time should
be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the meantime an attempt to
induce artificial respiration may be made. The first recorded cases of
resuscitating the apparently drowned are mentioned in the notes to
William Derham's _Physico-Theology_, as having occurred at Troningholm
and Oxford, about 1650. In 1745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the
subject before the Royal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man
dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William Tossack,
surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of resuscitation were
reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a society was formed at
Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently drowned, and to instruct the
common people as to the best manner of treating them when rescued, and
to reward the people for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested
the formation of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan
translated the memoirs of the Amsterdam society. Dr William Hawes
secured a copy and tried to form a society. There was, however, a strong
prejudice against the idea, but he publicly offered rewards to persons
who, between Westminster and London Bridges, should rescue drowning
persons and bring them to certain places on shore in order that
resuscitation might be attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the
saving of several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket,
until his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society was
founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was a means of
inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe of a pair of
bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air was forced into the
lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest, thus imitating
respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation work a kind of cradle,
in which the subject was placed, and then raised over a furnace.
Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling on casks, &c. were at various
times resorted to. Simple means are often as effective as the official
ones. In 1891 a subject was restored in Australia by being held over a
smoky fire, which is the native method of restoring life; while a few
years back, at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the
placing of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into
and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was restored.
One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr Marshall Hall
(1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method the operator takes his
place at the patient's left side, and places a roll of clothing or
pillow (which must be the same length as that used in the previous
methods), so that it may be in position under the chest when the patient
is turned over. The assistant at the head pays particular attention to
the patient's arms, that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the
wrists, elbows, hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face
downwards, with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a
firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the shoulder
blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side towards
himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the patient back again
until the face is downward, when the pressure on the back is to be
repeated. These three movements must be continued at the rate of about
fifteen times a minute, until natural breathing has been restored.
Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin Howard, of
New York.
When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that, any other
method, the first thing to do is to send for medical assistance. Dr
Silvester recommended that the patient should not be carried face
downwards or held up by his feet. All rough usage should be avoided,
especially twisting or bending of limbs, and the patient must not be
allowed to remain on the back unless the tongue is pulled forward. In
the event of respiration not being entirely suspended when a person is
lifted out of the water, it may not be necessary to imitate breathing,
but natural respiration may be assisted by the application of an
irritant substance to the nostrils and tickling the nose.
Smelling-salts, pepper and snuff may be used, or hot and cold water
alternately dashed on the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be
seen or felt or the heart's action heard, promotion of breathing, _not_
circulation must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on
his back, with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove
all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen the
braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at the head,
with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over until he is
lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm. He should then,
after the assistant has given one or two sharp blows with the open hand
between the shoulder blades, wipe and clear the mouth, throat and
nostrils of all matter that may prevent the air from entering the lungs,
using a handkerchief for this purpose. This being done, the patient
should be turned upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in
position by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied
round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back into the
mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this work has been
accomplished (it should only last a few seconds) the operator at the
head should lift the patient, handling the head and shoulders very
carefully, in order that the assistant may place a roll of clothing or
pillow under the shoulder blades. The roll being placed in position, the
operator will lean forward and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will
then draw the patient's arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the
head, until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms
in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them back
again and press them firmly against the side and front of the chest for
another second. By these means an exchange of air is produced in the
lungs similar to that effected by natural respiration. These movements
must be repeated carefully and deliberately about fifteen times a
minute, and persevered in. When natural respiration is once established,
the operator should cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and
proceed with the treatment for _the promotion of warmth and
circulation_.
Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted to, using
handkerchiefs, flannels, &c., so as to propel the blood along the veins
towards the heart, while the operator attends to the mouth, nose and
throat. The friction along the legs, arms and body should all be towards
the heart and should be continued after the patient has been wrapped in
blankets or some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should
be removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote
warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the stomach, and
bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c. to the armpits,
between the thighs and to the soles of the feet. If there be pain or
difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed meal poultice to the chest.
On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should be given;
and then, if the power of swallowing has returned, very small quantities
of wine, warm brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the
patient kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient
should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing does not
fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial respiration
should at once be resumed. While the patient is in the house, care
should be taken to let the air circulate freely about the room and all
overcrowding should be prevented.
