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* * * * *
A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha
BY
E. RAYMOND HALL
University of Kansas Publications
Museum of Natural History
Volume 5, No. 10, pp. 119-202, 68 figures in text
December 15, 1951
University of Kansas
LAWRENCE
1951
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS
The University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History, are
offered in exchange for the publications of learned societies and
institutions, universities and libraries. For exchanges and information,
address the EXCHANGE DESK, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS LIBRARY, LAWRENCE,
KANSAS, U. S. A.
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.--E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Editorial
Committee.
This series contains contributions from the Museum of Natural
History. Cited as Univ. Kans. Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Vol. 1. (Complete) Nos. 1-26. Pp. 1-638. August 15, 1946-January 20,
1951.
Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp.
1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948.
Vol. 3. 1. The avifauna of Micronesia its origin, evolution, and
distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures in
text. June 12, 1951.
2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds.
Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text. June 29, 1951.
3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale Arvey.
Pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables. October 10, 1951.
4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H. Lowery,
Jr., and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649, 7 figures in text, 2
tables. October 10, 1951.
Vol. 4. In press.
Vol. 5. 1. Preliminary survey of a Paleocene faunule from the Angels Peak
Area, New Mexico. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 1-11, 1 figure in
text. February 24, 1951.
2. Two new moles (genus Scalopus) from Mexico and Texas. By
Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 17-24. February 28, 1951.
3. Two new pocket gophers from Wyoming and Colorado. By
E. Raymond Hall and H. Gordon Montague. Pp. 25-32. February
28, 1951.
4. Mammals obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the barrier beach
of Tamaulipas, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 33-47, 1
figure in text. October 1, 1951.
5. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some
North American rabbits. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R.
Kelson. Pp. 49-58. October 1, 1951.
6. Two new subspecies of Thomomys bottae from New Mexico and
Colorado. By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 59-71, one figure in text.
October 1, 1951.
7. A new subspecies of Microtus montanus from Montana and
comments on Microtus canicaudus Miller. By E. Raymond Hall and
Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 73-79. October 1, 1951.
8. A new pocket gopher (genus Thomomys) from Eastern Colorado.
By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 81-85. October 1, 1951.
9. Mammals taken along the Alaska highway. By Rollin H. Baker.
Pp. 87-117, 1 figure in text. November 28, 1951.
10. A synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha. By E. Raymond
Hall. Pp. 110-202, 68 figures in text. December 15, 1951.
A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha
BY
E. RAYMOND HALL
University of Kansas Publications
Museum of Natural History
Volume 5, No. 10, pp. 119-202, 68 figures in text
December 15, 1951
University of Kansas
LAWRENCE
1951
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, Edward H. Taylor,
Robert W. Wilson
Volume 5, No. 10, pp. 119-202, 68 figures in text December 15, 1951
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
Lawrence, Kansas
PRINTED BY
FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER
TOPEKA, KANSAS
1951
23-7988
A Synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha
BY
E. RAYMOND HALL
The most popular small game mammal in nearly every part of North America
is one or another of the species of rabbits or hares. The rabbit is one
of the few species of wild game that still is hunted commercially and
sold for food on the open market. The close association and repeated
contact of man with these animals has resulted in his contracting such
of their diseases as are transmissible to him. Consequently the rabbits
and hares have figured in many investigations concerned with public
health and medicine. Because the number of such investigations is
increasing, there has been an increasing number of specimens of these
animals submitted to mammalogists for identification; also, inquiries
are received as to the degree of relationship between two or more of the
named kinds of rabbits in which identical, or closely related, disease
organisms have been found; other inquiries have to do with the degree of
relationship of named kinds of rabbits and hares in widely separated
parts of the continent.
The monographs to which the investigator could turn to obtain answers to
some of these questions are Arthur H. Howell's "Revision of the American
Pikas" (1924), and Edward H. Nelson's "The Rabbits of North America"
(1909) published 27 and 42 years ago, respectively. These monographs are
still excellent sources of detailed information, as, of course, also is
Marcus Ward Lyon's "Classification of the Hares and their Allies"
(1904). The acquisition of additional study specimens in recent years,
however, has provided new data on the geographic occurrence of several
species, and study of these specimens has given basis for a different
arrangement of several named kinds of the lagomorphs. Two principal aims
of the present synopsis, therefore, are to combine in one publication
the current taxonomic arrangement and as much as is known of the
geographic distribution of the several species and subspecies.
The maps herewith and listings of marginal localities are the means
chosen to present the information on geographic distribution. The
artificial key is supplemented by line drawings of skulls of certain
species and by a minimum of text to aid the user of the key. The skulls
are necessary for the identification of some species of the genus
_Sylvilagus_. The skins, on the contrary, are essential for the
identification of the species of the genus _Lepus_ in central Mexico and
in the Great Basin of the western United States. Consequently, it has
been impossible to construct a key based on external characters only or
on cranial features only. Furthermore, the only apparent differences
between a given pair of species in one region may not be apparent in
another region where the same two species occur together. A case in
point is provided by _Sylvilagus floridanus_ and _Sylvilagus nuttallii_
where the Great Plains meet the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains and
where the Sonoran desert meets the southwestern flank of these
mountains. The details are described by Hall and Kelson (1951:52, 53)
and are indicated in the part of the accompanying artificial key that
takes out the species _Sylvilagus nuttallii_. Because of this geographic
change in specific characters and because of the slight amount of
difference between certain species of leporids, I have frequently
resorted to geography, instead of to morphology alone, in constructing
the artificial key. Despite this fault of the key to the lagomorphs, it,
and the accompanying account, I hope, will aid workers who need to
identify kinds of lagomorphs and to know about their geographic
distribution.
