THE USES OF PHOSPHORESCENCE.
As to the value and use of the gift of luminosity possessed by various
animals, we can only surmise. Many interesting theories have been
suggested, none of which, however, seem to stand the test of practical
application. Some naturalists believe that the light of certain
invertebrates is a warning. As an example, the jelly-fishes have a
terrible array of stings; and it is supposed that fishes once stung,
remember the light of these forms, and avoid them in the future. If
this were true, many helpless animals, as the salpa and others, would
also find protection in the lesson taught by the jelly-fishes.
It is a poor rule that will not work both ways; and we might well ask,
if nature supplies these lights as warnings, why the physalia, the
most terrible of all these forms, has not been thus provided. Phipson
mentions it as a phosphorescent animal, but in the thousands that I
have observed during a long residence in the physalia country, I never
saw one give out light; hence I assume that if they are luminous, it is
only on certain occasions. It might be considered that the vivid colors
of this attractive creature constituted a warning; but even this does
not hold, as I have found all kinds of pelagic fishes in their toils,
and even a turtle and many small fishes bite readily at the deadly
tentacles.
It is well known that the sunfish (_Orthagoriscus_), lump-fish, and
dogfish all attack jelly-fishes, perhaps in default of better food;
and far from being afraid of light, all fishes are attracted by it.
It is evident, that, if jelly-fishes possess eyes, they must be able
to distinguish others of their kind; hence their phosphorescence
may possibly be a simple signal language, if so we may term it, by
which they may find one another; or, having its origin in the nervous
functions of the animal, the light may be unconsciously emitted, and
have no more significance than a blush or sudden pallor upon the human
face. Whatever may be the value of the light to themselves, it is of
obvious use to other animals. It assists in the general illumination
of the deep recesses of the ocean; and, in the case of jelly-fishes,
certainly marks their position, and thus aids the whalebone whales
when feeding at night at depths from the surface where little light
penetrates.
The various colored lights seen upon certain crustaceans and worms, and
their peculiar position, point to the possible belief that they may be
signals, constituting a primitive means of communication; also of use
to the animals in lighting their way, as we have seen in the case of
the pyrophorus. The lights of fishes, whatever may have been the object
of nature, serve several distinct purposes: to draw the attention of
enemies, to attract prey, and to illumine the gloom about them. Any one
who has fished at night by torchlight well knows the attraction that
light has for fishes of all kinds, and when submarine electric lights
have been watched, groups of fishes and squids have been observed
about them; so it is evident that predatory fishes possessing lights
have in their lure a decided advantage.
Actual experiment has shown that the electric light can be seen
ninety-nine feet under water. The soft rays of animal phosphorescence
would not penetrate so far, but would be powerful enough to illumine
the water for some distance about them.
The deep-sea fishes which are not remarkable for their phosphorescence,
or do not possess it at all, have feelers in many instances, and grope
about like blind men: while others have eyes that not only see, but are
possible emitters of light themselves. In the case of the predatory
shark captured by Bennett, we may assume that the light was an
effective lure: but the same will not apply to the brilliant scopelus
and other delicate little creatures almost completely defenceless; so
that it will be seen that it is as difficult to lay down fixed rules
for the use of the light as to explain the cause of its production. The
phosphorescence of corals and their allies,--gorgonias, sea-anemones,
etc., may serve to attract prey. The minute crustaceans, so valuable
to food fishes, are by their unfortunate gift rendered visible to
their enemies, and the same may apply to many of the worms; while in
a certain species of the genus _Polynæ_, we have seen that the
phosphorescent scales which it throws off may be used to delude its
enemies, just as when certain lizards cast off their tails, and dart
away, leaving them wriggling and squirming, to attract the attention
of their pursuers. Certain crustaceans have luminous bands or spots
which undoubtedly serve as lanterns, while many have eyes that are
modified into light-emitting organs. The light produced inadvertently
by schools of mackerel, in their movements through water teeming
with phosphorescent animals, redounds to the benefit of the fishermen.
The pale phosphoric cloud, seen from the top masthead, resting upon the
surface of the ocean, tells the secret of their exact situation; and,
by surrounding it with the great net, large schools are often caught.
[Illustration:
PLATE XXV.
LUMINOUS WATERSPOUT.]
Among the insects we have definite experiments to show that the light
they emit is a signal; in other words, the insects recognize the lights
of their friends. A French naturalist one evening held from his window
a living specimen of _Lampyris noctiluca_ (Plate IX.) in the presence
of several friends; and a few moments later a companion insect left
the gleaming throng without, and alighted upon his hand, touching the
captive, whose light was almost immediately extinguished.
