SOUTH AMERICA.
“Fall’n nations gaze on Spain; if freed, she frees
More than her fell Pizarros once enchain’d;
Strange retribution! now Columbia’s ease
Repairs the wrongs that Quito’s sons sustain’d.”
_Childe Harold._
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE
SOUTH AMERICA
DURING
THE COLONIAL PERIOD.
BY
ROBERT GRANT WATSON,
EDITOR OF “MURRAY’S HANDBOOK OF GREECE,” FOURTH EDITION, 1872.
_IN TWO VOLUMES._
VOL. I.
LONDON:
TRÜBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL.
1884.
[_All rights reserved._]
Ballantyne Press
BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
TO
_SIR JAMES HUDSON, G.C.B.,
ETC. ETC. ETC._
THE MOST DISTINGUISHED BRITISH DIPLOMATIST OF THE REIGN
OF QUEEN VICTORIA,
AS HAVING BEEN THE MEANS OF PUTTING AN END TO
THE SLAVE TRADE WITH BRAZIL;
AND LIKEWISE
AS HAVING CONTRIBUTED IN A MARKED DEGREE TO THE UNIFICATION
AND FREEDOM OF ITALY,
These Volumes
ARE, WITH THE HIGHEST RESPECT, INSCRIBED.
PREFACE.
The following account of the Colonies from which sprang the States of
South America owes its origin to the want of such a work felt by myself
some years ago. In 1866 I received the appointment of second Secretary
to Her Majesty’s Legation in the _Argentine Republic_ and _Paraguay_. My
previous experience having been in quite another part of the world, I
had all to learn respecting the regions which I was about to visit. The
only book which had been recommended to me was Sir Woodbine Parish’s
work on _Buenos Ayres_. On reaching my destination, however, I found
that this work was already out of date; I also found that there was a
considerable amount of literature respecting South America. But this
literature being partly in English, French, German, Dutch, Latin, or
Italian, and partly in Spanish or Portuguese, was only accessible to
persons possessing a reading knowledge of the above-named languages.
Of two years in South America I passed one as Secretary at _Buenos
Ayres_, and the other in a similar capacity at _Rio de Janeiro_. During
the first year I was sent up the _Uruguay_ and to the Province of _Santa
Fè_; then to the Welsh colony on the _Chupat_ river in _Patagonia_; and,
lastly, to the then seat of war in _Paraguay_: in the second year I
went on a mission to the Province of _Minas Geraes_ in _Brazil_. I had
thus opportunities of seeing different parts of the continent, and of
becoming more impressed with the want of a work giving anything like a
complete account of them.
On my return to Europe I was employed in several countries for a number
of years in succession, and have only recently found the necessary
leisure to compose a work of the kind mentioned. The materials at my
disposal are voluminous; but my effort has been to make this Review as
concise as is consistent with clearness. In offering it to the Public I
by no means desire it to take the place of the more elaborate and
original works referred to in it, but rather to serve as an Index to the
contents of these various works.
The History of South America may contain much of general interest; it
possesses, moreover, a special interest for merchants, settlers,
sailors, and travellers, who may have passed, or may be likely to pass,
a portion of their lives on the continent in question; nor should some
knowledge of an important portion of the globe be excluded from the
sphere of inquiry of any educated person.
That the merest elementary acquaintance with South American geography
and politics may be conspicuously absent even in educated English
circles, may be gathered from the following circumstances within my own
experience:--On my return to England in 1868, I happened to be present
on the annual speech-day at Harrow. At luncheon there I sat next to a
gentleman whose remarks on the unusual heat of the weather led to his
learning that I had recently come from _Rio de Janeiro_. His interest
being excited, he asked me to tell him, one by one, the several stages
by which one arrived there from England, viz.--Southampton, Lisbon, _St.
Vincent_, _Pernambuco_, _Bahia_, and _Rio_. When I had named the last
point he repeated the inquiry, “and then?” to which I replied that
_then_ one was at one’s destination.--“But,” he asked, “I thought _Rio_
was up a river?” I suggested that he was perhaps misled by the name
“_Rio de Janeiro_,” the River of January, but said that the town was
situated on an arm of the sea, which the first European explorers had
mistaken for a stream, naming it after the month of the year on which it
was discovered. But this explanation did not satisfy him. He was
thinking of some other river: would I name one or two? I suggested “_The
Amazons_,” which he said was the stream he meant, until I informed him
that it lay about two thousand miles to the _north_ of _Rio de Janeiro_!
On this he remarked that there was surely another great stream in that
quarter, and that he must have mistaken the name. I suggested the river
_Plate_, to which he answered “Yes, yes, of course;” but his
speculations collapsed when I informed him that the river _Plate_ was
about a thousand and fifty miles to the _south_ of the Brazilian
capital.
About the same time I met at a dinner-party a well-known Member of
Parliament, who, on learning the quarter of the world from which I had
recently arrived, professed himself as being most anxious to hear
something about the _Paraguayan_ War, then much talked of, and the
progress of which he said he had followed with close attention. I began
with a statement of the contending parties--namely, _Paraguay_ on the
one hand, and _Brazil_, the _Argentine Republic_, and the Republic of
_Uruguay_ on the other. “But stop,” he said “You have omitted to
mention _Corrientes_.” I answered that to quote _Corrientes_ as being
one of the parties to the war would be the same as to mention Yorkshire
as having been one of the principals of the Crimean War--since
_Corrientes_ was merely a province of the _Argentine Republic_. This was
a new light to him; the name had so taken hold of his memory that he was
at first inclined to argue with me as to the correctness of my
statement.
