A PATERNAL GOVERNMENT
Two years ago, when I was in conversation with one of our leading
diplomatists, who has a very intimate knowledge of the Russian people,
their Emperor and governing classes, I asked him, "Do you not think that
the Russian government is the most paternal in its aim and character of
all the governments in Europe?"
"Of course I do," he replied; and rather excitedly added, "But when I
even hint at such a view of Russian methods to our own countrymen here
at home they regard me as if I had taken leave of my senses, and look at
me with an incredulous and pitying eye."
It is no wonder that this should be so when our own people still, for
the most part, look upon Russia as the land of the knout and banishment,
with an oppressive and despotic government which on the least suspicion
seizes upon unoffending victims and consigns them to Siberia and the
mines, where, chained together, they drag out their lingering existence
in unfamiliar and degrading toil. No words are wasted, it is believed,
upon the weak and ineffective, but the lash comes stingingly down upon
their shoulders. Harsh legislation is the rule, it is thought, and if
perchance people rise up in masses against it, as they do from time to
time, the dreaded Cossack sweeps through the streets, and, at terrible
cost to human life, clears them. Again and again I find this is the
prevailing idea of Russia, as I am asked if I am not afraid to travel
there; and something like it, I have candidly admitted, was my own
impression before I went there and saw things for myself. But nothing
could be more unlike the actual reality.
The relations of the governing and governed in Russia are really
paternal on the one hand and filial on the other, and I hope that I may
be able to induce my readers to believe that is true of the greater part
of the whole population.
In the first place, the knout is long since gone. No such thing exists
now, except as a curiosity, in the whole of Russia, nor has it been used
officially since the days of the present Emperor's _great grandfather_!
Next there are the convicts. It is now twenty-five years since Mr. Harry
de Windt, the well-known traveller, disproved the lurid accounts which
had been given a short time before of the horrors of Siberian prisons.
In his book of 1903 he says, "I have always maintained that were I
sentenced to a term of penal servitude I would infinitely prefer to
serve it in (some parts of) Siberia than in England." When he puts these
words in brackets he is thinking, of course, of the severity of climate
and distance from frequented routes, and not of the treatment of the
prisoners. He tells at length--space does not permit me to quote freely
as I would like to do--how even criminal convicts are well cared for;
and that even the murderers and murderesses amongst them, for there is
no capital punishment in Russia, are lodged in wards which are clean and
well warmed; that there is a comfortable infirmary connected with a
prison, and even a home close at hand, supported by private
subscription, for children of the prisoners.
Mr. Foster Fraser also, in his book on _The Real Siberia_--perhaps one
of the best known of modern works on that part of the empire--tells us
that having been more "thrilled" as a boy by what he had read about
Siberian prisons than by Red Indian stories, and knowing that people,
the world over, were in the habit of saying, "Only Russia could be so
cruel, a civilized country would shrink from such barbarities,"
determined to go and see for himself, and, as is usual with those who go
to Russia full of prejudice and dread, the scales fell from his eyes
when he visited Irkutsk prison. He found to his surprise that, "It was
not the gloomy, sullen-stoned, slit-windowed, iron-barred structure such
as are our prisons at home"; and he describes at length a system which
will compare favourably with any other prisons in the world, as to
discipline, but surpasses them all in friendliness and freedom from
constraint. "What attracted me was the informal relationship between
governor and prisoners. The men talked without any restraint, made
requests and even jests." But the climax of his experiences of "Siberian
horrors" came when he asked to see the women prisoners, and was taken to
the "best house in the place," where, on going into the yard, he saw
some women "sitting about, and some children playing with a kitten."
"I'll send for the matron," said the governor.
"Is this the prison?" I asked in some amazement.
"Yes--this is the only prison we have in Irkutsk for women."
"It was just a large-sized ordinary house," he goes on, "abutting on
the street, but not a single soldier to see. I couldn't help laughing,"
he adds, for the women, who numbered about forty, and had twenty
children with them, represented offences which ranged from petty theft
up to murder, the five or six murderesses being much the same as the
others in appearance and character as far as could be seen. Mr. Fraser
felt it was absurd to call such a place a prison, and asked:--
"Do you really mean to say that these women don't go away?"
And then his amazement was complete when he was told that one had
surprised them very much, a little while before, by going off, but had
surprised them even more by coming back after a day or two and telling
them that she had wanted to see a man she was rather fond of and have a
week-end with him, as men visitors were not allowed on Sundays, the
visiting day!
It will be conceded, I think, by my most prejudiced reader, that Russia
does not seem to be unduly harsh in her dealings with even her worst
type of criminals!
