_THE ARAUCANIAN WAR._
1550-1556.
The Araucanians inhabit the delightful region between the _Andes_ and
the sea, and between the rivers _Bío-bío_ and _Valdivia_. They derive
the appellation of Araucanians from the province of _Arauco_. They pride
themselves on being called by a native word which signifies “the free.”
As a race they are rather tall, muscular, and well proportioned. Their
complexions are of a reddish brown, but clearer than that of other
native Americans. Their round faces are animated by small eyes full of
expression. They have scarcely any beard, and the little hair which
grows on their faces is carefully removed. Their women are delicately
formed, and many of them are very handsome. Such are their good
constitutions, and so healthy is their mode of life, that they live to
advanced age, and seldom begin to feel its infirmities before sixty or
seventy. They are intrepid, animated, and patient in the endurance of
fatigue. Enthusiastic lovers of liberty, they are jealous of their
honour, courteous, hospitable, and faithful to their engagements; they
are likewise grateful for services, and generous and humane towards
their vanquished. These fine qualities are, however, shared by them with
others of an opposite nature, namely, ignorance, and a proneness towards
debauchery.
The Araucanians clothe themselves in short garments, as being best
suited for war. Their dress is made of wool, and consists of a shirt, a
vest, short trousers, and a cloak or _poncho_ similar to that worn
throughout South America. The prevailing colour of their garments is
turquoise blue. Their _ponchos_ are of fine texture, and ornamented with
coloured figures of flowers and animals wrought with much skill. They
wear on their heads bands of embroidered wool, and round their bodies a
girdle of the same material. The women are clad with much modesty and
simplicity, their dress being entirely of wool, and consisting of a
tunic, a girdle, and a short cloak. They live in scattered villages by
the banks of rivers or in easily-irrigated plains. They have strong
local attachments, each family preferring to live on the land inherited
from its ancestors, and of which they cultivate a portion sufficient for
their subsistence.
The political division of the Araucanian state is regulated with much
intelligence. It is divided from north to south into four governments,
called respectively the maritime country, the plain country, the foot of
the _Andes_, and the _Andes_. Each government is divided into five
provinces, and each province into nine counties. The state consists of
three orders of nobility, each being subordinate to the other, and all
having their respective vassals. They are the _Toquis_, the
_Apo-Ulmenes_, and the _Ulmenes_. The _Toquis_, or governors, are four
in number. They are independent of each other, but confederated for the
public welfare. The _Arch-Ulmenes_ govern the provinces under their
respective _Toquis_. The _Ulmenes_ govern the counties. The upper ranks,
generally, are likewise comprehended under the term _Ulmenes_. The badge
of the _Toqui_ is a battle-axe. The _Apo-Ulmenes_ and the _Ulmenes_
carry staves with silver heads, the former having a ring of the same
metal round the middle of the staff. These various dignities are
hereditary in the male line, and proceed by primogeniture.
The code of laws obtaining amongst the Araucanians is primitive, being
no more than unwritten usage. They have for their object the
preservation of liberty and of the established form of government. The
subjects are not liable to a levy or to any kind of personal service,
except in time of war; neither are they liable to be called upon to pay
contributions to their chiefs. The love of liberty is so ingrained in
the people that they cannot endure despotism, and they therefore oppose
any attempt to extend the power of their rulers. Whenever the grand
council determines to go to war they proceed to the election of a
commander, to which dignity the _Toquis_ have the first claim. The
general is for the time being dictator, the other authorities taking the
oath of obedience to him. On making war, messengers are despatched to
the confederate tribes to inform them of the steps taken. The _Toqui_,
or commander, directs the number of soldiers to be furnished by each
government, and as each Araucanian is a soldier by birth, an army of
five or six thousand men is raised without difficulty. The cavalry are
armed with swords and lances; the infantry with pikes or clubs. Strange
to say, this race of warriors had not acquired from their Spanish
neighbours the art of making gunpowder, at least up to the beginning of
the present century.
The Araucanians acknowledge a Supreme Being, the Universal Ruler; and
they are all agreed in the belief of the immortality of the soul. Their
year, which is solar, begins on the 22nd of December, corresponding to
the same day of June in northern latitudes. The year is divided into
twelve months, of thirty days each; and in order to complete the
tropical year, they intercalate five days. They have, as in Europe, four
seasons. The Araucanians cultivate successfully rhetoric, poetry, and
medicine. They are polygamists, celibacy being considered as
ignominious. Their principal food consists of grain and pulse. Indian
corn and potatoes are much esteemed by them. The latter vegetable has
been cultivated by their ancestors from time immemorial. They use but
little animal food or fish, although their rivers abound with the
latter. Their usual drink is beer or cider, and they are extremely fond
of wine. Their games are numerous and ingenious, and it is a fact worthy
of notice, that amongst them is the game of chess, which was known to
these warriors before the advent of the Spaniards. It is called
_comican_, whilst their game of _quechu_ has a great similarity to
backgammon.