In the Howard method there are only two movements; its knowledge is said
to be necessary in case the patient's arm be in any way injured, or a
more vigorous method than the "Silvester" deemed necessary, _but care
should be exercised not to injure the patient by too forcible pressure_.
The patient is laid on his back, the roll is larger than that used in
the Silvester method, and is placed farther under the back in order that
the lower part of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll,
the operator kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to
the head, lifts the patient's arms beyond the head, and holds them to
the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the tongue. The
operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking care that the
thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach, grasps the most
compressible part of the lower ribs, and with both hands applies
pressure firmly by leaning over the patient; then he springs back,
lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial respiration is thus
effected, and continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute.
When natural breathing has been restored, the treatment is the same as
in the Silvester method.
These methods have now been superseded by the Schafer method, which has
been taken up by the Royal Life Saving Society, a body instituted in
1891 for the promotion of technical education in life saving and
resuscitation of the apparently drowned. The Schafer method has much to
recommend it, owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which
the physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration may
be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required. It involves
no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any other organ, and as
the patient is laid face downwards, there is no possibility of the air
passages being blocked by the falling back of the tongue into the
pharynx. The water and mucus can also be expelled much more readily from
the air passages through the mouth and nostrils.
It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schafer, as
chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical & Chirurgical
Society for the investigation of the methods in use for resuscitation of
the apparently drowned, that the new method was devised. This committee
made many experiments upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any
definite conclusion by that means. The necessity then appeared of
thorough investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so
that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better known, and
the various methods of resuscitation properly tried. These experiments
were made in Edinburgh by Professor Schafer, with the co-operation of
Dr P. T. Herring, and the results obtained were embodied in the report
of the committee, which was presented to the Royal Medical and
Chirurgical Society in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86
of the _Transactions_ of the society. As the direct outcome of these
experiments, Professor Schafer was led to believe that a pressure method
of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform but also more
efficacious than any other. This conclusion was put to the test by
measurements of the results obtained upon the normal human subject by
the various methods in vogue; from these measurements, which were
published in the _Proceedings_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
December 1903, it appeared that when such pressure is exerted in the
prone position the highest degree of efficiency as well as simplicity is
obtained. The description of this method was communicated to the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society, and was published in the following year
(1904) in volume 87 of the _Transactions_ of the society.
Thus it came about that by investigating the phenomena of drowning, and
the means of resuscitation in dogs, and by applying the results obtained
to man, the method which the society now advocates as the best was
arrived at. In the experiments referred to, it was found necessary to
drown 38 dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in a
complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having been simply
drowned without anaesthesia. It is important that the public should
understand that the evolution of a method which will probably be the
means of saving thousands of lives has resulted from the painless
sacrifice of less than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any
case have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffocation,
but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were employed in the
experiments.
[Illustration: FIG 8..--Schafer method of treatment of the apparently
drowned. Position A.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Schafer method of treatment of the apparently
drowned. Position B.]
Professor Schafer describes the method as follows:--Lay the subject face
downwards on the ground, then without stopping to remove the clothing
the operator should at once place himself in position astride or at one
side of the subject, facing his head and kneeling upon one or both
knees. He then places his hands flat over the lower part of the back (on
the lowest ribs), one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws
the weight of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure
(fig. 9)--which must not be violent, or upon the patient's chest. By
this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the patient's
lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises his body slowly so as
to remove the pressure, but the hands are left in position. This forward
and backward movement is repeated every four or five seconds; in other
words, the body of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards
upon the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be
continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations
are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial respiration in
this way, others may, if there be opportunity, busy themselves with
applying hot flannels to the body and limbs, and hot bottles to the
feet, but no attempt should be made to remove the wet clothing or to
give any restoratives by the mouth until natural breathing has
recommenced.