Next let me speak of "politicals," as we may call them. It is nearly two
years ago since a meeting was organized in London to protest in the name
of civilization--very strong language indeed was used in the
preliminary circular--against Russia's treatment of her political
prisoners; and one who holds very high office in London, and whom it was
specially desired to have present, did me the honour of asking my advice
about attending it, as I had just returned from Siberia. I replied at
once, and pointed out how very difficult and delicate the work of
embassies and legations is made when such meetings of protest are held
in the countries they represent, and that we should deeply resent
meetings of a similar kind being held in other countries with respect to
methods of our own. We are open to criticism ourselves at times, every
one will admit! I gave it as my opinion also that the statements of the
circular were greatly exaggerated. Wishing later to be assured that this
was so, I questioned a Russian of high rank in diplomacy, who at once
said:--
"Suppose you go and see for yourself the next time you are in Siberia.
Visit any mines you wish, or prisons either, and the Russian government
shall afford you all facilities."
[Illustration: _Characteristic Group of Russians._]
This I am hoping to do this very year, if all's well, and so, though I
have seen convicts for myself in Siberia, yet what I have to say here
now is not at first hand, but still it will be on the best authority in
every case, and when I can I will give names. It was quite a
revelation to me as I listened, on my first visit to Russia, to the
statements I heard on all sides whenever banishment to Siberia was
mentioned.
"But surely you know what that means? No? Well, for ordinary political
offenders who are either suspect or actually giving offence, and making
government difficult, all that it means is that they have to go and live
in Siberia, where their wives and families follow them. Their property
is not seized nor income forfeited. It can all be realized, and so they
can live as comfortably there as in Russia. There are people indeed who
prefer to live in Siberia after they have gone there. After a few years
or so, if they like to escape they can do so, and no one interferes.
They can live where they please, but they must not return to Russia."
That did not seem a very hard fate, nor can it be said to be a very
undeserved one, for every one must feel that the government of a country
so vast is beset with difficulties and must, in the present state of its
population, be firm, and not hesitate at strong measures against those
plotting against it. I know myself, in a recent case too, which caused
much excitement in this country, warning after warning was given to
enable the offender to leave the country before arrest took place, and
even after the sentence unexpected indulgence and clemency were shown.
Let me now quote straight from Mr. Foster Fraser's book, written by one
who tells us frankly that he "went to Siberia with the average
Britisher's prejudice against things Russian, but with eyes open," and
determined to see things for himself.
"The political prisoners are given the best part of the country to live
in, namely, in the west. Other prisoners are exiled nearer to the icy
regions according to the gravity of their offence. The political
prisoners may practise handicrafts, and, by special permission,
medicine. A 'political' is not identified with the criminal any more
than a debtor is identified with a felon in England. Such offenders do
not travel with other prisoners in a gang. A 'political' may be on a
train going into exile; but no one knows it besides himself and the
members of the police travelling in the same carriage. Politicals get
about L1. 10_s._ a month from the government, but this varies according
to the district to which they are sent. Wives who accompany their
husbands are allowed 36 lb. of bread a month, but must submit to the
regulations of the _etape_. If all goes well with a 'political' he gets
permission to settle in some Siberian town with his family, but any
allowance from the government then ceases. He is just the same as any
other resident, save that he can never leave Siberia. If he wishes to
farm, the government will give him a plot of land and money to work it.
But this money must be paid back by instalments." He states, as will be
seen, "he can never leave Siberia," but what, I fancy, was really meant
by his informant was "never return to Russia." We can hardly think, in a
land where the executive is so indulgent as to allow a dangerous
criminal to "week-end" with a friend, that they will be less considerate
to a political of good character wishing to go to a better climate and
letting it be understood that Russia would not be the place selected.
There is the human touch about everything in that country of spacious
and large ideas, and it is not lacking either in the treatment of
political offenders or with other criminals and felons also.