Lest this gentleman should appear exceptionally uninformed, I may
mention that, as I had subsequent opportunities of ascertaining, even
some men holding high office in the Royal Geographical Society--who were
familiar with the latest discoveries near the North Pole and in the
interior of Africa, with Central Asia, and with Australia--had somehow
in their range of study overlooked South America.
In writing history, one man necessarily builds upon another man’s
foundation. It was my first intention to compose a wholly original work,
comprising the history of the several states of South America from the
discovery of that Continent to the present day; but reflection convinced
me that the execution of such a plan would require the labour of many
years, even were all circumstances favourable. Various writers have
formed schemes, the labour entailed by the magnitude of which has led to
their collapse. As one example amongst many may be mentioned the scholar
Muñoz, who employed nearly fifty years in amassing materials for a
history of Spanish discovery and conquest in America, but who had
scarcely finished the first volume when he died.
Even were one to attempt to produce an entirely original history of the
early Portuguese South America, it would necessarily prove defective in
comparison with Southey’s “History of _Brazil_.” In the preface to his
work, that author says of it, under date of 1810, “For the greater part
of the last century printed documents almost entirely fail. A collection
of manuscripts not less extensive than curious, and which is not to be
equalled in England, enables me to supply this chasm in history. The
collection was formed during a residence of more than thirty years in
Portugal, by a relative. Without the assistance which I have received
from him, it would have been hopeless to undertake, and impossible to
complete it.” With the above instances before me, I have felt it
necessary to content myself with writing a historical Review respecting
the several Spanish and Portuguese Colonies from which sprang the
various countries which collectively form political South America.
R. G. W.
_London, 1884._
CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.
DISCOVERY OF THE MAINLAND OF SOUTH AMERICA: 1498-1503 1
CHAPTER II.
DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN: 1508-1514 22
CHAPTER III.
THE COLONY OF DARIEN; FATE OF VASCO NUNEZ DE BALBOA: 1514-1517 46
CHAPTER IV.
LAS CASAS; HIS COLONY ON THE PEARL COAST: 1515-1521 65
CHAPTER V.
DISCOVERY OF BRAZIL, LA PLATA, AND PARAGUAY: 1499-1557 86
CHAPTER VI.
DISCOVERY OF PERU: 1521-1528 105
CHAPTER VII.
CONQUEST OF PERU: 1529-1542 118
CHAPTER VIII.
CONQUEST OF CHILI: 1535-1550 142
CHAPTER IX.
EXPLORATION OF BRAZIL: 1510-1570 155
CHAPTER X.
PERU; REBELLION OF GONZALO PIZARRO: 1542-1545 169
CHAPTER XI.
PERU; THE PRESIDENT GASCA: 1545-1550 189
CHAPTER XII.
THE ARAUCANIAN WAR: 1550-1556 209
CHAPTER XIII.
THE ARAUCANIAN WAR (_continued_): 1557-1560 223
CHAPTER XIV.
THE ARAUCANIANS: 1560-1603 234
CHAPTER XV.
BRAZIL; GROWTH OF THE COLONY: 1570-1622 250
CHAPTER XVI.
PARAGUAY; ARRIVAL OF THE JESUITS: 1608-1648 265
CHAPTER XVII.
ENGLISH NAVIGATORS IN SOUTH AMERICA--HAWKINS,
DRAKE, AND RALEIGH: 1564-1618 280
APPENDIX 305
SOUTH AMERICA.
Book I.
CHAPTER I.
_INTRODUCTORY._
1498-1503.
[Sidenote: 1498.]
Until the approach of the sixteenth century the South American
continent, in so far as European knowledge was concerned, was without
form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep that
encompassed it. At that time the Spirit of God that moved upon the face
of the waters said, “Let there be light;” and there was light.
On the 30th of May 1498 Columbus set sail from _San Lucar de Barrameda_,
with a squadron of six vessels, on his third voyage of discovery, taking
a course much further to the south than that which he had hitherto
pursued. He stood to the south-west after leaving _San Lucar_; touching
at the islands of _Porto Santo_ and _Madeira_, where he remained a few
days, taking in supplies before continuing his course to the _Canary_
Islands. On the 19th of June he arrived at _Gomara_. Leaving _Gomara_
two days later, Columbus divided his squadron off the island of _Ferro_,
three of his ships being despatched to _Hispaniola_ with supplies for
the colony. With the three remaining vessels the admiral continued his
voyage towards the _Cape de Verde_ Islands, where he arrived on the 27th
of June.