Another reason for presenting a synopsis of the lagomorphs at this time
is that the presentation may bring suggestions for improvement in the
arrangement of the kind of information presented here; an account along
similar lines for all of the kinds of mammals native to North America is
in prospect. Corrections of, and additions to, the material presented
here will be welcomed and I shall be especially grateful for suggestions
as to a more useful arrangement of the data.
In arranging the families, genera and species the aim has been, in each
category, to list the most primitive members first and to list last the
one which presents the highest total of specialization. The term _total
of specialization_ is used here, as Miller (1924:2) used it, to denote
the sum of the physical modifications which any mammal, or taxonomic
category of mammals, is supposed by the author to have undergone during
the course of its development away from its original or generalized
mammalian stock.
Subspecies of any one species are arranged alphabetically. On the maps,
of course, the subspecies are shown in their correct geographic
positions.
For each subspecies, or species if it has not been divided into
subspecies, there is given (1) the accepted scientific name (selected
in accordance with the rules of the International Commission of
Zoological Nomenclature); (2) a citation to the account in which the
terminal part of the name was first proposed (the original description
of zoological parlance) followed by a statement of the type locality;
(3) a citation to the account in which the combination of names
(generic, specific and subspecific) used in the present account first
was employed unless the name combination used here is the same as that
in the original description; (4) synonyms arranged in chronological
order, and (5) marginal record stations of occurrence.
These marginal records are arranged in clockwise order beginning with
the northernmost locality. If more than one of the marginal localities
lies on the line of latitude that is northernmost for a given kind of
mammal, the westernmost of these is recorded first. The marginal
localities that are represented by symbols on the corresponding
distribution map are in Roman type. Italic type is used for those
marginal localities that could not be represented by symbols on the map
because undue crowding, or overlapping, of the symbols would have
occurred. An understanding of how these localities are arranged and
knowledge as to which of these localities are shown on the map will
permit a person to associate any symbol on a map with its corresponding
place name.
Measurements are in millimeters unless otherwise indicated. Capitalized
color terms are after Ridgway (Color Standards and Color Nomenclature,
Washington, D. C., 1912), and uncapitalized terms refer to no particular
color standard. Several of the drawings of skulls were reproduced
originally in the "Mammals of Nevada" (Hall, 1946) and I am grateful to
the University of California Press for permission to use them here.
Those drawings were made by Miss Viola Memmler. The other drawings are
the work of Mrs. Frieda Abernathy, Mrs. Diane (Danley) Sandidge, and
Mrs. Virginia (Cassel) Unruh. Initials on the drawings identify the
individual's work. The study here reported upon was aided by a contract
between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the
University of Kansas (NR 161-791). Also, assistance with some of the
field work was given by the Kansas University Endowment Association and
by Dr. Curt von Wedel. For the corrected dates on several publications I
am indebted to Dr. A. Remington Kellogg. For assistance with the
organization of the data for the present account I am grateful to
several persons, especially to my wife, Mary F. Hall, and to Dr. Keith
R. Kelson.
Order LAGOMORPHA--Hares, Rabbits and Pikas
Families and genera revised by Lyon, Smithsonian Miscl. Coll.,
45:321-447, June 15, 1904. For taxonomic status of group see Gidley,
Science, n. s., 36:285-286, August 30, 1912.
The order Lagomorpha is old in the geological sense; fossilized bones
and teeth of both pikas and rabbits are known from deposits of Oligocene
age and even at that early time the structural features distinguishing
these animals from other orders were well developed.
A noteworthy character of the order is the presence of four upper
incisor teeth (instead of only two as in the Rodentia); also, the fibula
is ankylosed to the tibia and articulates with the calcaneum. Each of
the first upper incisors has a longitudinal groove on its anterior face.
All lagomorphs are herbivorous. They eat principally leaves and
non-woody stems although the bark of sprouts and bushes is taken as
second choice by rabbits and hares.
Correlation of structure and function is well illustrated among the
lagomorphs by the means which the different species employ to detect and
escape from their enemies. A gradient series is evident in which the
pikas and jack rabbits are the extremes. The black-tailed jack rabbit,
for example, in relation to size of the entire animal, has the longest
ears and longest hind legs. This kind of lagomorph takes alarm when an
enemy, for example, a coyote, is yet a long way off. The jack rabbit
seeks safety in running; even when being overtaken by a pursuer that is
close behind, the jack rabbit still relies on its running ability
instead of entering thick brush or a hole in the ground where its
larger-sized pursuer would be unable to follow. A cottontail has shorter
ears and shorter hind legs. It allows the enemy to approach more closely
than the jack rabbit does before running, and then, although relying in
some measure on its running ability for escape, flees to a burrow or
thicket for safety from its pursuer. The brush rabbit with ears and hind
legs shorter than those of the cottontail seldom if ever ventures
farther than 45 feet away from the edge of dense cover. After an enemy
is near, the brush rabbit has merely to scamper back into the brush.
Still shorter of ear and hind leg is the pigmy rabbit which ventures
outside its burrow to feed only among the tall and closely-spaced bushes
of sagebrush among which its burrow is dug. Detection of the slightest
movement of an enemy on the opposite side of the bush sends the pigmy
rabbit, in one or a few jumps, into the mouth of its burrow and, if
need be, below ground. The pika, with the shortest ears and legs of all,
lives in the rock slides and has to do little more than drop off the top
of a rock into a space between the broken rocks when an enemy is
detected near enough to the pika to have a chance of seizing it.
The number of molts in a year, depending on the kind of lagomorph,
varies in adults from one (according to Nelson, 1909:31) in the
cottontails (genus _Sylvilagus_) to as many as three (according to
Lyman, 1943, and Severaid, 1945) in the varying hare (_Lepus
americanus_). Difficulties that I have experienced in attempting to
account for the variations in color and wear of the pelage of the pika,
_Ochotona princeps_, on the basis of two molts per year, make me wonder
if it, too, has three molts. _Lepus townsendii_ certainly has at least
two molts per year.