Mr. Harry de Windt is not only explicit but even amusing and
entertaining as he tells us what he found at Yakutsk, which is quite
remote enough from civilization, on the great Lena post road, to make
one feel that the lot of the banished there must be sad indeed; but at
the same time we can enter a little, perhaps, into his feelings of
amazement when he found that "the political exiles there seemed to be
no worse off, socially, than any one else, for they moved about in
society and were constantly favoured guests of the Chief of Police. The
exiles, however, were not permitted to take part in the private
theatricals I have mentioned, a restriction which caused them great
annoyance. Their loud and unfavourable criticisms from the stalls on the
evening in question were certainly not in the best of taste, and, to my
surprise, they were not resented by the governor's staff." This incident
will show that, in Yakutsk at any rate, the "politicals" are treated not
only with leniency but with a friendly courtesy, which on this occasion
was certainly abused. Mr. Olenin, an exile whose term of banishment was
expiring, told me that he had no fault whatever to find with Yakutsk as
a place of exile, so much so that he had resolved not to return to
Russia at the end of his sentence, but to remain here and complete an
ethnological work upon which he was engaged. I don't think that
"harshness and barbarity" are words that can be appropriately used for a
discipline that permits attendances at "private theatricals" where
politicals are so much at ease that they indulge in loud and
unfavourable criticisms in the presence of the governor's staff, and go
out as favoured guests to dinner parties given by the Chief of the
Police!
A few months ago, however, I had my last and great surprise as to
Russia, in learning--what strangely enough is not yet known to many
Russians of experience and official rank--that convict labour in mines
is entirely abandoned now, and has been for some years! It was found to
be both unprofitable and impracticable as modern ideas of mining
advanced. It was clearly a great waste of time to march gangs to the
"pit's mouth," as they call it in our own mining districts, and remove
their chains before sending them down, putting them on when they came up
again. Then no blasting is now done without dynamite; and that, clearly,
was a dangerous substance to hand over to criminals. Again, they are of
all classes, and but few could ever have worked in mines before, and not
having either technical knowledge or experience, their work would be
unprofitable. Convict labour below ground has been given up for some
time in consequence. Prisoners now, when sent out to Siberia, are only
required to work above ground, though they may go into the mines if they
choose, and have fitness for the work, and can be trusted. They are all
allowed and encouraged to hire themselves out, receiving the market
price for their work, and so being able to obtain little comforts for
themselves. As far as I have been able to consider the experiences of
reliable authorities, I feel convinced that when able to see for myself
I too shall say I would far rather serve a term of imprisonment with
hard labour amongst the convicts of Siberia than in Dartmoor or
Portland. There is far more of the human touch in the former, and a man
does not suffer in his manhood in the same way there as he does in the
English, French, Belgian, and Central American prisons I have known.
How, then, are we to account for all the well-known stories of miseries
and sufferings associated with that lone, and in winter very terrible
land? Most of us read in our youthful days _Elizabeth, or the Exiles of
Siberia_, and since then have always spoken of "the Siberian mines," and
"banishment" with bated breath! How have such impressions so gained
ground that the very name of Russia has taken us straightway out of
Europe into Asia to thoughts of the severest and most hopeless criminal
punishments in the world? I should say that the explanation is to be
found, very possibly, in the methods used before arrest. What is called
"administrative procedure" has long been the usual way of dealing with
suspected political offenders. A man or woman is arrested, and without
public trial is removed to Siberia, and there required to live under
police supervision. Arrests are made at any time. "A man may be seated
quietly at home with his family, in his office, or at some place of
public entertainment, when a touch upon his shoulder summons him away."
There are no press reports of his trial or examination, which is
conducted in private, nor any appeal from it, and there have been, and
perhaps are still, cases where a suspected offender's family remain in
ignorance of what has happened to him, or where he is. The thought of
such a disappearance from the midst of family and friends is enough to
chill any heart, and even if Russia does consider it necessary to deal
thus summarily with those who are enemies of social order and the
well-being of the State, without being unduly harsh in her treatment of
them when they are exiled, one may very well hope that what have been
called the "underground methods" of her police may soon be entirely laid
aside. It is still consistent, I submit, with the aim of a paternal
government to remove at once, and with no uncertain or hesitating hand,
those who are considered the most dangerous elements in its social life,
and the enemies of its stability and well-being.
It was in Siberia, however, that I learnt the positive side of Russia's
care for her peasant and working population. There I found, as soon as I
looked into the working of a great company, that it was necessary to
have a Russian engineer, in addition to the one employed by the staff,
who is held responsible by the governor of the district for the
inspection of all machinery and the arrangements made for securing those
employed from unnecessary risk and danger. A police officer of a
superior class is attached to the staff also, not only to maintain
order, but to receive any complaints and transmit them if serious to
higher authorities. The government distinctly interferes in order to
guard the interests of its working class, and though sometimes the
presence of another engineer or the police official may seem irksome,
our countrymen recognize loyally that the government have no wish to be
vexatious, but only to fulfil their duty to their own people.
Then next I found, also in Siberia, how extraordinarily kind and helpful
all officials are to colonists, who are not always easy to deal with
when travelling or settling down in a new country. They take things for
granted and expect much, and yet are never disappointed; officials of
every class, and especially on railways, being unfailing in patience,
tact, good-nature, and good-humour. The working folk on a train, in
their third or fourth classes, are always treated with indulgence and
kindly consideration.