[Sidenote: 1550.]
The Araucanians having resolved to send succours to the inhabitants of
_Panco_, gave orders to their _Toqui_ to set out forthwith to their
assistance with four thousand men. In the year 1550 their general passed
the _Bio-bio_, which river separates the Araucanian territory from that
of the _Pancones_, and offered battle to the invaders. After the first
discharge of musketry the Araucanians fell on the front and flanks of
the Spaniards, who, forming themselves into a square, received their
furious attacks with their accustomed valour, many falling on either
side. The battle lasted for several hours, Valdivia having his horse
killed under him. The Spaniards were thrown into disorder; but the
Araucanians at length withdrew from the field on their general Aillavalu
being slain. Valdivia, an experienced soldier, declared that he had
never been exposed to such imminent danger, and he showed his respect
for the valour and skill of his opponents by constructing a strong
fortification, in expectation of a further attack.
No sooner were the Araucanians informed of the death of their general
than they sent into the field a still more numerous army under the
command of Lincoyan. In the following year the new _Toqui_ marched
against the Spaniards, who took shelter under the guns of their
fortifications. Lincoyan, however, was a commander of the stamp of
Fabius, and, finding his first attack unsuccessful, ordered a
precipitate retreat--to the great surprise of Valdivia. So unexpected a
result was ascribed to St. Iago, who was seen during the fray mounted on
a white horse and armed with a flaming sword. But this miracle, adds
the candid ecclesiastical historian[O] from whom we quote, is not
entitled to the greater credit from its having been so frequently
repeated.
[Sidenote: 1552.]
Valdivia being now freed from the terror of the Araucanians, applied
himself with great diligence to building the new city, where he intended
to establish his family. In the division of lands he reserved for
himself the peninsula lying between the mouths of the rivers _Bio-bio_
and _Andalien_. The city progressed rapidly, and he employed himself in
regulating its internal police. His statutes discover much prudence and
humanity respecting the treatment of the natives. Believing that the
Araucanians were now daunted, he resolved to take the initiative in
attacking them; and with this intention, in the year 1552, he passed the
_Bio-bio_ and proceeded to the river _Canten_. At the confluence of this
stream with the _Damas_ he founded another city, to which he gave the
name of _Imperial_.
Carried away by his unopposed successes, he now displayed the customary
liberality of the Spanish conqueror in disposing of the property which
did not belong to him. Supposing that he had vanquished the most valiant
nation of _Chili_, he assigned to his followers the surrounding
district. To Villagran, his lieutenant, he made over the province of
_Maquegua_, with thirty thousand inhabitants. Other officers obtained
from eight to twelve thousand natives, with lands in proportion; whilst
Alderete was despatched with sixty men to form a settlement on the shore
of Lake _Laquen_. To this was given the name of _Villarica_, from the
quantity of gold found near it. Valdivia himself, still undisturbed by
the Araucanians, continued his march towards the south, where he founded
his sixth city, which he called _Valdivia_, being the first Spanish
conqueror who thus sought to perpetuate his name. This settlement,
which, like _Imperial_, enjoyed but a brief existence, is now only
represented by its fortress.
Valdivia, satisfied with his acquisitions, retraced his steps, and on
his return march erected a fortress in each of the three provinces of
_Puren_, _Tucapel_, and _Arauco_. Without reflecting on the enormous
extent of country which he had to defend with so small a force, he on
his return to _St. Iago_ despatched Aguirre, with two hundred men, to
conquer the provinces of _Cujo_ and _Tucuman_ on the eastern side of the
_Andes_. In the province of _Encol_ Valdivia founded his seventh and
last city, to which he gave the name of the _City of the Frontiers_, an
appellation which, although he could not have foreseen it, is singularly
applicable to the position of its ruins to-day, situated as it is on the
frontier of _Chili_ and the _Argentine Republic_. On his return to
_Conception_ he sent Alderete to Spain with a large sum of money and an
account of his conquests. He was to solicit for him in return the
perpetual government of the conquered country, with the title of Marquis
of _Arauco_.