Leaving the island of _Buena Vista_ on the 5th of July, Columbus stood
to the south-west. The volcanic summit of _Fuego_ was the last point
visible of the Old World. On the 13th of July he found himself in the
fifth degree of north latitude, in that region which extends for some
ten degrees on each side of the line, and is known among mariners as the
calm latitudes. There the trade winds from the south-east and
north-east, meeting near the equator, neutralize each other. The sea is
as a lake of oil, and vessels with their flapping sails appear as if
they were destined to remain stationary for ever. The calm lasted for
eight days, the air being like a furnace. The mariners lost all strength
and spirit beneath the oppressive heat. In addition to sharing the
sufferings of those around him, Columbus was at this time afflicted with
an attack of gout; but his energy of mind overcame his bodily distress.
To escape the heat he altered his course and steered to the south-west.
After making his way slowly for some time to the westward, through calms
and mists and heat, the admiral emerged into a region blessed by a
cooling breeze that filled his sails and dispelled the mists. The sky
became clear, and the sun no longer gave forth an intolerable heat. The
ships had been so dried by the parching weather that they leaked
excessively, and it was necessary to seek a harbour without delay. He
therefore kept on directly to the west; but as no land appeared, he
altered his course to the northward, in search of the _Caribbee_
Islands. By the 31st of July there was but one cask of water remaining
in each ship, when the man on the look-out gave the cry of “land.” Three
mountain tops were visible on the distant horizon; but as the vessels
neared them, these three were seen to be one. It was an emblem of the
Holy Trinity, after whom the pious Columbus in his distress had
determined to name the first land he should behold. There was thus a
peculiar appropriateness in giving to this island, which lies
immediately off the South American coast, the name of _La Trinidad_.
On the following day Columbus coasted westward in search of water and of
a convenient harbour. There was indeed no lack of water, for he beheld
groves of palm-trees and forests rising from the sea-shore amidst
running streams. He found the country cultivated in many parts, and
having villages and scattered habitations. It produced so pleasant an
impression on his mind that, in his letter describing it to Ferdinand
and Isabella, he compared its appearance to that of the Spanish province
of Valencia in the early spring. At a point to which he gave the name of
_La Playa_, he sent his boats on shore for water. The inhabitants had
taken to flight; his men found their footprints as they did the traces
of deer.
While coasting _Trinidad_, Columbus beheld land stretching twenty
leagues to the south. It was the low coast intersected by the mouths of
the _Orinoco_. It does not appear that either the admiral or any of his
men landed on this coast; and they sailed away from it, ignorant of the
fact that they were the first Europeans who had looked on the _terra
firma_ or mainland of South America. On the 2nd of August Columbus
continued his course to the south-west point of _Trinidad_, which he
called _Punta Arenal_, and where his crews were permitted to land and
refresh themselves. The anchorage at this place was, however, extremely
insecure, and in the night-time Columbus trembled for the safety of his
squadron, owing to a sudden rush of water caused by the swelling of one
of the rivers which flow into the Gulf of _Paria_, and which tore one of
his ships from her anchorage. He was, however, so fortunate as to escape
without injury, and on the following day he passed in safety the
formidable strait lying between the island and the mainland, and found
himself in a tranquil sea beyond. He was now on the inner side of
_Trinidad_, with the Gulf of _Paria_ on his left.
The admiral now shaped his course northwards, steering for a mountain at
the north-western point of _Trinidad_. On nearing it he beheld two
lofty capes opposite each other, the one on the island, the other on the
promontory of _Paria_, which stretches far out from the mainland.
Between these capes there was another strait, which appeared even more
dangerous than that he had left behind him, and to which, owing to its
formidable appearance, he gave the name of _Boca del Drago_, or the
Dragon’s Mouth. In order to avoid it he steered westward, under the
belief that the promontory of _Paria_ was an island. He found the
beautiful coast indented with fine harbours, and the country in some
places cultivated and in others covered with forest. He was greatly
surprised to find the water become fresher and fresher as he proceeded,
and likewise to find the sea as tranquil as if it were a vast harbour.
Up to this time he had held no communication with the people of the
mainland, although he had in vain endeavoured to enter into parley with
the inhabitants of _Trinidad_ at _Punta Arenal_. After sailing for
several leagues along the coast, he anchored on the 6th of August, and
sent his boats on shore. Although traces of men were found, not a soul
was to be seen. Columbus therefore proceeded further westward, and once
more anchored. Here a canoe came off to the nearest _caravel_, the
captain of which contrived to secure the three or four Indians which it
bore. They were brought to the admiral, from whom they received beads
and hawks’-bells, with which they returned delighted to the shore, and
which induced their countrymen to come to the ships in numbers, bringing
with them bread, maize, and other articles of food.
Taking with him several of these natives to serve as guides, Columbus
proceeded eight leagues still further to the westward, and anchored at a
lovely point, to which he gave the name of _Aguja_, or the Needle. The
country was highly populous, and was possessed of magnificent
vegetation. The natives were friendly, and invited the admiral, in the
name of their king, to come to land. Many of them wore collars of an
inferior kind of gold, which they called _guanin_. But what chiefly
attracted the attention of the Spaniards, was the sight of strings of
pearls which they wore round their arms, and which they said were
procured on the sea-coast to the north of _Paria_. In order to obtain
specimens of these treasures, Columbus sent his boats on shore; his
people being received with profound respect on the beach by the natives,
headed by their _cacique_, and being regaled to the best of their
ability. The Spaniards had no difficulty in obtaining the objects of
their desire, the Indians gladly parting with their necklaces and
bracelets in exchange for hawks’-bells or articles of brass. It is to
the credit of Columbus, in that age of violence towards inferior races,
that no act is recorded showing ingratitude for the favour with which he
and his men were received on this the first occasion when Europeans
mixed with inhabitants of the mainland of South America.