[Illustration: _A Group of Russian Peasants._]
I read the following in the _Statist_ last year, finding later that it
was contributed by a friend of mine:--
"Government emigration offices are situated all over Russia in Europe.
These supply would-be settlers in Siberia with information as to water
supply, timber, fuel, distances from market, etc. Intending settlers
choose some of their number, at the expense of the government, to
inspect the different tracts of land parcelled out for settlement, and
select areas considered suitable for the settlers. This may take a whole
year, and the deputed settlers return and report to their fellows. A
petition is then sent in to the government--say that 100 men want to go
to such and such a place. Then the government marks on the map that this
land has been apportioned to the applicants, and it is set aside for
them accordingly. The land is given free up to 275 acres per head. Each
man thus has his own land. He cannot sell it, and it cannot be mortgaged
either, though he get into debt. The land is his as long as he cares to
work it. For special purposes, horse and cattle breeding, the government
now permits larger areas up to 10,000 acres to be acquired, and helps
settlers in this connection by providing, for breeding purposes,
thoroughbred stallions and Jersey bulls. The government send the
settlers down passage free, and as the people are simply peasants,
doctors and nurses are provided to look after them and treat them for
sickness, etc. Further, the settlers are given in certain cases a sum up
to L20 to reach their destination. They are allowed, carriage free, to
take one cow, implements, and other goods for their purposes. The
government gives them free timber for house building, though the
settlers have to cut it themselves. Should the settlers be short of
money or funds for buying horses, ploughs, etc., they can get a credit
through the Land Bank up to L20, which they have to pay back in
instalments spread over a long period."
Does not a government which thus develops its country and moves its
working population in vast numbers from places where they are not doing
well to other places where they may do better well deserve to be called
"fatherly" in its care for their interests?
It is well known to those who have been watching Russia's progress that
she has of late, and especially last year, been drawing upon her
enormous revenues and taking advantage of her unexampled prosperity, as
one of the best-informed journalists in Europe[10] has stated, "for
public works, railways, and canals, factories, schools, post offices,
model farms and reform measures for the improvement of the lot of the
working man." It was in the interests of her working poor that one of
the most costly and far-reaching experiments ever undertaken by a
government, at great financial sacrifice to itself, was launched just
before war was declared--the legislation concerning _vodka_.
It surely is an inspiring thought that we and our new friend may tread
the path of social reform together just when it has become alike the
need and opportunity of our time! There is nothing so certain than that
it is along this path that our two sovereigns will gladly lead us. We in
our country have never before had King and Queen visiting the
manufacturing districts of their realm, acquainting themselves with
every detail of daily work, going simply and naturally into homes, and
sharing the humble fare of the working classes. We have never had a king
before--without reflecting upon any who have preceded him we may say
it--who has gone amongst his soldiers and sailors, as one of themselves,
crossing over to the front that he might see how they did, and show them
that he was determined to know for himself the conditions under which
they were so nobly doing their duty, so that they should not only have
his leadership but all the sympathy he could give them.
It has been just the same in Russia. There, at last, has come the great
departure from precedent and tradition for which the Emperor has always
longed and felt to be possible since he came to London and said, "Some
day it will be like that in Russia!" The "some day" has come at last.
One felt it when he went into the Duma last year at the outbreak of the
war, and, on his own initiative alone, addressed its members informally
on the task of serving their country together. Other things have
followed in quick succession! The Empress and her daughters became
nurses at once as soon as the wounded soldiers began to be brought in.
They wore the uniform, and were addressed as Sister Olga or Sister
Tatiana like every one else, although the Russian Court has been held to
be the most exacting and punctilious court in Europe. Again and again
the Emperor has been to the front, endearing himself to his soldiers, to
whom it is known that he equipped himself in a common soldier's uniform,
before he passed it, with kit, rifle, and boots complete, and tramped
miles across the country that he might know what it was like to be on
the march.
Does it make no difference to Ivan Ivanoff to say to himself on the
march when he thinks of his Emperor, "He knows what it's like, for he's
done it himself? Somewhere he's thinking about his soldiers, and he
_knows_." He was photographed in their uniform, just as one of
themselves, and the photograph was distributed amongst the troops. "GOD
save the Tsar!" is the one clamorous cry of the streets in Russia
to-day, we are told. The Emperor and Empress show themselves in a
balcony in Petrograd as naturally as King George and Queen Mary show
themselves at Buckingham Palace when the crowd ask for them.