In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903
Professor Schafer gave the following table of the relative exchanges of
air under different methods:--
+------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
| | Number | Amount of air |Amount of air |
| Mode of Respiration. | per | exchanged per |exchanged per |
| | minute.| respiration. | minute. |
+------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
| Natural respiration (supine) | 13 | 489 c.c. | 6.460 c.c. |
| Natural " (prone) | 12.5 | 422 " | 5.240 " |
| Prone (pressure), "Schafer" | 13 | 520 " | 6.760 " |
| Supine (pressure), "Howard" | 13.6 | 295 " | 4.020 " |
| Rolling (with pressure), | | | |
| "Marshall Hall" | 13 | 254 " | 3.300 " |
| Rolling (without pressure), | | | |
| "Marshall Hall" | 12 | 192 " | 2.300 " |
| Traction (with pressure), | | | |
| "Silvester" | 12.8 | 178 " | 2.280 " |
+------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
These experiments all tend to show that by far the most efficient method
of performing artificial respiration is that of intermittent pressure
upon the lower ribs with the subject in the prone position or face
downward. It is also the easiest to perform, requiring practically no
exertion, as the weight of the operator's body produces the effect, and
the swinging forwards and backwards of the body some thirteen times a
minute, which alone is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the
further great advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one
person.
See Taylor, _Medical Jurisprudence_; "Description of a simple and
efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human
subject, especially in cases of drowning," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.
(vol. 87, _Medico-Chirurgical Society's Transactions_); "The relative
efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in
man," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. _Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh_); _A Method for the Treatment of the
Apparently Drowned_, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); _Handbook of
Instruction_, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908). (W. HY.)
_Penal Use of Drowning._--As a form of capital punishment, drowning was
once common throughout Europe, but it is now only practised in
Mahommedan countries and the Far East. Tacitus states that the ancient
Germans hanged criminals of any rank, but those of the low classes were
drowned beneath hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned
convicts. The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a
sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The law
of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife should be smothered
in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment for women guilty of theft was
drowning. So usual was the penalty in the middle ages that grants of
life and death jurisdiction were worded to be "_cum fossa et furca_"
(i.e. "with drowning-pit and gallows"). The owner of Baynard's Castle,
London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, and his
descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, the most valued of
which was the right of drowning in the Thames traitors taken within
their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment ordained by Richard
Coeur de Lion for any soldier of his army who killed a fellow-crusader
during the passage to the Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for
women as being the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally
a male criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland
in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to be drowned
"by the queen's special grace." In 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh
for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 eleven gipsy women suffered there. By
that date the penalty was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland
till 1685 (the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last
execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria 1776, in
Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution the penalty was
revived in the terrible _Noyades_ carried out by the terrorist Jean
Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in Russia at the beginning
of the 18th century.
DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German historian, was born on the
6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. His father, Johann Christoph
Droysen, was an army chaplain, in which capacity he was present at the
celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen
witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation,
for his father was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate
neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French during the
greater part of 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the
foundation of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him,
like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated at the
gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; in 1829 he became
a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), one of the oldest
schools in Berlin; besides his work there he gave lectures at the
university, from 1833 as _privat-dozent_, and from 1835 as professor,
without a salary. During these years he was occupied with classical
antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of
Aristophanes, but the work by which he made himself known as a historian
was his _Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1833, and other
editions), a book which still remains probably the best work on the
subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German
historical thought, for it shows that idealization of power and success
which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. It was followed by other
volumes dealing with the successors of Alexander, published under the
title of _Geschichte des Hellenismus_ (Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and
revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885; it has been
translated into French, but not into English.
In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. He was at
once attracted into the political movement for the defence of the rights
of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the centre. Like his predecessor
F. C. Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the
estates of Schleswig-Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which
the estates protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter
the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected a member of
the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary to the committee for
drawing up the constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian
ascendancy, and was one of the first members to retire after the king of
Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he
continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl
Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with
Schleswig-Holstein, _Die Herzogthumer Schleswig-Holstein und das
Kunigreich Danemark seit dem Jahre 1806_ (Hamburg, 1850). A translation
was published in London in the same year under the title _The Policy of
Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein_. The work was one of
great political importance, and had much to do with the formation of
German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle
with Denmark.