Still imagining the coast of _Paria_ to be an island, the admiral left
this lovely spot and again set sail, coasting to the westward in search
for an outlet to the north. He found the water, however, growing
shallower and fresher, so that he could not venture to proceed any
further with his own ship. He therefore came to anchor, and sent forward
a _caravel_ to ascertain whether there was an outlet to the ocean. On
the following day he learned, on its return, that there was an inner
gulf beyond, which contained the mouths of four great rivers, the waters
of which sweetened the neighbouring sea. As it was impossible to proceed
further westward, he had no alternative but to retrace his way and seek
an exit by “the mouth of the Dragon.” Although he would gladly have
remained to explore this opulent coast, he was compelled, as well by the
condition of his health as by the scarcity of sea-stores in his ships,
to hasten his departure for _Hispaniola_.
The admiral, therefore, on the 11th of August, set sail eastwards, and
was borne along swiftly by the currents. On the 13th, he anchored near
to the strait; and on the following day, towards noon, the ships
approached the _Boca del Drago_. The mouth of this formidable ocean-pass
is about five leagues wide; but there are two islands lying between its
extremities. The immense body of fresh water which flows through the
gulf in the rainy season, meeting the incoming waves, causes a terrific
commotion extremely dangerous to ships; and this was the first occasion
on which vessels were to go through it. The great navigator had neither
chart nor pilot to guide him; but fortunately no sunken rock obstructed
his way, and the current of fresh water prevailing over the incoming
waves carried him safely through.[A]
Columbus now shaped his course to the westward, along the outer coast of
_Paria_, which he still supposed to be an island; and he was borne still
further unconsciously on the same course (whilst he lay to at night in
order to avoid running on rocks and shoals) by the Gulf Stream which
sets across the Caribbean Sea. It took some time for him, with all his
experience, to realise the fact that this great body of fresh water,
brought by the rivers to the ocean, could not be the outcome of mere
islands, but must proceed from the _Terra Firma_ which was the object of
his search. On leaving the coast of _Paria_, the navigator saw to the
north-east, at some distance, in succession, the islands of _Tobago_ and
_Granada_, which form part of South America; but here we must for the
present take leave of the great sea-king;[B] for the limits of this work
merely include the continent of South America and the islands
immediately belonging to it. As the minute study of American geography
does not form part of the education of every one, it may be proper to
remark that the geographical limits of South America are perfectly
distinct from those of the various countries forming Central America, as
well as from the islands of the Spanish Main.
The next Spanish navigator who appeared in these seas was the celebrated
Alonzo de Ojeda, who had accompanied Columbus in his second voyage,
being then but twenty-one years of age. Through the influence of a
cousin of his own name, a Dominican friar, he had obtained from Bishop
Fonseca a commission, authorising him to fit out an armament, and to
proceed on a voyage of discovery, provided that he should not visit any
territories belonging to Portugal, nor any lands discovered for Spain
before 1495. It was stipulated that a certain proportion of his profits
should be reserved for the Crown.
With this license in his pocket, Ojeda had now to find the means of
turning it to account. He had a high reputation for courage and conduct;
but he was destitute of wealth. This element, however, was supplied by
some merchants of Seville, who had so much faith in him that they
believed he would soon find the means of enriching them as well as
himself. With their assistance he was soon enabled to equip a squadron
of four vessels, with which he set sail from St. Mary’s, near Cadiz. He
had on board several seamen who had accompanied Columbus to _Paria_, for
which coast Ojeda shaped his course. But the man on whom he chiefly
relied was Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus on his second
voyage, and who was one of the ablest mariners of the day. Ojeda had
likewise with him Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, then
established at Seville, whose fame arose, not from any part which he
took in this expedition, but from his published narratives and from his
subsequent voyages to another part of the South American continent.
Ojeda and his companions, who sailed from St. Mary’s on the 20th of May
1499, were guided by the charts which the admiral had sent home.
Touching at the _Canaries_, they followed the route of Columbus, and at
the end of twenty-four days reached the New World, about two hundred
leagues further south than the point where the admiral had landed, being
somewhat near _Surinam_. Thence Ojeda coasted northwards, passing the
mouths of many rivers, more especially the _Orinoco_. The first natives
they beheld were at _Trinidad_, the people of which are described in the
letters of Vespucci.[C]
After touching at several points of _Trinidad_ and of the Gulf of
_Paria_, Ojeda passed through the _Boca del Drago_, and then steered his
course to the westward along the coast of _Paria_, until he arrived at
_Cumana_ or the Gulf of Pearls. Thence he stood for the opposite island
of _Margarita_, which had been discovered by Columbus. This island and
others adjacent were now explored; after which Ojeda returned to the
mainland. At _Maracapana_ he careened his vessels and built a small
brigantine. The natives were friendly, and brought him abundance of
provisions, in return for which they besought Ojeda to assist them in an
expedition against the inhabitants of an island, who were wont to carry
off their people to be eaten.