M. Raphael Dubois, member of the Zoölogical Society of France, etc.,
has shown that the _Pyrophorus_ (Plate XI.) uses its light as we would
a lantern in the night. When he covered the light upon one side of
the insect, it pursued a curved course; and, when both lights were
extinguished, it was obviously at fault, and moved along with great
care, and was evidently unfitted for nocturnal life.
We have seen how these insects were the means of saving the life of
Jaeger, in lighting him out of the forests of the southern islands; how
natives attach them to their feet, and employ them as lanterns; while
others in South America form an article of trade, being utilized by the
ladies as articles of personal adornment.
It must be evident to my young readers, that a practical application of
the general features of phosphorescence would be extremely valuable,
and in the previous chapter luminous paints and writing fluids have
been referred to. An English chemist, named Balmain, has produced
from Canton’s phosphorus a paint which is luminous in the dark, and
which has been applied to many purposes. Years ago the Chinese used
a luminous paint made from powdered mussel-shells. The Emperor Tai
Tsung, who reigned in the latter part of the tenth century, possessed
a painting which, if examined by day, represented a cow browsing in an
open pasture, but if this picture was taken into a darkened room, or
looked at by night, the cow was seen to be lying down behind a fence,
securely housed and protected. The secret was, that the fence and the
cow in the night picture were painted in “South Sea pearl paste,” as
the Chinese called their phosphorescent paint, and were alone visible;
while in the daylight the painting of “powdered reef-stone” only was
seen, representing the animal in a standing position.
To Balmain, however, is due the credit of introducing luminous paint in
this country and Europe, and it is applied to many objects. We have the
faces of our clocks and watches luminous, so that the time can be told
in the dark. Match-safes are rendered conspicuous by the same means,
and various other articles.
Through the courtesy of Messrs. Devoe & Co., of New York, I was
enabled to examine the application of this paint upon statuary and
other objects. Upon entering a dark room, a statue was seen outlined
in a wonderful bluish light of remarkable softness and beauty. An arm
resting upon a table was vividly luminous, and presented a ghostly
appearance. A large globe which hung from the ceiling gave out a soft
radiance, quite sufficient to dispel the darkness, and the entire
exhibition was suggestive of the varied uses to which the light could
be put. Among these might be mentioned the painting of houses, so that
they will render the streets luminous; buoys at sea; even the hulls
of ships and their sails might be made conspicuous in this way. In
London the harnesses of horses engaged in night work have been rendered
luminous by this paint; and its availability in mines, and in large
sewers like those of London, tunnels, and other subterranean works
can hardly be estimated. Artificial fishes are painted, and used as
luminous bait; and toys innumerable are placed upon the market, made
interesting by application of this discovery.
It is obvious that luminous paint cannot be used in some cases, and
to take its place Messrs. W. C. Home and E. Ormerod of London have
recently invented a method of utilizing the luminous powder prepared
mainly as a sulphide of calcium, for admixture with cements, plaster
of Paris, and concrete, the object being to prepare the articles with
a self-contained phosphorescent property instead of coating them with
luminous paint. They take the proper proportion of any suitable cement,
with the right amount of the luminous powder, mixing these with water,
and moulding it to the required shape in the usual way, after which it
is laid on the ceilings or walls with a trowel. The patentees attach
importance to placing the moulded articles, as soon as dry, in a bath
of paraffine wax and benzoline, or other water-proofing substance
equally good.
In the case of using the luminous cement upon a wall or ceiling, they
sponge or brush the surface over with a solution of paraffine wax and
benzoline, or other suitable damp-proofing solution. The uses of a
luminous cement are manifold; e.g., for the garden, luminous concrete
as edging to garden-paths and carriage-drives; for guides and beacons
at the entrance-gates of drives; insides of stables; the base of
balustrades, or the entirety of balustrades; for roads, as luminous
beacons of corners of dark country lanes, and at the ends of bridges,
ends of walls, and curbs of foot-paths; for docks; for edging of piers
and wharves; for water-works; for the safety and despatch of night-work
by the erection of luminous guides and beacons; and for fire-plug
notices on walls; in short, for any place where the light of day will
sufficiently excite the phosphorescent property as to render the cement
or concrete work luminous by night. The difficulty of sighting rifles
in the dark has been ingeniously overcome by the use of luminous
paint, and it is thought that the armies of various nations will adopt
phosphorescent sights for general use.
I have before me as I write, through the courtesy of M. Raphael Dubois
of Paris, a fine photograph of a bust of Claude Bernard, taken by the
light of numbers of phosphorescent insects (elaters), which shows the
possibility of work in this direction.