Whilst Valdivia was employed in maturing his extensive plans, which
included the opening up of a direct communication with Europe by way of
the Straits of _Magellan_, there was a leading mind at work on the side
of the Araucanians with a view to thwarting the schemes of the governor
of _Chili_. An aged _Ulmen_ of the province of _Arauco_, named Colocolo,
having quitted his retirement, traversed the Araucanian provinces,
inciting his countrymen to zeal towards the deliverance of their
country. As a practical step towards this end, he implored them to make
choice of a new general to replace the dilatory Lincoyan. The age and
experience of Colocolo gave him weight with his countrymen; and,
accordingly, the _Ulmenes_, who were already of his opinion, assembled
to deliberate concerning the election. There were many competitors for
the office of general; but all at length concurred in the selection of
Colocolo, which fell upon the _Ulmen_ Caupolican, an officer whose
subsequent career fully justified the choice.
The new general having assumed the axe which was the badge of his
authority, immediately appointed as officers to serve under him each one
of his competitors, and even his predecessor. The Araucanians had such
confidence in their new _Toqui_ that they clamoured to be led at once
against the Spaniards; but their chief repressed this ardour until they
should be in a suitable condition to meet them in the field. When they
were so, he commenced his operations by a stratagem which was suggested
by an accident. A party of eighty natives, allies of the Spaniards, were
conducting forage to the neighbouring post of _Arauco_. For these, who
fell into his hands, Caupolican substituted a similar number of his own
men, whom he directed to keep their arms concealed in the bundles of
grass, and to take possession of the gates of the fortress until he
should come to their assistance. The stratagem succeeded so far that the
guard was surprised and disarmed. The remainder of the garrison,
however, succeeded in driving out the Araucanians and raising the
drawbridge just as their countrymen approached. The fortress was then
attacked, but unsuccessfully, when Caupolican determined to reduce the
place by famine.
After several sallies, the Spaniards resolved to abandon the fort and to
retire to _Puren_. Caupolican having destroyed this fortress, led his
troops to attack that of _Tucapel_, the commander of which likewise
retreated to _Puren_. This fort was also destroyed. No sooner had
Valdivia, who was at that time in _Conception_, learned of the siege of
_Arauco_, than he marched upon that place with such forces as he could
muster. On approaching within a short distance of the enemy’s
encampment, he sent forward Diego del Oro to reconnoitre with ten
horsemen. This detachment falling in with a party of Araucanians, were
all slain and their heads were suspended to trees. The Spanish
soldiers, on arriving at the spot, were so filled with horror at the
unlooked-for spectacle, that they were anxious to return. Their
commander, too, felt some misgiving at having disregarded the advice of
some of his senior officers, who had dissuaded him from advancing; but
he nevertheless continued his march, and on the 3rd of December 1553
came in sight of the enemy’s camp.
[Sidenote: 1553]
The two armies continued for a long time to observe each other. At
length Mariantu, who commanded the right of the Araucanians, moved
against the left of the Spaniards, who marched to meet him. This
detachment was surrounded and cut in pieces, as was another which was
sent to its assistance. The action soon became general, both sides
displaying equal valour, and having an equally brave example in their
respective commanders. The Araucanians, notwithstanding the slaughter
made amongst them by the firearms of the enemy, continued to supply with
fresh troops the places of those who were slain. At length, after a
great loss, they were thrown into confusion and began to give way,
notwithstanding the heroic exhortations of their leaders.
It was at this crisis that a young hero appeared upon the scene in the
person of Lautaro, an Araucanian youth of sixteen years of age, whom
Valdivia had formerly taken prisoner and caused to be baptised and made
his page. Lautaro, quitting the Spaniards, loudly reproached his
retreating countrymen, and exhorted them to continue the combat, as
their opponents, spent with fatigue, were no longer able to resist them.
At the same time grasping a lance, he led the way to victory, which at
once declared itself for the Araucanians. Of the Spanish army only two
escaped. These were Promaucians, who concealed themselves in a
neighbouring wood.
Valdivia, seeing that all was lost, had retired with his chaplain to
prepare for death. He was, however, pursued and taken, and was brought
before Caupolican. He pleaded humbly for his life, promising solemnly to
quit _Chili_ with all his followers. Lautaro interceded for his life,
which the Araucanian general was disposed to grant; but whilst he was
deliberating on the subject, an aged _Ulmen_, who had taken the measure
of Spanish good faith towards natives, was so enraged to hear the talk
of mercy that he lost his self-control. Calling out that they must be
mad to trust the promises of an enemy who would laugh at his oaths so
soon as he was free, he despatched Valdivia with a blow from his club.