Such a request was greatly to the mind of the enterprising Castilian,
and after sailing for seven days, he arrived at what are supposed to be
the _Caribbee_ Islands, one of which was pointed out by his guides as
the abode of their foes. His landing was at first stoutly opposed; but
on hearing the sound of his guns, the savages fled in terror, whilst
Ojeda and his men pursued them to the shore. The Carib warriors,
however, rallied and courageously fought for a long time, but they were
at length driven to the woods, leaving many killed and wounded. The
fight was renewed on the succeeding day with the same result, after
which the Spaniards set out on their return to the mainland, where Ojeda
anchored for three weeks, to give his men time to recover from their
wounds.
When his crew were again fit for the sea, Ojeda made sail and touched at
the island of _Curacoa_. Entering a vast gulf, he beheld on the eastern
side a village of strange construction. It consisted of a few large
houses, shaped like bells, and built on piles driven into the bottom of
the shallow lake. The houses were provided with drawbridges, and the
communication was carried on by means of canoes. In this slight
resemblance to the Queen of the Adriatic originated the name of
_Venezuela_, or Little Venice. The native name was _Coquibacoa_. At
sight of the ships the natives fled in terror, as did the rowers of a
squadron of canoes which entered the harbour from the sea. They soon
returned, however, bringing a peace-offering of sixteen young girls. The
peace was of short duration; at a signal from some old women the Indians
discharged a flight of arrows, and the girls plunged into the sea. But
Ojeda was in no way taken aback. Manning his boats, he dashed amongst
the canoes, sinking some of them, and killing and wounding a number of
Indians, whilst the remainder took to flight.
Leaving this inhospitable spot, Ojeda proceeded to explore the gulf and
reached the port of _Maracaibo_, where, in compliance with the
entreaties of the natives, he sent a party on shore to explore the
country. The Spaniards on this occasion were treated with the utmost
hospitality. Indeed the whole country poured forth its population to do
them homage, looking upon them and treating them as beings of a superior
race or world. The Spaniards were permitted to take away with them
several of the beautiful females of the country, one of whom accompanied
Ojeda in a subsequent voyage.
Ojeda, in his report of this voyage, stated that he met with English
voyagers near _Venezuela_, or _Coquibacoa_. Of the expedition here
alluded to, no other record has yet been brought to light. The
North-American continent had ere this time been visited in 1497, by John
Cabot, a Venetian, in the service of Henry VII., together with his son,
the celebrated Sebastian Cabot, of whom more will be said hereafter.
These navigators discovered the coast of _Newfoundland_ on the 24th of
June of the above-mentioned year, and coasted southwards as far as to
_Florida_. The Cabots were thus the first discoverers of the mainland of
America, having preceded Columbus by one year.
Ojeda continued his route along the western shores of the Gulf of
_Venezuela_, doubling Cape _Maracaibo_ and following the coast until he
reached the headland of Cape _de la Vela_, whence he stood across the
Caribbean Sea for _Hispaniola_. He reached Cadiz on his return in June
1500.
[Sidenote: 1499.]
Contemporary with this voyage of Ojeda was a similar one by Pedro Alonzo
Niño, undertaken, not with the object of discovery, but for gain. This
mariner sailed from Palos, and, following the chart of Columbus, reached
the coast of _Paria_, where he landed to cut dye-wood, and where he
established friendly relations with the natives. He, too, passed through
the _Boca del Drago_, and encountered the Carib pirates, by whom he was
boldly assailed, but who fled at the discharge of his artillery. Niño
and his companions then steered for the island of _Margarita_, where
they obtained a large quantity of pearls. They afterwards skirted the
coast of _Cumana_, and were invariably well treated by the natives; and
they inferred that this was a part of the mainland from the fact of
their meeting with deer and rabbits, these animals not having been seen
by them on any of the islands. Niño next proceeded to a country called
_Cauchieto_, where, however, the inhabitants, who had been visited by
Ojeda, prepared to resist his landing. Not wishing to provoke
hostilities, Niño returned to _Cumana_; whence, when he had amassed a
sufficient number of pearls, he set sail for Spain, where he arrived in
April
[Sidenote: 1500.]
The next Spanish navigator who furthered geographical discovery in this
quarter of South America was Rodrigo de Bastides of Seville, who set out
with two _caravels_ in October 1500, having with him the veteran pilot
Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus. Bastides had likewise on
board Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, afterwards the celebrated discoverer of the
Southern Sea.[D] This expedition extended the acquaintance with the
coast of _Terra Firma_ from Cape _de la Vela_ to the spot afterwards
named _Nombre de Dios_. Bastides has left a name for himself, as
distinguished from the great mass of his countrymen who appeared in that
part of the world, for his kind treatment of the natives. His vessels
became, unfortunately, pierced by the worm which abounds in those
waters, and it was with great difficulty that he contrived to reach
_Hispaniola_.
Alonzo de Ojeda, in consideration of his past services, received a grant
of land in _Hispaniola_, and likewise the government of _Coquibacoa_,
which place he had discovered. He was authorized to fit out a number of
ships at his own expense and to prosecute discoveries on the coast of
_Terra Firma_. It is said that one of the chief reasons for granting
this government, and the privileges which accompanied it, to Ojeda, was
the fact of his having met with an English expedition near _Coquibacoa_.