M. Ch. V. Zenger of Paris has made some interesting experiments, and
expressed the belief, some time in 1883, that Mount Blanc could be
photographed by phosphorescent light emitted, and I understand this has
been accomplished. M. Zenger has photographed objects by the light of
Balmain’s phosphoric plates. From a personal communication from this
scientist, I will quote some things which he has kindly submitted for
the author’s use in this volume, referring to this work and the use of
Balmain’s liquid phosphorus. As a light, he says, “No doubt there may
exist better and more perfect phosphorescent bodies of green, greenish
blue, and violet hue, than are at my disposal; and to avoid the use of
sulphurets and sulphides, etc., and to obtain as long a phosphorescence
as possible, is all I want to reduce stellar photography to the
simplest and cheapest apparatus, and make it available to every one.”
As we have seen, the light emitted by animals, plants, and minerals,
of whatever cause, presents much that is mysterious; and the problem
of animal phosphorescence would seem no nearer being solved to-day
than it was fifty years ago. This is perhaps due to a lack of study
and investigation. A glance at the appended bibliography shows that
much has been written upon the subject; but it is only within the last
decade that serious work in this direction has been done, typified
in the superb work of Dubois, and the papers and monographs of the
other scientists mentioned. The naturalists of the “Albatross,” the
government exploring steamer, are to make investigations regarding the
luminosity of the Pacific, during the forthcoming tour on the western
coast. The French Academy of Sciences offers this year a prize of three
thousand francs for the best paper upon animal phosphorescence. From
this it would appear evident that the phenomenon is creating renewed
or increasing interest, and in the following years will be the subject
of much study and investigation; and we may expect in the near future
to have not only its cause explained, but possibly to see a practical
application of its possibilities to the wants of mankind.
APPENDIX.
[1] PAGE 5.--_Noctiluca._ This interesting little creature belongs,
in the natural arrangement as now recognized by science, to the first
grand division of the animal kingdom. Simple as it is, it is not so
completely without organs as some which form the first groups of this
first division, as it has a whip-like organ, which gives name to its
group, the _Flagellata_, or flagellate infusorians. These monads, as
they are also called, are represented by a species of _Noctiluca_ in
our North-American waters off the coast of Maine. Huxley regards its
luminous property as given out by the peripheral layer of protoplasm
which lines the cuticle.
M. Giglioli of Bologna, Italy, in a letter to the author, says, “I have
distinguished three modes of marine phosphorescence, very distinct,
which present a great number of varieties. These are,--
“(_a_) Diffused homogeneous milky light.
“(_b_) Luminous points, sparkling and inconstant.
“(_c_) Luminous disks, with light generally fixed, and not
sparkling.
“In one case the sea seemed on fire, and dolphins seemed to be fire.
“Again, the sea seemed to acquire an oily consistence, giving out soft
homogeneous light, of a milky color, tinted with green or bluish. It
is perhaps the least frequent, but most striking. It is due to the
presence of noctiluca. It often resembled incandescent rain falling
from the paddle-wheels of steamers.”
M. Giglioli agrees with Huxley in stating that “the phenomenon of
phosphorescence in these animals does not reside in the protoplasmic
branches, which, as is known, are sometimes wanting; but in the
cortical substance it is not uniform, but manifests itself in distinct
and very minute luminous points, which sparkle, go out, and light up
again.”
[2] PAGE 9. Kiel observed this phenomenon in _Peridinium_. The
following species of luminous forms existing in the Baltic Sea have
been described by Ehrenberg: _Prorocentrum micans_, _Peridinium
michælis_, _Peridinium micans_, _Peridinium fuscus_, _Peridinium
furca_, _Peridinium acuminatum_, _Lynchata baltica_, and a species of
_Stentor_.
[3] PAGE 9. Giglioli and his assistant, De Fillipi, observed luminosity
in the gelatinous mass described by Hækel as _Citophora_.
The genera of those low forms most remarkable for luminosity are
_Thalassicolla_, _Collozoum_, _Sphærozoum_, and _Collosphæra_. Giglioli
states that the forms of this group which are found in the Indian Ocean
and China seas are not luminous.
[4] PAGE 11. _Dymophora fulgurans._
[5] PAGE 12. Other light-givers of this group are _Willsea prolifera_,
_Bourganivillia_, and _Lizzia_.
[6] PAGE 12. _Mueniopsis leidyii._
[7] PAGE 13. The _Lucernaria_ is a very rare form of _medusa_ on our
northern shores, and particularly characteristic in color and form. It
is more like a polyp in texture, and its rich beryl color distinguishes
it from all other forms. It is related to the _Discophores_, animals
belonging to one of the groups of jelly-fishes, or _medusæ_.
[8] PAGE 14. Schafer has observed radiating fibres on the under side,
but there is no evidence to show that the luminosity originates here.
In fact, the outer surface, where the cells of the delicate epithelium,
or skin, contain minute points of fatty material, is equally
phosphorescent. The tentacles become luminous, and it is supposed
that they contain no nerves except at the margin of the disk. In some
instances the light seems well defined at the so-called eye-spots at
the edge of the disk, but its sudden fluctuations render any attempt at
locating a photogenic structure difficult.