After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he was
appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin,
where he remained till his death. In his later years he was almost
entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 he brought out a life
of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851-1852, and many later
editions), one of the best biographies in the German language, and then
began his great work on the _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_
(Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven volumes were published, the last not till
after his death. It forms a complete history of the growth of the
Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work,
shows a strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the
manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in
history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness that
also gave him so much influence as a teacher.
Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th of June 1884.
His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several well-known historical
works, namely, _Gustav Adolf_ (Leipzig, 1869-1870); _Herzog Bernhard von
Weimar_ (Leipzig, 1885); an admirable _Historischer Handatlas_ (Leipzig,
1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War.
Another son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history
and antiquities.
See M. Duncker, _Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf_ (Berlin, 1885);
and Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Leipzig,
1906). (J. W. HE.)
DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895), French man of letters, son of the
sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris on the 9th of June
1832. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of
1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies
of family life, published in the _Vie parisienne_ and issued in book
form as _Monsieur, Madame et Bebe_ (1866), won for the author an
immediate and great success. _Entre nous_ (1867) was built on a similar
plan, and was followed by some psychological novels: _Le Cahier bleu de
Mlle Cibot_ (1868); _Autour d'une source_ (1869); _Un Paquet de lettres_
(1870); _Babolein_ (1872); _Les Etangs_ (1875); _L'Enfant_ (1885). His
_Tristesses et sourires_ (1884) is a delicate analysis of the niceties
of family intercourse and its difficulties. Droz's first book was
translated into English under the title of _Papa, Mamma and Baby_
(1887). _Un Ete a la campagne_, a book which caused considerable
scandal, was erroneously attributed to him. He died on the 22nd of
October 1895.
DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), French writer on ethics and
political science, was born on the 31st of October 1773 at Besancon,
where his family had furnished men of considerable mark to the legal
profession. His own legal studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived
on the very day after the dethronement of the king, and was present
during the massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined
the volunteer _bataillon_ of the Doubs, and for the next three years
served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on the score of
ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post in the newly-founded
_ecole centrale_ of Besancon; and in 1799 he made his first appearance
as an author by an _Essai sur l'art oratoire_ (Paris, Fructidor, An
VII.), in which he acknowledges his indebtedness more especially to Hugh
Blair. Removing to Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the
like-minded Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on
this philosopher's advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he
produced the romance of _Lina_, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized as
a mingled echo of Florian and _Werther_. Like several other literary men
of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue office known as the
_Droits reunis_; but from 1814 he devoted himself exclusively to
literature and became a contributor to various journals. Already
favourably known by his _Essai sur l'art d'etre heureux_ (Paris, 1806),
his _Eloge de Montaigne_ (1812), and his _Essai sur le beau dans les
arts_ (1815), he not only gained the Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work
_De la philosophie morale ou des differents systemes sur la science de
la vie_, but also in 1824 obtained admission to the Academie Francaise.
The main doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will
never be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of their
duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by _Application
de la morale a la philosophie et a la politique_, and in 1829 by
_Economie politique, ou principes de la science des richesses_, a
methodical and clearly written treatise, which was edited by Michel
Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest work was a _Histoire du regne
de Louis XVI_ (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). As he advanced in life Droz
became more and more decidedly religious, and the last work of his
prolific pen was _Pensees du Christianisme_ (1842). Few have left so
blameless a reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he
remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.
See Guizot, _Discours academiques_; Montalembert, "Discours de
reception," in _Memoires de l'Academie francaise_; Sainte-Beuve,
_Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to
the _Economie politique_.
DRUG, a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division
of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in 1906 out of
portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. It has an area of 3807
sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 628,885, showing a
heavy decrease in the preceding decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and
1900. The district is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel
in the centre and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling
country. The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black
soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other
crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes
through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, is on the
railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population of 4002.
Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are carried on.
DRUG (from Fr. _drogue_, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span.
and Ital. _droga_; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly
be connected with Dutch _droog_, dry), any organic and inorganic
substance used in the preparation of medicines, by itself or in
combination with others, and either prepared by some method or used in a
natural state (see PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular
sense "drug" is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous
substances, and hence "to drug" means to stupefy or poison. The word is
also applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the
value has greatly depreciated--a "drug in the market."