KEY TO FAMILIES AND GENERA OF LAGOMORPHA
1. Hind legs scarcely larger than forelegs; hind foot less than 40;
nasals widest anteriorly; no supraorbital process on frontal; five
cheek teeth on each side above
Family Ochotonidae, Genus _Ochotona_, p. 125
1'. Hind legs notably larger than forelegs; hind foot more than 40;
nasals widest posteriorly; supraorbital process on frontal; six
cheek teeth on each side above
Family Leporidae, p. 134
2. Interparietal fused with parietals (see fig. 49); hind foot
usually more than 105
Genus _Lepus_, p. 170
2'. Interparietal not fused with parietals (see fig. 10); hind foot
usually less than 105
Genera _Romerolagus_ and _Sylvilagus_, pp. 137, 138
Family OCHOTONIDAE--Pikas
Certain characters in which this family differs from the Leporidae
(hares and rabbits) are: hind legs scarcely longer than forelegs; ears
short, approximately as wide as high; no postorbital process on frontal;
rostrum slender; nasals widest anteriorly; maxilla not conspicuously
fenestrated; jugal long and projecting far posteriorly to zygomatic arm
of squamosal; no pubic symphysis; one less cheek-tooth above, the dental
formula being i. 2/1, c. 0/0, p. 3/2, m. 2/3; second upper maxillary
tooth unlike third in form; last lower molar simple (not double) or
absent (in the extinct genus _Oreolagus_); cutting edge of first upper
incisor V-shaped; mental foramen situated under last lower molar.
Genus OCHOTONA Link--Pikas
Revised by A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:1-57, August 21, 1924.
1795. _Ochotona_ Link, Beytr[:a]ge zur Naturgesch, I (pt. 2):74. Type,
_Lepus ogotona_ Pallas.
_Characters_.--Five teeth (excluding incisor) in lower jaw; first
cheek-tooth (p3) with more than one re-entrant angle; columns of lower
molars angular internally; transverse width of any one column of a
lower molariform tooth more than double the width of the neck connecting
it to the other column.
Subgenus PIKA Lac['e]p[e']de
1799. _Pika_ Lac['e]p[e']de, Tableau des Divisions &c., Mamm., p. 9.
Type, _Lepus alpinus_ Pallas.
1904. _Pika_, Lyon, Smiths. Misc. Coll., 45:438, June 15.
_Characters._--Skull flattened; interorbital region wide; maxillary
orifice roundly triangular; palatal foramina separate from anterior
palatine foramina.
All of the living members of the family Ochotonidae belong to this
genus. American pikas all belong to the subgenus _Pika_, which occurs
also in Eurasia.
The distribution is boreal and the animals live in talus. This broken
rock at the foot of a cliff provides interstices in which the animals
live and store grass and herbs. These plant materials are cut for food
and stacked in piles to dry in the sun, often beneath slabs of rock
which protect the hay-piles from rain. Pikas are diurnal, active
throughout the year, and have a characteristic call, "chickck-chickck."
Young number two to five per litter.
[Illustration: FIGS. 1-4. _Ochotona princeps tutelata_, Greenmonster
Canyon, 8150 feet, No. 38519 MVZ, [MALE], x 1.]
KEY TO NOMINAL SPECIES OF OCHOTONA
1. North of 58[deg] N latitude; underparts creamy white, without buffy
wash; an indistinct grayish "collar" on shoulders
_collaris_, p. 126
1'. South of 58[deg] N latitude; underparts washed with buff; no grayish
"collar" on shoulders
_princeps_, p. 127
=Ochotona collaris= (Nelson)
Collared Pika
1893. _Lagomys collaris_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 8:117,
December 21, type from near head of Tanana River, Alaska.
1897. [_Ochotona_] _collaris_, Trouessart, Catalogus Mammalium ...,
p. 648
_Marginal records._--Alaska: Mt. McKinley (A. H. Howell, 1924:36).
Yukon: head of Coal Creek, Ogilvie Mountains (_ibid._). Mackenzie:
mile 63E on Little Keel River, Canol Road (Anderson, 1947:94).
Yukon: _Macmillan Pass, mile 282, Canol Road_ (_ibid._); Ross River,
mile 96, Canol Road (_ibid._); vic. Teslin Lake (A. H. Howell,
1924:36). British Columbia: Tagish Lake (_ibid._); Stonehouse Creek,
5-1/2 mi. W jct. Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River (29088 KU). Alaska:
Tanana River (A. H. Howell, 1924:36).
Upper parts Drab to Light Drab; underparts creamy white; grayish
patch on nape and shoulders; skull broad; tympanic bullae large;
total length 189; hind foot, 30.
=Ochotona princeps=
Pika
Total length, 162-216; hind foot, 25-35; weight of _O. p. tulelata_, 6
[MALE] 121 (108-128), 2 [FEMALE] 121 and 129 grams. Upper parts varying
from grayish to Cinnamon-Buff depending on the subspecies; underparts
with wash of buff. Eight Nevadan females had an average of 3.1 (2-4)
embryos. The mode was 3.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS ALBATA Grinnell.
1912. _Ochotona albatus_ Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,
10:125, January 31, type from 11,000 ft., near Cottonwood Lakes,
Sierra Nevada, Inyo County, California.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:45).--California: Bullfrog
Lake; 10,000 ft., Independence Creek; type locality; Mineral King,
E. Fork Kaweah River.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS BROOKSI A. H. Howell.
1924. _Ochotona princeps brooksi_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:30, August 21, type from Sicamous, British Columbia.