While numerous theories are advanced, investigators are entirely at
fault as regards any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon. There
are certain conditions which are not favorable to the emission of
light; and observers have seen _medusæ_, vividly luminous at one time,
and not so at another.
It has been suggested that the light is subject to the so-called
will of the creature. A better theory, perhaps, would attribute the
luminosity to certain peculiar conditions, or to certain stages of
existence.
[9] PAGE 15. _Pleurobrachia rhodactyla_, Agassiz. This is one of the
numerous free-swimming marine animals, belonging to the _Ctenophores_.
A group of the sea-jellies which have the pretty rows of paddles
adown their long diameter. They are usually about a pigeon’s-egg in
size, are oval, and in their element almost invisible, so colorless
and transparent are they. A close inspection shows the paddles to be
iridescent.
[10] PAGE 15. _Idya roseola_, Agassiz. Another form found near the
shores of Nahant.
[11] PAGE 16. The _Physophoridæ_ include the interesting forms,
_Physalia_ (Portuguese Man-of-War), _Porpita_, _Vellela_, etc. The
first named indicates the character of the group, as its fleshy mass
is surmounted by a beautiful bladder-like float, a mere bubble of
membrane. These forms are not often seen out of tropical waters.
[12] PAGE 16. The term zooids is applied to the mass of tentacles and
other fleshy parts of the _Physophoræ_. The long, extensile feelers are
for prehension; others aid in locomotion, and some are reproductive;
others are feeders for the entire colony. Thus it will be seen that
these creatures are in a sense compound animals.
[13] PAGE 24. Alcyonarian corals from an order in the class _Actinozoa_.
[14] PAGE 24. Professor Moseley, of the “Challenger” expedition, was
enabled to examine the light from these beautiful forms by the aid of
the spectroscope, and found that it consisted of red, yellow, and green
rays only.
[15] PAGE 25. _Acanella normani Verril._ A pretty soft coral, which has
been dredged off the New-England coast by the fish-commission. This
is a revelation to science, as no one was ready to believe that such
forms, so common to the tropical regions, would be found where they
were. The Gulf Stream runs so close to the North-eastern States, it
will not, on reflection, seem strange that some creatures common to the
warmer waters may find a home there.
[16] PAGE 25. _Primnoa resida._
[17] PAGE 25. _Paragorgia arborea._
[18] PAGE 26. _Pennatulidæ._ The name of a family of marine animals,
which includes the _Umbellularias_, _Veretillum_, etc.,--the last
highly phosphorescent.
[19] PAGE 26. While investigations so far have failed to explain the
physiology of the light, it has been found that in a perfect animal it
is emitted from eight opaque cords, each of which passes from a little
swelling at the base of a tentacle down each polyp into the covering
of the branch. The cords are canals in the sarcode of the branch,
connecting the hollow of each tentacle with the tubular cavities of
the branchlets and stem. The microscope shows that the contents of
the canals are a fluid and cells; the latter containing minute highly
refracting globular particles of a fatty substance, which resists
decomposition long after the death of the polyp itself. If these cords
are ruptured, the luminosity of the entire mass is excited, and the
fatty cell contents is luminous after its escape, and on foreign matter
even after the death of the animal.
Regarding the light, Duncan says, referring to Panceri’s experiments,
“There is no sensible increase of temperature, and the tint of the
monochromatic light is azure or greenish, but never red. In this
beautiful instance of this remarkable vital luminousness there is
evidently a photogenic structure and an elaborated organic material
capable of producing light after removal from the animal. The sequence
of illuminating the whole pen is slow,--far less than that of the
movement of nerve-force. Yet the presence of the lowly organized
nervous element indicates that the regulating of the light may relate
to it as its function.”
Perhaps the most magnificent of all the _Pennatulidæ_ is the tall
_Umbellularia grænlandica_ (Plate XXI., Fig. 2), which consists
of twelve huge polyps, each with eight fringed arms, terminating in a
close cluster upon a stalk about four feet in height. This striking
form was dredged by the “Challenger” expedition in water over two miles
in depth, where the pressure is so great one can hardly realize it,
and the temperature is just above freezing. Sir Wyville Thompson says,
that, when this splendid animal was taken from the trawl, it emitted
a light so brilliant that Capt. Maclear found it an easy matter to
determine the character of the light by the spectroscope. It gave a
very restrictedly continuous spectrum, sharply included between the
lines _b_ and _d_.