Caupolican was exasperated at this proceeding, but it was applauded by
the majority of his officers. Thus fell the conqueror of _Chili_, a man
endowed, unquestionably, with a great mind and with superior powers of
organization and of governing, as well as with excellent military
talents. The modern Chilians may look back with satisfaction upon the
founder of their State as on one whose name is unstained by the horrible
cruelties towards the natives which attach to the memories of the
conquerors of _Peru_. Even at the time of the outbreak after the
settlement at _St. Iago_, it is to Valdivia’s credit that he merely cast
the ringleaders into prison. Pizarro would have ruthlessly burned them.
This victory was celebrated, as may be supposed, with great rejoicings
on the part of the Araucanians. When these were over, Caupolican, now
arrayed in the armour of Valdivia, presented the young Lautaro to the
national assembly as his lieutenant, and who was in future to command a
separate force. Meanwhile Lincoyan fell in with a party of fourteen
Spaniards, coming from _Imperial_ to the assistance of Valdivia. Of
these seven alone escaped to carry, severely wounded as they were, the
news of the rout of Valdivia’s force to the fort of _Puren_. The
inhabitants of that place and of the _City of the Frontiers_ upon this
retired to _Imperial_. The people of _Villarica_, for their part,
retired to _Valdivia_, thus leaving only two places to be attacked by
the Araucanians. Caupolican determined to besiege them, and committed to
Lautaro the care of defending the northern frontier. The latter, with
this view, fortified himself on the mountain of _Mariguenu_, on the road
to _Arauco_, and which has on its summit a large plain dotted with
trees.
Meanwhile the two Promaucians, who alone had escaped from the Spanish
rout, had reached _Conception_, filling that city with consternation.
The command now devolved upon Villagran, who, after making the necessary
preparations, commenced his march for _Arauco_. He crossed the _Bio-bio_
without opposition, but soon after encountered, in a narrow pass, a body
of Araucanians, by whom he was stoutly opposed. After a three hours’
fight, however, they were defeated, and withdrew towards the summit,
where Lautaro’s camp was pitched. Three troops of Spanish horse were
ordered to clear the difficult passage, and after great labour arrived
within a short distance of the summit. They were, however, received with
an incessant shower of stones and arrows; whilst the Araucanians were at
the same time exposed to a hot fire from musketry and from six
field-pieces. The mountain was covered with smoke; but Lautaro, in the
midst of the noise and confusion, did not lose his presence of mind.
Perceiving that the advantage of the Spaniards lay in their
field-pieces, he directed Leucoton, one of his bravest officers, to take
possession of them, telling him not to show himself again until he
should have done so. That brave warrior, being supported by a
simultaneous attack by Lautaro, succeeded in capturing the whole of the
cannon. The Spaniards, being thrown into disorder, took to flight,
leaving, as is said, three thousand dead upon the field.
Villagran himself narrowly escaped being made prisoner; but it was owing
to his desperate exertions to clear the pass during the retreat that any
survived of his unfortunate army. The Araucanians lost on their side
about seven hundred men. They were too exhausted to pursue the Spaniards
far. On reaching _Conception_, Villagran, deeming it impossible to
defend the place, placed the old men, the women and children, on board
of two ships which were in the harbour, with orders to the captains to
take them to _Imperial_ or to _Valparaiso_. With the remaining
inhabitants he set out by land for _St. Iago_. Lautaro, having crossed
the _Bio-bio_, found _Conception_ deserted. It rewarded his army with a
great booty, the result of its commerce and mines, and which the
citizens had no time to remove. Having burned the houses and razed the
citadel, the youthful victor returned in triumph to _Arauco_.
The commanders of the cities of _Imperial_ and _Valdivia_, both of which
were closely besieged by Caupolican, demanded succours of Villagran,
who, notwithstanding his late losses, was still in a position to send
them a sufficient number of troops for their defence. Under these
circumstances, the Araucanian general, despairing of gaining possession
of these places, retired with his forces to join Lautaro. Villagran
taking advantage of the retreat of the enemy, ravaged the country in the
neighbourhood of _Imperial_, to which place he transported all the
provisions that remained. To these calamities of war was at this time
added pestilence. In the above-mentioned incursions made by Villagran,
some Spanish soldiers conveyed for the first time to the Araucanians the
terrible contagion of small-pox, which made enormous ravages amongst
them. It is said that in one district, containing twelve thousand
persons, not more than one hundred escaped with life.