_Marginal records_.--British Columbia: Mountains E Shuswap Lake
(Anderson, 1947:95); type locality; McGillivary Creek, Lillooet
Dist. (A. H. Howell, 1924:31).
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS BRUNNESCENS A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona fenisex brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:108, May 20, type from Keechelus, Kittitas County,
Washington.
1924. _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:31, September 23.
_Marginal records_.--British Columbia: Alta Lake (Anderson,
1947:95); Hope, Lake House (A. H. Howell, 1924:33). Washington:
_Whatcom Pass_ (Dalquest, 1948:380); Stevens Pass (A. H. Howell,
1924:33); _Cowlitz Pass_ (Dalquest, 1948:380). Oregon: Mt. Hood (A.
H. Howell, 1924:33); Crater Lake (_ibid._); Mt. McLoughlin (V.
Bailey, 1936:116); Diamond Lake (A. H. Howell, 1924:33). Washington:
Tumtum Mtn. (Dalquest, 1948:380); Mt. Index (A. H. Howell, 1924:33).
British Columbia: Chilliwack (ibid.); Vancouver (_ibid._).
[Illustration: FIG. 5. Distribution of _Ochotona collaris_ and _Ochotona
princeps_.
1. _O. collaris_
2. _O. p. princeps_
3. _O. p. lutescens_
4. _O. p. septentrionalis_
5. _O. p. brooksi_
6. _O. p. cuppes_
7. _O. p. brunnescens_
8. _O. p. fenisex_
9. _O. p. fumosa_
10. _O. p. jewetti_
11. _O. p. taylori_
12. _O. p. schisticeps_
13. _O. p. muiri_
14. _O. p. albatus_
15. _O. p. sheltoni_
16. _O. p. tutelata_
17. _O. p. nevadensis_
18. _O. p. uinta_
19. _O. p. moorei_
20. _O. p. cinnamomea_
21. _O. p. fuscipes_
22. _O. p. utahensis_
23. _O. p. howelli_
24. _O. p. lemhi_
25. _O. p. goldmani_
26. _O. p. clamosa_
27. _O. p. ventorum_
28. _O. p. levis_
29. _O. p. figginsi_
30. _O. p. saxatilis_
31. _O. p. nigrescens_
32. _O. p. incana_ ]
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS CINNAMOMEA J. A. Allen.
1905. _Ochotona cinnamomea_ J. A. Allen, Mus. Brooklyn Inst. Arts
and Sci., Sci. Bull., 1:121, March 31, type from 11,000 ft.,
Briggs [=Britts] Meadows, Beaver Range, Beaver County, Utah (5 mi.
by road W Puffer Lake, according to Hardy, Jour. Mamm., 26:432,
February 12, 1946). Known from type locality only.
1934. _Ochotona princeps cinnamomea_, Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 47:103, June 13.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS CLAMOSA Hall and Bowlus.
1938. _Ochotona princeps clamosa_ Hall and Bowlus, Univ. California
Publ. Zool., 42:335, October 12, type from 8400 ft., north rim
Copenhagen Basin, Bear Lake County, Idaho.
_Marginal records._--Idaho: type locality; _Deep Lake, Bear River
Mts._ (Hall and Bowlus, 1938:336) _2 mi. E Strawberry Creek Ranger
Station, Wasatch Mts._ (Davis, 1939:352).
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS CUPPES Bangs.
1899. _Ochotona cuppes_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, 1:40,
June 5, type from 4000 ft., Monashee Divide, Gold Range, British
Columbia.
1924. _Ochotona princeps cuppes_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:27, September 23.
_Marginal records._--British Columbia: Glacier (A. H. Howell,
1924:28); Nelson (Anderson, 1947:95). Idaho: Cabinet Mts. (Davis,
1939:348). Washington: Sullivan Lake (A. H. Howell, 1924:28).
British Columbia: Rossland (_ibid._); type locality.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS FENISEX Osgood.
1913. _Ochotona fenisex_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:80,
March 22 (substitute for _minimus_ Lord, type from 7000 ft.,
Ptarmigan Hill, near head of Ashnola River, Cascade Range, British
Columbia).
1924. _Ochotona princeps fenisex_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:28, September 23.
1863. _Lagomys minimus_ Lord, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 98. (Not
of Schinz, 1821.)
1899. _Ochotona minimus_, Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, 1:39,
June 5.
_Marginal records._--British Columbia: Okanagan (A. H. Howell,
1924:30). Washington: Horseshoe Basin, "near" Mt. Chopaka (_ibid._);
mts. near Wenatchee (_ibid._); Steamboat Mtn. (Dalquest, 1948:380);
Easton (_ibid._); Lyman Lake (_ibid._); Barron (A. H. Howell,
1924:30). British Columbia: Tulameen (_ibid._); 2500 ft., mts. W
Okanagan Lake (_ibid._).
_Ochotona princeps figginsi_ J. A. Allen.
1912. _Ochotona figginsi_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
31:103, May 28, type from Pagoda Peak, Rio Blanco County,
Colorado.
1924. _Ochotona princeps figginsi_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:21, September 23.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:22).--Wyoming: Bridger Peak,
Sierra Madre. Colorado: Mt. Zirkel; Trappers Lake; _Crested Butte_;
Irwin; type locality; Sand Mtn., 9 mi. SW Hahns Peak P. O.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS FUMOSA A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona fenisex fumosa_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:109, May 20, type from Permilia Lake, W base Mt.
Jefferson, Linn County, Oregon.
1924. _Ochotona princeps fumosa_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:33, September 23.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:34).--Oregon: About 900 ft.,
15 mi. above Estacada; Paulina Lake; _Three Sisters_; Lost Creek
Ranger Station, 10 mi. SE McKenzie Bridge.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS FUSCIPES A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona schisticeps fuscipes_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:110, May 20, type from Brian Head, Parowan Mts.,
Iron County, Utah.