[20] PAGE 27. _Pavonia quadrangularis._
[21] PAGE 27. _Asteronyx loveni._
[22] PAGE 27. _Ophiacantha._
[23] PAGE 28. _Renilla reniformis._
[24] PAGE 28. _Virgularia_ is so named from its rod-like form; _vira_,
a rod. _V. mirabilis_ is found off the English coast.
[25] PAGE 30. _Ophiura_ and _Asterias_. These are genera of the
sea-stars, or star-fishes long so called; the former so named on
account of the resemblance to snakes in its arms.
[26] PAGE 30. _Ophiothrix fragilis_, _Amphiura belli_, and _Ophiocantha
spinulosa_.
[27] PAGE 31. _Ophiocnida olivacea_ and _Ophiocantha bidentata_.
[28] PAGE 31. _Brisinga elegans._
[29] PAGE 32. _Astrophyton._ There are several species of this
star-fish, but each found in deep water. They are curiously
circumscribed in locality. In one place off Cape Cod they are
dredged, but in no other place, excepting farther south. Their
name, basket-fish, is from their numerous intwined arms, resembling
basket-work.
[30] PAGE 37. _Serpula._ A genus of the group _Annelida_.
[31] PAGE 37. _Neiridæ_ and _Eunicedæ_. Genera of the group _Annelida_.
[32] PAGE 37. _Polynoidæ_, _Scyllidæ_, _Chætopteridæ_, and _Polycirus_.
[33] PAGE 38. _Chætopterus norvegicus._
[34] PAGE 39. _Harmothoe imbricata_ emits a bright greenish light
when disturbed, the luminosity evidently proceeding from the point of
attachment of each dorsal scale.
[35] PAGE 40. _Pholas._ A clam-like mollusk. Several species are
found on Nahant beaches. _P. dactylus_ is a European form. The genus
_Zirphæa_ is found from New England to Great Britain. All are more or
less borers. A small species bores in hard mud on the Nahant beaches.
Others are known to bore into hard wood and into stone.
_Pholas dactylus_ will be seen to have photogenic or light-emitting
structures and substances almost concealed in the tissues of the
animal. The light-emitting portions are, according to Panceri, “two
parallel cords containing an opaque white matter extending down the
anterior siphon, two very small spots at its entrance, and finally an
arched cord corresponding to the superior edge of the mantle, reaching
to the middle near the valves. The white color of the cords, which
stand out in relief, distinguishes them; and, although they are only
elevations of the subcuticular tissue, they contain special cells,
or rather epithelium, which produces the phosphorescent matter. The
whole surface of the Pholas is covered with ciliated epithelium, which
dips down into all the parts of the animal; but the special epithelium
differs from this. It is nucleated and crammed with granules, and
the cells are very refractive. The cells are very fragile, and allow
their contents--i.e., granular nuclei and refractive granules--to
escape readily. These are soluble in ether and alcohol. Under ordinary
circumstances this photogenic apparatus is hidden; but violence readily
displaces the special cells, which burst, and their contents are
carried all over the surface by the water, assisted by the general
ciliation. The white substance, fat-like, retains its luminosity, when
spread out on paper, for hours; but the light does not appear to be
accompanied by an evolution of heat. When it is placed in carbonic acid
gas, the light pales and ceases. On the other hand, the photogenic
substance, when barely luminous, is rendered so by physical contact.
Agitation, and the addition of fresh or salt water, develop the light,
and the same effect is produced by electricity and by heat. The light
is monochromatic, and has a constant place in the spectrum as an azure
band from E to F, that is to say, in the green.”
[36] PAGE 44. _Dendronotus arborescens._ A curiously decorated marine
slug, found on the algæ of the waters around Massachusetts Bay. _Eolis_
is another form nearly as interesting.
[37] PAGE 55. The spectrum of the light of comparatively few of these
beetles has been examined. That of _Photinus_ was found by Professor C.
A. Young, the astronomer, to be continuous without lines, and to extend
from Fraunhofer’s line C in the scarlet, to about F in the blue.
Mr. Meldola examined the spectrum of the light of the glow-worm some
years ago, and found that it was continuous, being rich in blue and
green rays, and comparatively poor in red and yellow.
[38] PAGE 56. Professor Carl Emery of the Entomological Society of
Italy has kindly sent to us a detailed account of his experiments
with the illuminating apparatus of a native luminous insect, the
_Luciola italica_, etc. As these are the latest conclusions by the
highest scientific authority, and therefore to be regarded as the most
reliable, we here present a full account.
“The elytra of the insect _Luciola_ were glued upon a holder of the
microscope, and covered by a glass of tolerable thickness. On examining
it, I got a favorable magnifying power, A of Zeiss. With stronger
objective there is no good effect.