Such a thing has never been seen, or even thought of, before in Russia.
The last time the Emperor came up from the Crimea to the capital, there
were soldiers within speaking distance of each other along the entire
length of rail, keeping watch and guard. Soon he will go about
unattended, and without escort; and as it was with Queen Victoria, so
"it will be like that in Russia."
Again, I want to dwell upon this link between us, and its tremendous
promise for the future. The two greatest rulers in the world, closely
and affectionately related, have the same ideals of what rulers should
be, and want nothing better than to lead and serve their people; and
GOD, in His providence, has given them at the same time both the power
and opportunity for doing this splendid work together.
Never, probably, has the monarchical principle, in its best aspect, been
so intelligently accepted in both empires as now. A near relation of the
Emperor's, though much his senior, was telling me once of a recent visit
he had paid to England, and of some of his experiences in the East End,
where, under the guidance of a detective, he had visited some of the
worst haunts.
"And do you know, bishop?" he said, "I learnt from that detective that
everybody in London showed their respect for King Edward, at his death,
by going into mourning; and the very thieves _stole_ black to mourn him
with the rest! There's the monarchical principle, going down even to the
lowest classes in the nation!"
"But, sir," I ventured, "I don't think that men of that class would be
thinking of him as a ruler, but as a sportsman."
"No! no!" he maintained. "It was the monarchical principle going down to
the very lowest of the people!" And I am sure he thinks so, and tells
the story to enforce it.
There can be no doubt that the monarchical principle, as we understand
it, makes rapid progress in Russia. The Emperor has always been an
autocrat, but his worst enemy could not accuse him of ever having been
merely despotic; and surely, though gradually, he will be less and less
an autocrat, and more and more constitutional in his rule. He meets the
needs and satisfies the ideals of his people, as he embodies in his
person government and rule. If any one thinks that Russia has a seething
revolutionary spirit longing for expression and an outlet, I can't help
feeling that they are utterly and entirely mistaken. Serious discontent
and unrest prevail; but, as I will try and show later, it is directed
against the social order rather than against the Emperor himself. Plots
to kill him have been plots to overturn the social order, and nothing
more.
Even political exiles in Siberia never blame him for their condition, as
Mr. de Windt tells us: "I never once heard members of the imperial
family spoken of with the slightest animosity or disrespect; and once
when the Emperor was mentioned one of the exiles burst out with a bitter
laugh--
"'The Emperor! You may be quite sure the Emperor does not know what goes
on, or we should not be here a day longer.'"
The people are wholly loyal, and regard their ruler as embodying a
government which is in their own interests as being his children. There
can be no doubt that this is the feeling throughout the empire, however
difficult it may be for some classes in our community to believe it.
For instance, as it has been pointed out,[11] "When not long ago in the
House of Commons it was debated whether or no the King should pay a
visit to the Emperor of Russia, and some one suggested that were the
visit to be cancelled the immense majority of the Russian people would
regard it as an insult, and that the Russian peasants bore no ill-will
towards the Emperor, but rather complained of the results of a system of
government which in the last few years has undergone, and is still
undergoing, radical change." When such arguments were brought forward
some of the Labour Members nearly burst with ironical cheers. Here, they
thought, was the voice of officialdom, Torydom, and hypocrisy speaking.
Now turn to the facts. When Professor Kovolievski was elected a member
of the first Duma in the government of Karkov as an advanced Liberal
Member, he, after his election, asked some of his peasant electors
whether he was not right in supposing that had he said anything
offensive with regard to the Emperor at his meetings there would have
been no applause.
"'We should not only have not applauded,' was the answer, 'but we should
have beaten you to death.'"
There is nothing of the merely sentimental in this feeling that their
government is, and ought to be, paternal in its character. Every Russian
peasant drinks it in from the first, for he gets his training in the
_Mir_ of his native village. It is there he learns what family and
social rule really mean, and they are identical. His home is ruled by
his father, the village by the elder; and everything is as
constitutional and as democratic as it can be, or is anywhere else in
the world. The children have their rights, but look up to and obey their
father. They are free and responsible in village life, but yield to
their elders. It is natural, therefore, and no other view is even
possible, for men brought up in such surroundings to look outside the
village and regard the State as a whole in the same way. There too they
feel that they have full rights, and yet are under a firm, unquestioned,
and paternal rule--the rule of him who, while rightly called their
Emperor, yet is better known to themselves and loyally loved as their
"Little Father."
FOOTNOTES:
[10] Dr. E. J. Dillon.
[11] The Hon. Maurice Baring.