1941. _O[chotona]. p[rinceps]. fuscipes_, Hall and Hayward, The
Great Basin Naturalist, 2:108, July 20.
_Marginal records._--Utah: type locality; 9000 ft., Duck Creek
(Durrant, MS).
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS GOLDMANI A. H. Howell.
1924. _Ochotona schisticeps goldmani_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:40, September 23, type from Echo Crater, Snake River Desert, 20
mi. SW Arco, Idaho.
1938. _Ochotona princeps goldmani_, Hall and Bowlus, Univ.
California Publ. Zool., 42:337, October 12.
_Marginal records._--Idaho: _S base Grassy Cone_ (Davis, 1939:350);
type locality; _Fissure Crater_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:41); _Great Owl
Cavern_ (Davis, 1939:350).
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS HOWELLI Borell.
1931. _Ochotona princeps howelli_ Borell, Jour. Mamm., 12:306,
August 24, type from 7500 ft., near head of Bear Creek, summit of
Smith Mtn., S end Seven Devils Mts., Adams County, Idaho.
_Marginal records._--Idaho: _1/2 mi. E Black Lake_ (Davis, 1939:350);
type locality.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS INCANA A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona saxatilis incana_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:107, May 20, type from 12,000 ft., Pecos Baldy,
Santa Fe County, New Mexico.
1924. _Ochotona princeps incana_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:25, September 23.
_Marginal records._--Colorado: Medano Creek (A. H. Howell, 1924:25).
New Mexico: Wheeler Peak (V. Bailey, 1932:64); type locality.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS JEWETTI A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona schisticeps jewetti_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:109, May 20, type from head of Pine Creek, near
Cornucopia, S slope Wallowa Mts., Baker County, Oregon.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:42).--Oregon: Wallowa Lake;
Cornucopia, near head East Pine Creek; _Anthony_; Strawberry Butte;
Austin.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS LEMHI A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona uinta lemhi_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:106, May 20, type from Lemhi Mountains, 10 mi. W
Junction, Lemhi County, Idaho.
1924. _Ochotona princeps lemhi_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:16,
September 23.
_Marginal records._--Idaho: Elk Summit, about 15 mi. SE Warren (A.
H. Howell, 1924:18); mts. E of Leadore (_ibid._); mts. E of Birch
Creek (_ibid._); Ketchum (_ibid._); _Stanley Lake_ (_ibid._); 5 mi.
W Cape Horn (Davis, 1939:348).
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS LEVIS Hollister.
1912. _Ochotona levis_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
25:57, April 13, type from Chief Mountain [= Waterton] Lake,
Alberta.
1924. _Ochotona princeps levis_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:16, September 23.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:16).--Alberta: type locality.
Montana: Little Belt Mts.; Belt Mts.; Chief Mountain Lake.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS LUTESCENS A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona princeps lutescens_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:105, May 20, type from approximately 8000 ft.,
Mount Inglismaldie, near Banff, Alberta.
_Marginal records._--Alberta: Mistaya Creek, Banff-Jasper Highway
(Anderson, 1947:96); Canmore (A. H. Howell, 1924:15); Mt.
Forget-me-not, 50 to 75 mi. SW Calgary (_ibid._).
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS MOOREI Gardner.
1950. _Ochotona princeps moorei_ Gardner, Jour. Washington Acad.
Sci., 40:344, October 23, 1950, type from 10,000 ft., 1 mi. NE
Baldy Ranger Station, Manti Nat'l Forest, Sanpete County, Utah.
Known from type locality only.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS MUIRI Grinnell and Storer.
1916. _Ochotona schisticeps muiri_ Grinnell and Storer, Univ.
California Publ. Zool., 17:6, August 23, type from 9300 ft., Ten
Lakes, Yosemite Nat'l Park, California.
1934. _Ochotona princeps muiri_, Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
47:103, June 13.
_Marginal records._--Nevada (Hall, 1946:593): 8500 ft., 3 mi. S Mt.
Rose, California (A. H. Howell, 1924:44): Markleeville; mts. W
Bishop Creek; Washburn Lake; Latitude 39[deg], summit of Sierra.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS NEVADENSIS A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona uinta nevadensis_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:107, May 20, type from 10,500 ft., Ruby Mts., SW
Ruby Valley P. O., Elko County, Nevada.
1924. _Ochotona princeps nevadensis_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:21, September 23.
_Marginal records._--Nevada: 7830 ft., Long Creek (Hall, 1946:590);
type locality.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS NIGRESCENS V. Bailey.
1913. _Ochotona nigrescens_ V. Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
26:133, May 21, type from 10,000 ft., Jemez Mountains, Bernalillo
County, New Mexico.
1924. _Ochotona princeps nigrescens_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:26, September 23.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:26).--Colorado: Upper Navajo
River; Osier. New Mexico: type locality. Colorado: Navajo Peaks.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS PRINCEPS (Richardson).
1828. _Lepus_ (_Lagomys_) _princeps_ Richardson, Zool. Jour., 3:520,
type from headwaters of Athabaska River, near Athabaska Pass,
Alberta.
1897. [_Ochotona_] _princeps_, Trouessart, Catalogus Mammalium, p.
648.
_Marginal records._--British Columbia: headwaters South Pine River
(Anderson, 1947:95). Alberta: Muskeg Creek "about" 60 mi. N Jasper
House (_ibid._). British Columbia: Morrissey (_ibid._). Montana:
mts. near St. Marys Lake (A. H. Howell, 1924:14); mts. 15 mi. E
Corvallis (_ibid._); Lake Como, Bitterroot Mts. (_ibid._). Idaho:
Coeur d' Alene Nat'l Forest (Rust, 1946:322). British Columbia: Mt.