“The eye is at first dazzled by a strong, uniform yellowish light. But
the intensity of this light is soon checked, the luminous field being
interrupted by round spots. The light continues to diminish; the image
becomes paler; and between the obscure round spots are seen to appear
confused shadows, which detach themselves from the more brilliant
rings. These rings are last to disappear when all the other portions
have become dark. In the end they disappear entirely.
“The organ remains dark until the next flash; only here and there
brilliant isolated points persist, which, as we shall see later,
represent parenchymal cells which have retained their activity. If one
places under the microscope the detached abdomen of a normal Luciola,
and excites it by pressure of short duration by the cover glass, it is
possible to obtain a flash which resembles the physiological flash.”
M. Emery states that he found it unsatisfactory to examine the insect
while alive, as the constant movements rendered it nearly impossible to
observe correctly the phenomenon of luminosity. He proceeds: “I have
found by poisoning the Luciola by vapors of osmic acid an excellent
method in fixing the light, and studying exactly the microscopic aspect.
“When one examines in a dark chamber the abdomen detached from a
Luciola which has been plunged in a solution of osmic acid, it is seen
that a part of the segments occupied by the luminous organs shine with
a feeble and variable light; whilst another part (ordinarily in the
neighborhood of the median line) is obscure, or as it were veiled by a
light phosphorescent cloud. When the preparation is placed under the
microscope, the luminous parts exhibit towards the top the appearance
which we have already noted in examining normal Luciolas; that is to
say, the existence of obscure round spots surrounded by brilliant
field. In observing more attentively, one perceives around the spots
other little spots, less obscure, and sometimes hardly visible,
disposed with a certain degree of regularity.
“Now, if we compare these images with those which are presented under
the microscope by the luminous organs when hardened in alcohol, and
cleared up by caustic potash, or else a tangetized section made of
the organ of an animal killed by osmic acid, and colored by carmine,
it becomes evident that the large, obscure round spots correspond to
the central part of the digitiform lobes of _Targioni Tozzetti_;
that is to say, to the cylinders constituted by the matrix of trachea
(_Tracheenendzellen_ of M. Schultze), whilst the luminous part
is represented by the parenchymentous cells, and the little obscure
spots are due to nuclei of these same cells. Still towards the limit of
the brilliant and obscure regions of the luminous organ a very varied
spectacle is observed....
“From all the facts which we have just described, one may conclude
with full certainty that the light of the Luciola has its seat in the
parenchymentous cells of the luminous organ.”
“It remains to be seen if the luminous combustion does not also take
place, though, with luminosity in other parts. In my previous work I
had it that the surface of the cylindrical lobes formed by the matrix
of the tracheæ was the principal focus or seat of the combustion. The
facts which result from later observation oblige me to abandon this
opinion....
“In the moments of mean luminous activity, one may say that the
combustion is situated exclusively in the parenchymentous cells of the
superficial layer of the luminous organ.”
[39] PAGE 73. _Gammarus caudisetus_, _Gammarus longicornis_, _Gammarus
truncatus_, _Gammarus heteroclitus_, _Gammarus crassimanus_. _Cyclops
exiliens_ is also luminous.
[40] PAGE 77. Another species in which this change had taken place is
_Galathodes antonii_, an allied form which is shown in the central
figure of the frontispiece. Many more, as _Willemœsea_, _Pentacheles_,
_Polycheles_, and others, have organs of vision, which have undergone
more or less change. It has been suggested that certain deep-sea
crabs, as _Geryon tridens_, _Gonoplax_, _Donychus_, and _Munida_, have
phosphorescent eyes.
In _Ptycogaster formosus_ (Plate XIII., Fig. 1), we find an interesting
form, living at a depth of twenty-eight hundred and fifty feet, or
more than half a mile, from the surface, which is provided with
well-developed eyes.
[41] PAGE 81. The individual zooids, amounting to many hundreds, are
grouped in whorls, their orifices so arranged that the inhalent are
upon the outside of the cylinder, and the exhalent upon the interior.
Each animal draws in a current from the outside, ejecting it into the
interior; the result of this volume of water rushing from the open
end being that the entire colony is forced along, at the same time
revolving upon its long axis.
[42] PAGE 81. Panceri says, “Each zooid has two luminous spots, which
are situated over the position of the ganglia of the nervous system;
and there are loops like cords passing over the narrow end, connecting
them.”
[43] PAGE 94. Dr. Gunther expressed the view that the organs are the
producers, not the receivers, of light. He says, in brief, that the
number of pairs of small globular bodies found along the abdominal
profile is in direct relation to that of the vertebræ, the muscular
system, etc. These are of two kinds. One class consists of the
anterior, bi-convex, lens-like body, which is transparent during life;
simple, or composed of rods, and coated with a dark membrane composed
of hexagonal cells or rods arranged as in a retina. This structure
characterizes the plates of _Stomias_ (Plate XX.), _Astronechtes_,
_Chauliodus_ (Plate XXI., Fig. 4).