DRUIDISM, the name usually given to the religious system of the ancient
inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The word Druid (Lat.
_druida_) probably represents a Gaulish _druid-s_, Irish _drui_, gen.
sing. _druad_. On the analogy of Irish _sui<su-vid-s_ the word has been
analysed into _dru-vid-_, "very knowing, wise." The ancient Welsh form
of the word does not exist. Welsh _derwydd_ and _dryw_ are probably to
be regarded as of recent coinage, as also the Breton forms _drouiz_,
_druz_. The important part played by the oak in the religious cults of
other countries suggests a connexion with Greek [Greek: drus], oak, but
this etymology is rather in disfavour at the present time.
We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most circumstantial
account of the Druids to be met with in the classical writers. He tells
us that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included among the
Druids or the nobles. In other words, the Druids constituted the learned
and the priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders
and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by Diodorus and
Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards and soothsayers.
Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive functions to the Druids than
they actually possessed. The substance of Caesar's account is as
follows. On those who refused to submit to their decisions they had the
power of inflicting severe penalties, of which excommunication from
society was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and
enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment of
taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after by the youth of
Gaul. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was
protracted, extending sometimes over twenty years. All instruction was
communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes they had a written
language in which they used the Greek characters. The president of the
order, whose office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life,
had supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was
immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural theology
were their favourite studies.
Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every year a general
assembly of the order was held within the territories of the Carnutes in
Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to offer human sacrifices, usually
criminals. Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or
soothsayers, known by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus,
an Aeduan, he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice
acceptable to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the
intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves between two
armies to bring about peace. They are said to have had a firm belief in
the immortality of the soul and in metempsychosis, a fact which led
several ancient writers to conclude that they had been influenced by the
teaching of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras.
A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise druidical
rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public
and private matters, but they no longer deal with cases of murder. Under
Tiberius the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the senate, but this
had to be renewed by Claudius in A.D. 54. In Mela we find the Druids
teaching in the depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their
activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According
to this writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration.
Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on that tree was
thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially the mistletoe. When
thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad
in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus,
in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the
Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being
awe-struck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with
hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible imprecations on the
heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame
such fears; the Britons were put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the
scene of many a sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.
After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are only
referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance,
apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of
Druids.
When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should expect, no
traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the conquest of Anglesea
mentioned above, except in the story of Vortigern as recounted by
Nennius. After being excommunicated by Germanus the British leader
invites twelve Druids to assist him. These probably came from North
Britain. In Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently
mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly
well to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers.
The functions of Caesar's Druids we here find distributed amongst
Druids, bards and poets (_fili_), but even in very early times the poet
has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally supplants him
with the spread of Christianity. The following is the position of the
Druid in the pagan literature. The most important documents are
contained in MSS. of the 12th century, but the texts themselves go back
in large measure to about A.D. 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do
not appear to have formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been
exempt from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected with
Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied by a number
of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of
learning his art, though what this consisted in we are not told. The
Druids are represented as being able to foretell the future and to
perform magic. Before setting out on the great expedition against
Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught, goes to consult her Druid, and just
before the famous heroine Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies
what sort of a woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the
magical skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the
land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman
named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is given a potion by
some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and
which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. More remarkable
still is the story of Etain. This lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem,
high-king of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god
Mider, who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has
recourse to his Druid Dal[=a]n, who requires a whole year to discover
the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of
yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description of the
band of Cathbu's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the _Cattle-spoiling of
Cualnge_ (Cooley): "The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and
observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise
their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against
the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire
are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland." We are further told
that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the
Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are able to produce
insanity.
In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented as
magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries, though we
find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters of Laegaire, the
high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They are represented as
endeavouring to prevent the progress of St Patrick and St Columba by
raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid
made an _airbe druad_ (fence of protection?) round one of the armies,
but what is precisely meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids
seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word _drui_ is always used to
render the Latin _magus_, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ
as his Druid.
See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques a
forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906), and _Introduction a l'etude de la
litterature celtique_ (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of
Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903). (E. C. Q.)
DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a friendly society founded, as an imitation of the
ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They adopted Masonic rites and spread
to America (1833) and Australia. Their lodges are called "Groves." In
1872 the Order was introduced into Germany. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)
DRUM (early forms _drome_ or _dromme_, a word common to many Teut.
languages, cf. Dan. _tromme_, Ger. _Trommel_: the word is ultimately the
same as "trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears
late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century), the name given to
the well-known musical instrument (see below) and also to many objects
resembling it in shape. Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar
shape, as a "drum" of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder,
round which belting is passed; of the _tympanum_ or cylindrically shaped
middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the external
auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure of a dome
when raised to some height above the pendentives. The architectural drum
had a twofold object; first, to give greater elevation to the dome
externally so that it should rise well above the surrounding building,
and secondly, to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical
windows cut in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome
itself, as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the
circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions were
built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of these great
circular blocks are found on the road between the quarries and the
temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter, being about 6 ft. high.
The term _frusta_ is sometimes applied to them.
In music the drum (Fr. _tambour_; Ger. _Trommel_; Ital. _tamburo_) is an
instrument of percussion common in some form to all nations and ages. It
consists of a frame or vessel forming a resonant cavity, over one or
both ends of which is stretched a skin or vellum set in vibration by
direct percussion of hand or stick. Drums fall into two divisions
according to the nature of their sonority:--(1) instruments producing
sounds of definite musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in
the harmony of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2)
instruments of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the
harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side or snare
drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for marking the rhythm
and adding tone colour.
Drums are further divided into three classes according to special
features of construction:--(1) instruments having a skin stretched over
one end of the resonant cavity, the other being open, such as the
tambourine (q.v.) and the _darabukkeh_ or Egyptian drum, shaped like a
mushroom; (2) instruments consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of
metal, wood or earthenware entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched
across the opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape
of a cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side
drum, &c.
Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to produce
vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment are taken up by
the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus reinforces the sound
produced by the parchment. The _tone_ of the instrument whether definite
or indefinite depends upon the dimensions of the vellum, the shape of
the resonant receptacle, and the method of percussion. The _intensity_
of the sound depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the
diameter of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the resonant
receptacle; the material of which the latter consists has little or no
influence on the tone of the instrument. The _pitch_ of the sound is
determined by the dimensions of the vellum taken in conjunction with the
degree of tension, the pitch varying in acuteness directly with the
degree of tension and inversely with the size of the vellum.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Military Bass Drum (Besson & Co.)]
The _bass drum_ or Turkish drum (Fr. _grosse caisse_; Ger. _Grosse
Trommel_; Ital. _gran cassa_ or _tamburo grande_) consists of a short
cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by vellum stretched
over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place by larger hoops fitting
tightly over them. At regular intervals in the two large hoops are bored
holes through which passes an endless cord stretched in zig-zag round
the cylinder and connecting the two hoops. The tension of the vellum is
controlled by means of leather braces which are made to slide up and
down the zig-zag of cord, slackening or tightening the large hoops, and
with them the vellum, at the will of the performer. Systems of rods and
screws are also used for the purpose. The bass drum is mounted on a
stand when used in the orchestra. The sound is produced by striking the
centre of the vellum on the one end of the drum with a stick having a
large soft round knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or
felt. The bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note,
but the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a mere
dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the braces; the
instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering it with a piece of
cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally written on a stave with
a bass clef, [Illustration: notes], the C being merely used to show the
rhythm and accents. Sometimes the stave is dispensed with, a single note
on a single line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every
orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the rhythm.
It is possible to make gradations in _forte_ and _piano_ on the bass
drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in moderate _tempo_. A roll
is sometimes played by holding a short stick, furnished with a knob at
each end, in the middle and striking in quick succession with each knob
alternately; two kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It
is understood that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum
unless the composer has written _senza piatti_ over the part. Wagner did
not once score for the bass drum after he composed _Rienzi_, but Verdi,
Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively. The bass drum was
formerly known as the _long drum_, the cylinder being long in proportion
to the diameter.
The _side_ or _snare drum_ (Fr. _tambour militaire_; Ger.