Evans, "near" Cranbrook (A. H. Howell, 1924:14); Spillamacheen River
(_ibid._)
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS SAXATILIS Bangs.
1899. _Ochotona saxatilis_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club,
1:41, June 5, type from Montgomery, "near" Mt. Lincoln, Park
County, Colorado.
1924. _Ochotona princeps saxatilis_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:23, September 23.
_Marginal records_ (A. H. Howell, 1924:24, except as otherwise
noted).--Wyoming: Medicine Bow Mts.; just above Centennial in mts.
(Martin, 1943:394). Colorado: Estes Park; Pikes Peak; Silverton.
Utah: La Sal Mts. Colorado: Crystal Lake, 5 mi. W Lake City; Middle
Brush Creek; Ten Mile Creek; Berthoud Pass; _Irwin Lakes_ (A. H.
Howell, _loc. cit._) not found.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS SCHISTICEPS (Merriam).
1889. _Lagomys schisticeps_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 2:11, October
30, type from Donner, Placer County, California.
1936. _Ochotona princeps schisticeps_, A. H. Miller, Jour. Mamm.,
17:174, May 18.
1897. _Ochotona schisticeps_ Merriam, Mazama, 1:223, October.
_Marginal records._--Nevada (Hall, 1946:590): 12 mi. E and 3 mi. N
Ft. Bidwell, 5700 ft.; 8400-8600 ft., Duffer Peak, Pine Forest Mts.
California (A. H. Howell, 1924:39): Tahoe; _Donner Pass_; 12 mi. NE
Prattville; Lassen Peak; Mt. Shasta.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS SEPTENTRIONALIS Cowan and Racey.
1947. _Ochotona princeps septentrionalis_ Cowan and Racey, Canadian
Field-Nat., 60:102, March 17, type from 6500 ft., Itcha Mountains,
52[deg] 45' N lat., 125[deg] W long., British Columbia. Known from
type locality only.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS SHELTONI Grinnell.
1918. _Ochotona schisticeps sheltoni_ Grinnell, Univ. California
Publ. Zool., 17:429, April 25, type from 11,000 ft., "near" Big
Prospector Meadow, White Mountains, Mono County, California.
1946. _Ochotona princeps sheltoni_, Hall, Mammals of Nevada, p. 593,
July 1.
_Marginal records._--Nevada: 8700 ft., Pinchot Creek (Hall,
1946:593). California: type locality.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS TAYLORI Grinnell.
1912. _Ochotona taylori_ Grinnell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
25:129, July 31, type from 9000 ft., Warren Peak, Warner Mts.,
Modoc Co., Calif.
_Marginal records_ (V. Bailey, 1936:113, unless otherwise
noted).--Oregon: N end of Steens Mts.; Guano Valley; Jack Lake, 20
mi. NE Adel; Adel. California (A. H. Howell, 1924:40): type
locality; 5400 ft., "near" Termo, Madeline Plains; nr. head Little
Shasta Riv. Oregon: Lower Klamath Lake.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS TUTELATA Hall.
1934. _Ochotona princeps tutelata_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 47:103, June 13, type from 8150 ft., Greenmonster
Canyon, Monitor Mts., Nye County, Nevada.
_Marginal records_ (Hall, 1946:591).--Nevada: 7500 ft., Smiths
Creek, Desatoya Mts.; 8600 ft., type locality; 8700-11,000 ft., SW
and W slopes Mt. Jefferson, Toquima Range; South Twin River; _Arc
Dome_.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS UINTA Hollister.
1912. _Ochotona uinta_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
25:58, April 13, type from "near" head E. Fork Bear River, Uinta
Mts., Utah.
1924. _Ochotona princeps uinta_, A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:19, September 23.
_Marginal records._--Utah: type locality; Elk Park (Hall and Bowlus,
1938:337); _11,000 to 11,500 ft., The Nipple_ (_ibid._); 10,500 ft.,
SW slope Bald Mtn. (_op. cit._:336); Mt. Timpanogos (_op.
cit._:337); 8500 ft., Morehouse Canyon, 5 mi. above Weber River
(_op. cit._:337); _Spirit Lake_ (_op. cit._:336) not found.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS UTAHENSIS Hall and Hayward.
1941. _Ochotona princeps utahensis_ Hall and Hayward, Great Basin
Nat., 2:107, July 20, type from 2 mi. W Deer Lake, Garfield
County, Utah.
_Marginal records._--Utah: 9000 ft., Donkey Lake, Boulder Mtn.
(Durrant, MS); type locality.
OCHOTONA PRINCEPS VENTORUM A. H. Howell.
1919. _Ochotona uinta ventorum_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:106, May 20, type from Fremont Peak, Wind River
Mts., Fremont County, Wyoming.
1924. _Ochotona princeps ventorum_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
47:18, September 23.
_Marginal records._--Montana: Emigrant Peak (A. H. Howell, 1924:19);
Beartooth Mts. (_ibid._). Wyoming: 9600 ft., 19-1/2 mi. E and 4-1/2
mi. S Shell (20882 KU); head of Trappers Creek (A. H. Howell,
1924:19); Medicine Wheel Ranch, 28 mi. E Lovell (32919 KU); Needle
Mtn. (A. H. Howell, 1924:19); Lake Fork (_ibid._); 8450 ft., 17-1/2
mi. S and 6-1/2 mi. W Lander (37994 KU); Middle Piney Lake, "near"
Stanley (A. H. Howell, 1924:19); Salt River, 16 mi. S Afton (Hall and
Bowlus, 1938:337); Teton Pass (A. H. Howell, 1924:19). Idaho: Teton
Canyon (Davis, 1939:349).