In the other set, as found in _Gonostoma_, _Myctoplum mausolicus_, and
_Argyopelicus_, the organs have a simple, glandular structure. Branches
of spinal nerves have been traced to each organ, and are distributed
over the retina-like membrane of the glandular follicles.
The difference in structure of those organs naturally produces
difference of opinion regarding their functions; but Gunther believes
that all the organs in their functions have some relations to the
conditions of light in which the fishes that possess them live. Three
principal theories regarding them are given: first, they may all be
accessory eyes; second, only the organs with the lenticular body are
eyes, and those with glands are light-givers; third, all are producers
of light. Many arguments have been advanced to support these different
hypotheses; but it would seem that the second view is most tenable,
from the fact that the organs with the retina-like membrane bear a
great resemblance to a true eye, and finally the glandular organ
in the little fish _Myctoplum_ has been seen to gleam with a
phosphorescent light. Dr. Gunther thinks it not improbable that the
compound organ is an accessory eye, and a light-producer as well. The
light, he says, may be produced at the bottom of the posterior chamber,
and emitted through the lenticular body in particular directions, with
the same effect as when light is sent through the convex glass of a
bull’s-eye.
[44] PAGE 104. _Orthogoriscus mola._
[45] PAGE 128. Diatoms: _Pyrocystis pseudo-noctiluca_ and _P.
fusciformis_.
[46] PAGE 138. The common mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_), the meadow
mushroom (_Agaricus arvensis_), the French champignon (_Marasmius
oreades_), and in Austria _Agaricus mellius_, are eaten largely.
Truffles (_Tuber æstivum_), Morels (_Morchella esculenta_), and
Puff-ball (_Lycoperdon giganteum_) are also favorites in Europe.
[47] PAGE 138. Jew’s ear: _Himcola auricula Judæ_.
[48] PAGE 138. _Myletta austratis._
[49] PAGE 149. See the description of ooze on page 3. This ooze is
formed of the cast-off shells of the _Diatoms_, the minute vegetable
forms of low organization.
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INDEX.
Æroscope, 155.
Agaric, luminous, 135, _et seq._
Agassiz, Mrs., on jelly-fish, 11.
---- Louis, 19.
Baird, William, on Chinese fire-flies, 68.
Baird, Professor S. F., 94.
Balmain’s luminous paint, 164.
Banks, Sir Joseph, on luminous crabs, 75.
Beetles, 47.
cannonading, 48.
odorous, 48.
flesh-eating, 48.
grave-digging, 49.
_Scarabæus_, 49.
lightning-bugs, 49.
Bellot, Lieut., on luminous crustaceans, 73.
Bennett, D. F., on luminous shark, 100.
Berkeley, Rev. J. M., on fox-fire, 131.
Black swallower, 97.
Blind fishes, 92.
“Blood-rains,” 153.
Bombay duck, 93.
Boon Island, sea-jellies at, 10.
Boring-shells, 40.
Branner, John C., on lantern-fly, 67.
Burning bush, legends of, 129.
Canton’s phosphorus, 156.
Centipedes, 69.
Chalk Cliff, Dover, 3.
“Challenger,” exploring-ship, 24, 31.
China, luminous insects in, 65.
Chinese luminous paint, 164.
Coal-mines, luminosity in, 133.
Collingwood, Dr. Cuthbert, on luminous fungus, 134.
Corals, 21.
Col. Pike on their phosphorescence, 21.
Cosmic dust, 148 _et seq._
composition of, 149.
Crabs, luminous, 72 _et seq._
Cranes, phosphorescence of, 109.
Crustaceans, luminous, 72.
Lieut. Bellot on, 73.
Nordenskiöld on, 73.
Cuttle-fishes, 46.
Cyclops, 73.
Darwin on phosphorescence of _Medusæ_, 17.
---- on earthworms, 34.
---- on lightning-bugs of South America, 57.
---- on dust-showers, 152.
Deep sea, fishes of, 91 _et seq._
Deep-sea shrimps, brilliant colors, 79.
Deep-sea dredging, 93.
Dejean, Gen., story of, 47.
Diatoms, luminous, 128 _et seq._
Donovan, luminous insects of India, 68.
Drummond, Mr., on luminous toadstools, 136.
Dubois, Professor Raphael, on phosphorescence, 61.
Dust, luminous, 148.
Dust showers at sea, 152.
Earth-worms, 33.
of New Zealand, 33.
Darwin on, 34.
Roman villas preserved by, 34.
of Australia, 35.
of India, 35.
luminosity, 35.
Echinoderm, nature of, 29.
Finny light-bearers, 91 _et seq._
Fireflies, 59 _et seq._
as ball-room ornaments, 59.
as lanterns, 60.
spectrum of their light, 61.
brilliancy, 52.