_Militartrommel_; Ital. _tamburo militare_) is an instrument consisting
of a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end. The
parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly down by larger
hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the vellums are tightened or
slackened by means of cords and leather braces, or by a system of rods
and screws. Across the lower head are stretched two or more catgut
strings called snares, which produce a rattling sound at each stroke on
the upper head, owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head
which jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by
direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations in the
air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these vibrations are
communicated to the lower head. The presence of the snares across the
diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon which gives the side drum
its peculiar timbre, changing the nature of the vibrations, now no
longer free: the snares form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double
the number of vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than
would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover, the
vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter is compelled to
vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.[1]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Guards pattern Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Regulation Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]
The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is struck in
the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated heads or knobs of
hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound when the drum is played singly
and in close proximity to the hearer; when, however, several drums are
played simultaneously or with other instruments the effect is brilliant
and exhilarating. The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately
with each hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a
rattling tremolo. This roll ("daddy-mammy") is very difficult to
acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be muffled by
loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk or cloth between
the snares and the parchment. An impressive effect is produced by a
continued roll on muffled drums in funeral marches. The notation for the
side drum is similar to that in use for the bass drum; the value of the
note is alone of importance; the place of the note on the staff is
immaterial and purely a matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single
line is often used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the
same staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the
side drum, such as
[Illustration: notes]
The _tenor drum_ (Fr. _caisse roulante_; Ger. _Roll-_ or _Ruhrtrommel_;
Ital. _tamburo rulante_) is similar to the side drum but has a larger
cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks the
brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for the roll in
military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the stage.
The _tambourin de Provence_ is a small drum with a long cylinder of
narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small pipe
(_galoubet_) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one stick only,
the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers the pipe. The
tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of the pipe and tabor
(q.v.).
The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient civilizations
is established beyond a doubt by the numerous representations of the
instrument in a variety of shapes and sizes on the monuments and
paintings of Egypt, Assyria, India and Persia. The _tympanon_, under
which name seem to have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as
well as the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks
and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it was
introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization into western
Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced by the crusaders,
but it was certainly known in England long before the crusades, for Bede
(_Musica practica_) mentions it in his list of instruments, and
Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes it. The side drum was, until the
reign of Elizabeth, of a much larger size than now and was held
horizontally and beaten on one head only. It is not known at what date
snares were added; Praetorius (_Syntagma musicum_, 1618) and Mersenne
(_L'Harmonie universelle_, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of
a side drum showing a snare appears in a book[2] from the printing press
of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords and braces.
Another woodcut of the same century is given as frontispiece to an
edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.[3] An actual side drum with two
curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient Egyptians was found during
the excavations conducted at Thebes in 1823.[4] It measured 1-1/2 ft. in
height by 2 ft. in diameter; the tension of the heads was regulated by
cords braced by means of catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and
wound separately round each cord so that these could be tightened or
slackened at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing
them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient Egyptian
straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums were used at the battle
of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad celebrating Edward III.'s victory
on this occasion appears in a chronicle of the 14th century, preserved
in the British Museum (Harl. MS. 4690),
"This was do with merry sowne.
With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto.
And loud clariones they blew also."
A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the "Englische
mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their trompes and pipers
pipenede loude and made a great schowte upon the Skottes."
Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken by the
Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.[5] Having mentioned
their great horns, he adds, "ils font si grand' noise avec grands
tambours qu'ils ont aussi." The same chronicler, describing the
triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347), gives the following
list of instruments used: "trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies,
muses."[6]
Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to give signals
in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and dragoons, and
kettledrums by the cavalry.[7] In the reign of Henry VIII. two drummers
were allowed to every company of 100 men. The chief drum beats used by
the infantry in the 17th century[8] were _call_, _troop_, _preparative_,
_march_, _battaile_ and _retreat_; these were later[9] changed to
_general_, _reveille_, _assembly_ or _troop_, _tattoo_, _chamade_, &c.
The side drum was admitted into the orchestra in the 17th century, when
Marais (1636-1728) scored for it in his opera _Alcione_. (K. S.)