Family LEPORIDAE--Rabbits and Hares
Hind legs longer than forelegs; ears longer than wide; frontal bone
carrying supraorbital process consisting always of posterior arm and
sometimes of anterior arm; rostrum wide; nasals not wider anteriorly
than posteriorly; maxillae conspicuously fenestrated; jugal projecting
less than half way from zygomatic root of squamosal to external auditory
meatus (except in _Romerolagus_); pubic symphysis well marked; dental
formula, i. 2/1, c. 0/0, p. 3/2, m. 3/3 (but m. 2/3 in _Pentalagus_ of
Liu Kiu Islands south of Japan); second upper maxillary tooth like third
in form; last lower molar double; cutting edge of first upper incisor
straight; mental foramen of mandible situated under first lower
cheek-tooth. Females average larger than males in all members of this
family. (See Orr, 1940:20.) The reverse is true in most other families
of mammals.
Hare is a name applied to any lagomorph whose young are born fully
haired, with the eyes open, and able to run about a few minutes after
birth. The young are born in the open, not in a nest. All of the species
of the genus _Lepus_ are hares. The species of leporids of all genera
other than _Lepus_, in North America at least, are rabbits. Their young
are born naked, blind, and helpless, in a nest especially built for them
and lined with fur. Considering the degree of development of the young
at birth, the gestation periods are about what a person would expect: 26
to 30 days in _Sylvilagus_ and 36 to 47 days in _Lepus_ (see Severaid,
1950:356-357). Vernacular names are misleading because the names jack
rabbit and snowshoe rabbit are applied to hares; also, Belgian hare is a
name applied to a rabbit (genus _Oryctolagus_) that is commonly bred in
captivity. There are many domestic strains and varieties of
_Oryctolagus_ and the animals are second only to poultry in some areas
as a protein food for man. Also, the pelts are sold as a source of felt
and many of the skins are dyed and processed for making fur coats and
other fur-pieces that appear on the market under names not readily
associated with rabbit.
Rabbits and hares are crepuscular and possibly more nocturnal than
diurnal. So far as I know they do not store food as do their diurnal
relatives, the pikas. Some leporids, however, have an unusual, and
possibly unique, method of processing food: Two types of vegetable
pellets are expelled from the anal opening of the digestive tract; the
dark brownish pellets, from which the nutriments have been extracted,
are feces, but the greenish pellets seem to be only slightly predigested
foods which are re-eaten. Southern (1942:553), among others, has written
about this. This system functionally resembles that in the ruminants
where a cud of vegetation is returned to the mouth, from one part of the
stomach, to be re-chewed and finally swallowed.
Because the causative organism of a disease that decimates dense
populations of small mammals, and some other kinds of vertebrates, was
isolated first in leporids, this disease, tularemia, is more associated
in the popular mind with rabbits than with other kinds of mammals.
Actually, many kinds of mammals are quite as likely to have tularemia as
are rabbits. Now that streptomycin is available, cases of tularemia in
persons are easily cured.
KEY TO SPECIES OF THE GENERA SYLVILAGUS AND ROMEROLAGUS
1. Antorbital extension of supraorbital process more than 1/2 length of
posterior extension; first upper cheek-tooth with only one
re-entrant angle on anterior face; re-entrant angle of second upper
cheek-tooth not crenate
_Sylvilagus idahoensis_, p. 139
1'. Antorbital extension of supraorbital process less than 1/2 of
posterior extension or entirely absent; first upper cheek-tooth with
more than one (usually 3) re-entrant angles on anterior face;
re-entrant angle of second upper cheek-tooth crenate.
2. Anterior extension of supraorbital process absent (or if a point is
barely indicated, then 5/6 or all of posterior process fused to
braincase).
3. Tympanic bulla smaller than foramen magnum; hind foot more than
74; geographic range wholly in United States.
4. Ear more than 58 from notch in dried skin; basilar length of
skull more than 63
_Sylvilagus aquaticus_, p. 166
4'. Ear less than 58 from notch in dried skin; basilar length of
skull less than 63.
5. Underside of tail white; posterior extension of supraorbital
process tapering to a slender point, this point free of
braincase or barely touching it and leaving a slit or long
foramen
_Sylvilagus transitionalis_, p. 160
5'. Underside of tail brown or gray; posterior extension of
supraorbital process always fused to skull, usually for
entire length but in occasional specimens there is small
foramen at middle of posterior extension of supraorbital
process
_Sylvilagus palustris_, p. 147
3'. Tympanic bulla as large as foramen magnum; hind foot less than
74; geographic range limited to southern edge of Mexican
tableland at high elevations
_Romerolagus diazi_, p. 138
2'. Anterior extension of supraorbital process present, and posterior
extension free of braincase or leaving a slit between the process
and braincase.
6. Tympanic bullae large (see fig. 26).
_Sylvilagus audubonii_, p. 162
6'. Tympanic bullae small (see figs. 23, 25 and 27).
7. Restricted to Pacific coastal strip from Columbia River
south to tip of Baja California, west of Sierra
Nevada-Cascade Mountain Chain; hind foot less than 81.
_Sylvilagus bachmani_ and _S. mansuetus_, pp. 143, 147
7'. East of the Pacific coastal strip mentioned in 7; hind
foot usually more than 81.
8. If north of United States-Mexican boundary:
9. In Arizona, New Mexico and southern Colorado
posterior extension of supraorbital process free of
braincase, and supraoccipital shield posteriorly
pointed; from central Colorado north into Canada
diameter of external auditory meatus more than crown
length of last three cheek-teeth
_Sylvilagus nuttallii_, p. 161
9'. In Arizona, New Mexico and southeastern Colorado
posterior extension of supraorbital process of
frontal with its tip against, or fused to,
braincase, and supraoccipital shield posteriorly
truncate or notched; from central Colorado north
into Canada, diameter of external auditory meatus
less than crown length of last three cheek-teeth
_Sylvilagus floridanus_, p. 154
8'. If south of United States-Mexican boundary:
10. Geographic range restricted to Tres Marias Islands
_Sylvilagus graysoni_, p. 169
10'. Geographic range not including Tres Marias
Islands.