The Spanish sovereigns were alarmed at the idea of foreign intrusion,
and they wished to confide the most advanced post in their dominions to
a governor of the resolute valour of which Ojeda had given such abundant
proof. He was instructed to set up the arms of Castile and Leon in every
place he should visit, as a hint to the intrusive English that these
places had already been taken possession of.
[Sidenote: 1502.]
With four vessels, Ojeda set sail for the _Canaries_, in 1502, and
thence proceeded to the Gulf of _Paria_, from which locality he found
his way to _Coquibacoa_. Not liking this poor country, he sailed on to
the Bay of _Honda_, where he determined to found his settlement, which
was, however, destined to be of short duration. Provisions very soon
became scarce; and one of his partners, who had been sent to procure
supplies from _Jamaica_, failed to return until Ojeda’s followers were
almost in a state of mutiny. The result was that the whole colony set
sail for _Hispaniola_, taking the governor with them in chains. All that
Ojeda gained by his expedition was that he at length came off the winner
in a lawsuit, the costs of which, however, left him a ruined man.
We have now once more, in following according to time the progress of
discovery towards the Isthmus, to return to the voyages of Columbus. He
was already sixty-six years of age when he embarked on his fourth and
last voyage. His squadron, consisting of four small _caravels_, set out
from Cadiz on the 9th of May 1502, and, after some delay on the coast of
Morocco, reached the _Caribbee_ Islands on the 15th of June. Having been
refused admission to enter the port of _San Domingo_, Columbus, after
riding out a fearful storm, sailed for some time along the coast of
_Honduras_, with the object, which was ever before him in this
expedition, of finding a supposed strait opening out into the Indian
Ocean. On the 17th of October he arrived off the coast of _Veragua_,
where he found the natives possessed of many ornaments of gold. The
Spaniards likewise found in this quarter the first signs of solid
architecture which they had discovered in the New World.
The great discoverer is honourably distinguished from others in that the
advancement of science, rather than the acquisition of the precious
metals, was the object of his quest. Although told by his interpreters,
when sailing along the coast of _Veragua_, that in five towns which he
passed he might obtain great quantities of gold, and although the
natives placed so little value on objects of this mineral that they were
always ready to exchange them for Spanish trifles, Columbus preferred to
continue his course in order the sooner to arrive at the supposed
strait. “I would not rob nor outrage the country,” says the admiral in
one of his letters, “since reason requires that it should be settled,
and then the gold may be procured without violence.” Columbus was an
Italian; but it is safe to affirm that the sentiment expressed in the
above sentence would not have been uttered by any one amongst the
Spanish adventurers of the period.
On the 2nd of November Columbus reached the spacious harbour of _Porto
Bello_, so named by its illustrious discoverer, and which was destined
afterwards to hold so important a position as being the spot where the
yearly fleet of _galleons_ discharged its cargoes of European
commodities for the supply of Spanish South America. The admiral found
the neighbouring country open and cultivated, the houses surrounded by
fruit-trees and groves of palms, and the fields producing maize,
vegetables, and pine-apples. After a week’s delay, Columbus proceeded
eastward to the point afterwards known as _Nombre de Dios_. His vessels,
however, now began to be pierced by the tropical worm. Landing,
therefore, in a small harbour, to which he gave the name of _El
Retrete_, he found himself in such inconveniently close vicinity to the
shore, that troubles soon arose between the natives and his unruly
seamen; and these were not quelled without some display of force. It was
at this point that the great navigator at length consented to relinquish
his long and painful search after the supposed strait. Indeed, though he
knew it not, the whole coast along the Isthmus had now been navigated by
expeditions starting from opposite directions. In compliance with the
wishes of his companions, the admiral now agreed to return to the coast
of _Veragua_.
With the above object in view, the expedition sailed from _El Retrete_
on the 5th of December, but it was only to encounter a continuance of
the most stormy weather, in which the _caravels_ were tossed about day
and night, and subjected to the most serious risk of being swamped. On
the 17th they entered a port resembling a canal, where they enjoyed some
days’ repose. On leaving this place of refuge they were again tossed
about until the day after Christmas, when they entered another port, in
which one of the vessels was repaired. On the day of Epiphany, to their
great joy, they anchored in a river close to that of _Veragua_, to which
Columbus, in honour of the day, gave the name of _Belen_ or Bethlehem.
The accounts which the Spaniards had received were now confirmed by what
they saw. In exchange for articles of the most trifling nature, they
procured ornaments of gold of considerable value; and _Don_ Bartholomew,
the admiral’s brother, set off in armed boats to ascend the _Veragua_,
as far as to the residence of the _Cacique_ Quibian. By him he was
hospitably entertained, receiving from him the golden ornaments which he
wore. But the ships and mariners were not long to rest in quietness,
even under the shelter of a river; for a sudden swelling of the waters
drove them from their anchors and tossed them helplessly against each
other; whilst they were prevented by a violent storm from seeking safety
at sea.