Fire-mushroom, 134.
Fish, luminous, 91 _et seq._
Fish, dead, phosphorescent, 141.
“Fish-stories,” 97.
Fogs, luminous, 146.
Fox-fire, 131.
Florida Reef, 3, 24.
displays of phosphorescence at, 107.
Flowers, luminous, 121.
Frog’s eggs, luminosity of, 114.
Fungus, luminous, 133 _et seq._
Gardiner, Mr., on luminous fungus, 135.
Garfish, phosphorescent, 106.
Gecko, luminosity of, 115.
_Globerigina_, 3.
Goethe on luminosity of poppy, 122.
Gorgonias, 24.
Sir Wyville Thompson on, 25.
Dr. Holder on, 26.
Günther, Dr., on luminous fish, 92.
Hailstones, luminous, 145.
Homer’s “Iliad,” dust-shower in, 154.
Herons, luminosity of, 113.
Human beings sometimes luminous, 116.
Humboldt on phosphorescence, 6.
Ice, luminous, 146.
Infusoria, 152.
Jaeger, Professor, on luminous beetles, 60.
Jelly-fish. See _Medusæ_.
Josephus refers to luminosity of plants, 130.
Kane, Dr. E. K., curious instance of luminosity recorded by, 117.
Lantern-flies, 64 _et seq._
Legends of the “burning bush,” 129.
Light-emitting organs of _Medusæ_, 17.
Luminous larvæ, 54 _et seq._
Lightning-bugs, 47.
Southey, the poet, on, 49.
of West India Islands, 50.
Gosse on, 51.
common, of Eastern United States, 52.
common, of Europe, 56.
Luminosity in man, instances of, 116.
of plants, 129 _et seq._
Luminous organs of lightning-bugs, 55.
---- fishes, 94.
---- fogs, 146.
---- “ink,” 156.
---- marbles, 155.
---- organs of fishes, 98.
---- paint, 157.
---- showers, 144.
Lyell, Sir Charles, on cosmic dust, 152.
Mackerel, luminosity of, 104.
Marigold, luminosity of, 121.
Martyr, Peter, on luminous insects, 62.
Meat, phosphorescent, 141.
_Medusæ_, or jelly-fish, 10–18.
numbers, 11.
light-givers, 11.
Professor A. Agassiz on, 12.
brilliance, 14.
Darwin on, 17.
Spallanzani on their phosphorescence, 17.
Humboldt on, 18.
Menhaden, luminosity of, 103.
Merian, Madame, on the luminosity of _Fulgora lanternaria_, 66.
Meteors of the sea, 10.
Monkey, luminosity of eyes of, 114.
Moonfish, 105.
Mount Blanc, luminous cap of, 146.
Mushrooms, edible, 138.
Mussel Bay, luminous snow, 74.
Nasturtium, luminosity of, 121.
_Noctiluca_, 4–9.
Nordenskjöld discovers cosmic dust, 148.
Oban, sea-pens at, 26.
Ogunquit, Me., sunfish at, 104.
Ooze, 3.
Ovideo on luminous insects, 62.
Phantoms, 140.
Pholas, 40.
Phosphorescence of the sea, 6–9.
---- the secret of, 41.
---- of _Pyrosoma_, 81.
Phosphorescence, its uses, 160.
Pliny, on the luminosity of Pholas, 41.
Polyps, their phosphorescence, 24.
Poppy, luminosity of, 121, 123.
Pteropods, 42.
_Pyrosoma_, 81 _et seq._
Rotifers, 36.
San Gabriel Valley, beetles in, 48.
Sea-anemones, 20.
Sea fans and plumes, 24.
Sea-opossum, 75.
Sea-pen, 26–28.
Sea-slugs, luminous, 44.
Sea-urchins, 29.
Seas of flame, 86 _et seq._
Serapis, Temple of, 40.
Shark, luminous, 99 _et seq._
Slugs, garden, 45.
Spiders of the sea, luminous, 76.
Squid, 46.
Star-fish, 29–32.
Sugar, flashes of light from, 155.
Sunfish, 104.
Toadstools, luminous, 136.
Touchwood, or fox-fire, 131.
Trepang, 29.
Tulasue, M., on luminous fungus, 134.
Venus’s girdle, 15.
Verbenas, luminosity of, 122.
Water-fleas, 72.
Water-spouts, luminous, 127.
Whales, supposed phosphorescence of, 106.
Worms, marine, 35.
phosphorescent, 36–39.
Worrall, Mr. Isaac W., on luminosity of crane, 109.
Transcriber’s Notes:
1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
corrected silently.
2. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
been retained as in the original.
3. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
4. Bold print is shown as =xxx=.