11. Underside of tail dingy gray or buffy (not
white).
12. Tail short (less than 30) and brown like rump;
ear from notch (dry) less than 53;
interorbital breadth less than 16.
_Sylvilagus brasiliensis_, p. 141
12'. Tail of moderate length (more than 30) and
dingy gray; ear from notch (dry) more than
53; interorbital breadth more than 16
_Sylvilagus insonus_, p. 168
11'. Underside of tail distinctly white.
13. Total length more than 476; ear from notch
(dry) more than 64; interorbital breadth
usually more than 19.3; geographic range,
southwestern Mexico north of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec.
_Sylvilagus cunicularius_, p. 169
13'. Total length less than 476; ear from notch
(dry) less than 64; interorbital breadth
usually less than 19.3; geographic range,
Canada to Panam['a]
_Sylvilagus floridanus_, p. 154
Genus ROMEROLAGUS Merriam--Volcano Rabbit
1896. _Romerolagus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:173,
December 29. Type, _Romerolagus nelsoni_ Merriam = _Lepus diazi_
Diaz.
Total length 300 to 311; tail rudimentary; hind foot, 52; ear from notch
(dry), 36; upper parts grizzled buffy brown or dull cinnamon brown;
underparts dingy gray; anterior projection of supraorbital process
absent; jugal projecting posteriorly past squamosal root of zygomatic
arch more than half way to external auditory meatus. The two cranial
characters mentioned are resemblances to pikas although the skull
otherwise resembles that of the true rabbits. The genus contains only
the one living species.
Living in well defined runways in the dense sacoton grass, these small
rabbits are mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, but sometimes are active
by day, especially in cloudy weather in the period of mating.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. Distribution of _Romerolagus diazi_.]
=Romerolagus diazi= (Diaz)
Volcano Rabbit
1893. _Lepus diazi_ Diaz, Catal. Com. Geogr['a]f.-Expl. Repub. Mex.
Expos. Internac. Columb. Chicago, pl. 42, March, 1893, type from
eastern slope of Mount Ixtaccihuatl, Puebla.
1911. _Romerolagus diazi_ Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
24:228, October 31, 1911.
1896. _Romerolagus nelsoni_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
10:173, December 29, 1896, type from west slope Mount
Popocatepetl, 11,000 feet, M['e]xico.
_Range._--Canadian Life-zone of the mountains bounding the eastern,
southern and western sides of the Valley of Mexico. _Marginal
records._--M['e]xico: Monte R['i]o Fr['i]o, 45 km. ESE Mexico City (Davis,
1944:401). Puebla: type locality. M['e]xico: Mt. Popocatepetl (Nelson,
1909:280). Distrito Federal: 31 km. S Mexico City (30815 KU). M['e]xico:
Llano Grande, 3 km. W Tlalmanalco (28278 KU).
Genus SYLVILAGUS Gray--Cottontails and Allies
Revised by Nelson, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:58-158, August 31, 1909.
1867. _Sylvilagus_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 20 (ser. 3):221.
Type, _Lepus sylvaticus_ Bachman, _Lepus nuttalli mallurus_
Thomas.
Total length, 291-538; tail, 18-73; hind foot, 71-110; ear from notch
(dry) 41-74. Grayish to dark brownish above and lighter below; sutures
of interparietal bone distinct throughout life; second to fourth
cervical vertebrae broader than long with dorsal surface flattened and
without carination.
The delectable flesh of members of this genus, the large numbers that
occur on a small area, even in thickly settled rural areas, and the
wariness that rabbits soon develop when much hunted, give them top
ranking among small game mammals. Tens of thousands of cottontails in
Kansas and Missouri (_Sylvilagus floridanus_ and some _S. audubonii_)
are captured alive, transported to the eastern United States and
released there to bolster the local supply of game. Considering that
certain ectoparasites are limited to certain hosts and that some
ectoparasites transmit such diseases as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
whereas other ectoparasites do not, this transplantation of rabbits is
dangerous. Also, expenditure of $100.00 on improving the habitat for
_Sylvilagus_ in a given area in the eastern United States would produce
more cottontails than the expenditure of the same sum for live animals,
from the Middlewest, that are to be released (see Langenbach and Beule,
1942:14, 15 and 30).
Different species venture different distances from cover to feed. The
Audubon cottontail of west-central California ventures a hundred feet
and more from cover but the brush rabbit was never seen (Orr, 1940:182)
farther than 42 feet from cover. In the thirties, when a gladiolus
farmer from the chaparral belt of Santa Clara County, California,
visited the University of California seeking advice on how to prevent
damage by "cottontails" to his gladioli plantings, we asked the farmer
if brush rabbits or cottontails were responsible and suggested to the
farmer, who was unable to distinguish between the two, that an animal be
killed and submitted for identification. When this was done, the brush
rabbit (_Sylvilagus bachmani_) was found to be responsible for the
damage. Robert T. Orr's recommendation that the chaparral (brush) be cut
back 45 feet from the gladioli plantings was reluctantly followed and
proved to be effective. A letter from a Santa Clara County agricultural
official a couple of years later expressed thanks for the recommendation
made by Orr, and estimated that adoption of his recommendations saved
farmers of that one county $40,000 annually. This incident illustrates
how detailed knowledge of the life history of a given kind of animal and
control of its environment, rather than direct "control" of the animal,
is sometimes of value to man.