Early in February, _Don_ Bartholomew again proceeded with an armed party
to explore _Veragua_, and to seek for the mines. He was misled by the
_cacique_, who directed him into the territories of a neighbouring
chief, with whom he was at war. The _Adelantado_, however, on finding
his mistake, set out on a second excursion, during the course of which
he was continually met by proofs of abundance of gold, the natives
generally wearing plates of that metal suspended from their necks. He
was entertained in a friendly manner by the _caciques_ whom he visited,
and he found the country cultivated.
On hearing the report of his brother, Columbus resolved to set up a
colony on this promising coast, with the object of securing possession
of the country and of exploring the mines. The _Adelantado_ was to
remain with the greater part of the expedition, whilst the admiral
should return to Spain. On this resolve being taken, no time was allowed
to be lost. Eighty men were to be left behind, and these were forthwith
employed in building houses and a magazine. The chief portion of the
artillery and ammunition was stored on board of one of the _caravels_,
which was to be left for the use of the colony. Although the stores were
somewhat scarce, no apprehension was felt lest provisions should run
short; for the country produced fruits and grain in abundance, whilst
the rivers and sea-coast supplied large quantities of fish.
Such was the condition of affairs, and Columbus was on the point of
departing, when an unlooked-for obstacle occurred to delay him. He could
not of course anticipate the various changes of season in this strange
country. The river, which had but recently been a source of danger to
him from its becoming flooded, now suddenly became so dry that there was
but half a fathom of water on its bar; and over this it was impossible
even for the admiral’s small vessel to pass. He had no remedy,
therefore, but to have recourse to patience--that virtue of which he
stood so much in need throughout his memorable career--and to await the
return of the rainy season.
Meanwhile the _Cacique_ Quibian, as was but natural, looked with
jealousy upon the proceedings of the strangers who were making
themselves so much at home within his territories. Under pretext of
preparing for war upon a neighbouring chief, he summoned his fighting
men to assemble on the river _Veragua_. But suspicion was aroused in the
mind of the admiral’s notary, who obtained permission to reconnoitre the
Indian camp. On his return, he gave it as his opinion that a large party
of natives whom he had observed on the march had been on their way to
surprise the Spanish settlement. Columbus, being unwilling to accept
this view without further confirmation, gave permission to Mendez to
proceed on a second scouting expedition, the result of which was such as
to dispel his doubts; whilst any lingering disbelief was banished by
information conveyed to him by a native who had acted as interpreter,
and who revealed to the admiral the designs of his countrymen, which he
had overheard. It had been the intention of Quibian to surprise the
harbour at night; to burn the ships and houses; and to effect a general
massacre.
In view of the above disclosures, Columbus set a double watch upon the
harbour: but his brother, the _Adelantado_, resolved upon more vigorous
measures. At the head of seventy-four men, together with the
interpreter, he set off in boats for the _Veragua_, and landed below the
house of Quibian, before the latter had notice of his movements. Then
taking with him only five men, he ascended the hill, ordering the others
to follow with great caution. On a given signal they were to surround
the dwelling. The _cacique_ was seized by _Don_ Bartholomew, and, after
a violent struggle, was bound hand and foot. His household, consisting
of about fifty persons, were likewise made prisoners; and so well were
the _Adelantado’s_ measures taken that no blood was shed on the
occasion.
Committing his prize to the care of his pilot, with orders to take him
on board his boat, the _Adelantado_, with a portion of his men, set out
in pursuit of the Indians who had escaped. But the wily _cacique_ was
more than a match for the honest pilot. On his complaining piteously of
the pain caused by his bonds, the soft-hearted Sanchez was induced to
loosen the cord; upon which Quibian, watching his opportunity, plunged
into the water and disappeared. On the following morning the
_Adelantado_, being convinced of the futility of pursuit, returned to
the ships with the spoils of Quibian’s mansion, which amounted to the
insignificant value of three hundred ducats.
All was now apparently tranquil; and the rainy season having once more
set in, Columbus took leave of his brother, and got under weigh with
three of the _caravels_, leaving the fourth for the use of the
settlement. The ships, having been towed over the bar, anchored within a
league of the shore, to await a favourable wind. It was the intention of
the admiral to touch at _Hispaniola_, and thence to send his brother
supplies and reinforcements. As the adverse wind detained him for some
time, he sent a boat on shore to procure wood and water. It was well for
the colony that he did so. The _Cacique_ Quibian had not perished, as
was supposed, but had found his way ashore. When he saw the vessels
bearing his family to afar, he was driven to despair, and thought only
of vengeance. Assembling his warriors, he approached the settlement
secretly, and fell upon the Spaniards when they were completely off
their guard. After a severe struggle, the Indians were driven back, but
not before they had killed one Spaniard and wounded eight others.
Notwithstanding this warning, the boat’s crew sent by Columbus proceeded
up the river, and, being surprised by the Indians, were cut off, one
man alone escaping.
This misfortune filled the colony with dismay, more especially as the
Indians forthwith renewed hostilities. As it was considered no longer
safe to remain in the fortress, owing to its vicinity to the wood, the
_Adelantado_ erected a barricade in an open space by the sea. The
Indians were deterred by the firearms of the Spaniards from venturing
forth from the forest; but the latter looked forward with the utmost
dread to the hour when the ammunition should be exhausted, and when they
should be driven forth in search of food.