[Sidenote: 1555.]
Whilst the duty of opposing the Araucanians demanded all the efforts and
attention of Villagran, that officer was on the point of being compelled
to turn his arms against his own countrymen. Valdivia had left behind
him written instructions, to be opened in the case of his death. By
these his succession devolved in turn on Alderete, Aguirre, and
Villagran. The first being absent in Europe, and the second in _Cujo_,
the command, as has been said, was assumed by Villagran. Aguirre,
however, on learning the death of Valdivia, quitted _Cujo_, and with
sixty men returned to _Chili_, determined to possess himself of the
government. Civil war was on the point of breaking out; but with more
self-control and self-denial than was usually to be found amongst
Spanish conquerors, both aspirants agreed to submit their respective
pretensions to the Royal Audience of _Lima_. This court, which had at
this time jurisdiction over the whole of South America, left at first
the question in abeyance, but on reflection confirmed Villagran in the
command, ordering him at the same time to rebuild _Conception_. This
measure was carried out by him in opposition to his own judgment.
The natives of the country, indignant at the renewed prospect of a
foreign yoke, had recourse to their protectors, the Araucanians, who
sent to their assistance two thousand men under the command of Lautaro.
The young general passed the _Bio-bio_ without delay, and was met by the
Spanish force in the plain. On the first encounter, the citizens, struck
with panic, returned to the fort with such precipitation that the
Spaniards entered with them, killing a great number. The remainder
dispersed either on board ship or into the woods, finding their way as
best they could to _St. Iago_. Lautaro again burned the city and
returned to his usual station.
The successful result of this enterprise induced Caupolican once more to
undertake the sieges of _Imperial_ and _Valdivia_; whilst Lautaro, on
his part, engaged to make a diversion by marching against _St. Iago_. In
order to carry this project into execution, he selected but six hundred
men out of all who pressed to join his standard. With these he traversed
the provinces lying between the _Bio-bio_ and the _Maúle_, carefully
respecting the property of the natives. When he had passed this latter
river, however, he devastated the lands of the Promaucians, who were
attached to the Spanish interest. He then fortified himself in an
advantageous post on the _Rio Claro_, with a view to gaining information
respecting the city he proposed to attack. This ill-timed delay gave
breathing space to the inhabitants of _St. Iago_, who could not at first
believe in the reality of Lautaro’s advance. Villagran, being at this
time on the sick list, delegated the command in the field to his son,
whilst he himself proceeded to fortify the city as well as circumstances
might permit. Pedro Villagran attacked the Araucanians in their
intrenchments, but was entirely routed, his cavalry alone being enabled
to save themselves. Undismayed, however, by this experience, he returned
three times with fresh troops to the attack, being each time repulsed
with loss. He then encamped his army in a meadow, which gave the
Araucanians the idea of inundating it at night by means of the branch of
a stream. This design, however, was betrayed to the Spaniards, who
retired to _St. Iago_ in time to prevent its execution.
[Sidenote: 1556.]
The elder Villagran was now in a condition to take the field, and was
earnestly besought to do so by the inhabitants of _St. Iago_, who every
moment saw Lautaro at their gates. He at length began his march with
about two hundred Spaniards and a thousand natives. Proceeding
stealthily by the sea-shore after having quitted the main road, he was
guided by a spy at break of day towards the Araucanian encampment.
Lautaro, taken by surprise, hastened to the intrenchments, but was
pierced to the heart by a weapon hurled by one of the native
auxiliaries. On this unexpected event the fortifications were attacked
on all sides, and the Araucanians, after an obstinate resistance, having
declined all terms of surrender, were cut to pieces to the last man.
This signal victory was celebrated by successive three days’ rejoicings
in _St. Iago_; but the Spaniards, when once relieved of their terror,
were sufficiently generous to render a just tribute to the merits of the
Araucanian hero, who, at the early age of nineteen, had made them
tremble for the safety of their Chilian Empire.
NOTE.--It is to be noted that whilst Molina spells that country
_Chili_, Ovalle, like him a Chilian, spells the name _Chile_. The
etymology of the word, according to the latter writer, in so far as
I understand him, is derived from the south wind; but this may
refer to the name of the Southern Sea. He is not very clear in the
passage in question.--OVALLE, Book i. chap. xiv.