In the meanwhile Columbus was subjected to scarcely less anxiety. The
non-return of his boat foreboded disaster; and he did not venture to
risk his only remaining boat, on account of the heavy surf on the shore.
An occurrence had also taken place which added not a little to the gloom
on board of the squadron. It had been the intention of Columbus to carry
Quibian’s family to Spain, as hostages for the good behaviour of the
Indians during his absence. The captives, however, were determined to
secure their liberty, if possible. The hatchway above the forecastle
where they slept had not been fastened, as it was out of reach of the
prisoners, and as some of the crew slept upon it. This neglect being
observed by the captives, despair lent them ingenuity. Collecting
together a quantity of the ballast, they raised a heap beneath the
hatchway. Several Indians mounting on the stones, by a simultaneous
effort, then raised it, violently dislodging the sleeping seamen. The
Indians instantly sprang forth, and many, plunging into the sea, swam
ashore. Some, however, were caught and forced back into their place of
imprisonment. In the morning it was found that all the prisoners had
hanged themselves.
[Sidenote: 1503.]
In this state of perplexity, one brave man volunteered to bring relief
to the admiral’s mind. Pedro Ledesma of Seville offered, if the boat
should take him to the edge of the surf, to swim ashore through it, a
feat which he successfully accomplished. He returned to the ships, to
tell his commander that the _Adelantado’s_ party were in all but open
mutiny, and that they were sworn, if the admiral should refuse to take
them on board, to depart in the _caravel_ so soon as it might be
practicable. Columbus, as may be supposed, was in no slight alarm for
his brother, placed as he was between mutineers and savages. There
appeared nothing to do but to take the whole party on board, and to
return to the settlement at some future day; but the state of the
weather was such as to render the execution of this plan not a little
difficult. After nine boisterous days, however, the sea again became
calm, and great exertion was made to get the people off ere the bad
weather should return. In this emergency, the services of Diego Mendez
were especially useful. Having lashed two Indian canoes together, he
erected on them a raft, upon which the stores left on shore and on the
_caravel_ were towed out to the ships. In this manner, in the course of
two nights and days, everything of value was conveyed on board the
squadron, Mendez and five companions being the last to leave the shore.
The joy of the Spaniards was unbounded on finding themselves once more
afloat. The wind becoming favourable, Columbus, towards the end of April
1503, set sail for the last time from the disastrous coast from which
his descendant takes his title.[E] Instead, however, of making direct
for _Hispaniola_, he, to the surprise of his pilot and crews, stood
along the coast to the eastward.
This study of the currents had taught him that, in order to avoid being
carried beyond his destined port, he must first gain considerable way to
the east. At _Porto Bello_ he was obliged to leave one of his
_caravels_, it being so pierced by worms that it could no longer be
kept afloat. Even his two remaining vessels, into which were now crowded
the crews of the four, were in a very unseaworthy condition, and were
only kept afloat by incessant labour at the pumps. Continuing onwards,
they passed _Porto Retrete_ and approached the entrance of the Gulf of
_Darien_, when, yielding to the remonstrance of his captains and pilots,
the admiral bade final farewell to the mainland; and on the 1st of May
he stood northward in quest of _Hispaniola_. At this point of his career
we must take leave of the discoverer of America. To pursue further the
narrative of his last voyage would take us beyond the limits within
which this work must be confined, that is to say, beyond the limits of
South America.
NOTE.--The problem of rendering in English the names of places in
foreign countries is one of some difficulty, and rests rather on
conventionality than on principle. It is solved by different
writers in different fashions. Greek purists have for some time
past lost no opportunity, in writing Greek words, of substituting
the original Greek K for the Roman C; but they still respect the
latter in names of such places, familiarized to our ears by
Scripture, as Corinth and Crete. In like manner Oriental purists,
such as Sir Frederic Goldsmid and Colonel Malleson, have done their
best to introduce into English literature a system of orthography
as to Oriental names which is, of course, in place in the
schoolroom of a professor of Oriental languages, but which has not
yet made itself fully accepted by the general English reader. Those
of us whose acquaintance with Indian history began with the reading
of Macaulay’s Essays on Clive and Hastings, are loth to accept
_Pílasi_ for Plassey and _Lakhnao_ for the capital of the princely
House of Oude.
To look nearer home, it would be pedantic to use _El Kahira_ for
Cairo, or _Dimishk_ for Damascus. It would be little less so,
although strictly correct, to use _Venezia_ for Venice, _Roma_ for
Rome, or _Livorno_ for Leghorn. We have added an _s_--why, I know
not--to the French spelling of the word _Marseille_. That port is
as familiar in our mouths as Liverpool or Glasgow, but we
invariably write it and pronounce it Marseilles. In writing Spanish
or Portuguese words applied to names of places in South America, I
find a considerable divergence of custom amongst authors. To take
the one name of _Assumption_, for instance. The capital of
_Paraguay_ is so written by the Robertsons and other writers,
whilst in Southey’s History of Brazil it is throughout written
_Assumpcion_. In Washburn’s History of Paraguay it becomes
_Asuncion_, the original Spanish name, which I see no reason to
supersede. As a rule I have followed the native names of places in
Portuguese or Spanish America, they being for the most part those
by which they are known in England.