or plates, and is not deliquescent. The soda salt has similar
characters, and the ammonia salt crystallizes in needles. These salts
abundantly precipitate the acetate and muriate of iron of a red brown
colour; they precipitate sulphate and nitrate of zinc white; muriate
of manganese slightly of a clear brown colour; barytic and strontian
salts abundantly white; being mixed with strong solutions of muriate
or acetate of lime, they gradually produce an acicular crystalline
white precipitate; acetate of silver yields an abundant white
precipitate, which does not change colour in less than twenty-four
hours: they do not precipitate salts of glucina, magnesia, alumine,
uranium, nickel, copper, cobalt, gold or platina. This substance has
been named the lichenic acid, and is distinguished from boletic acid
by the different character of its vapour, and by forming an insoluble
salt with baryta.—_Bull. Univ._ A. viii. 270.
FOOTNOTE:
[133] About one hundred and twenty grains.
34. _Remarks on the Preparation of M. Gautier’s Ferro-prussiate
[p485] of Potash, as described in this Journal for_ July,
1827.[134]—It is stated in the above article, “numerous
investigations induced M. Gautier to conclude that when animal
matter is calcined alone, it yields but little cyanogen; that when
mixed with potash it gives more; that the _substitution of nitre_
for potash, and the addition of iron or scales of iron, augmented
the production of cyanogen and gave a ferro-prussiate. The following
is the process of manufacture to which M. Gautier has ultimately
arrived,” (for which see the Journal, 227.)
M. Gautier giving the proportions of materials, directs—
Blood in a dry state 3 parts
Nitre 1 "
Iron scales 1/50 of the blood employed.
Blood not being at hand, animal muscular fibre was substituted,
and the following results were obtained. I am not aware that the
dried parts of animal muscular fibre are more inflammable than the
coagulated and dried parts of blood:—
Muscular fibre 3 parts
Nitre 1 "
Iron filings 1/50 of the undried muscle employed.
The muscular fibre, nitre and iron filings were beat into a mass, and
partially dried by a moderate heat; they were then returned to the
mortar and reduced to a perfectly homogeneous greyish white powder.
This was dried and weighed, and appeared to be reduced to nearly
equal parts of nitrate of potash and animal fibre.
The desiccation having completed by a very moderate heat on a sand
bath, will not, as far as I am aware, differ materially from that
produced by exposing the mass in “an airy situation to dry,” as
nitrate of potash undergoes no decomposition by admixture with animal
matters at a low temperature.
When the desiccation was completed, the mixture was charged into an
iron cylinder, placed in the sand-bath, and though combustion was
not anticipated in this part of the process, yet the mouth of the
cylinder was turned towards the wall, lest an accident should occur,
(which appeared to me to be more than probable in some stage of the
process.) In about two hours after the cylinder had been heated, I
was surprised to see its contents ejected with considerable force,
in a state of brilliant combustion. Supposing something in the above
experiment had been overlooked, and that, if the materials had
been longer in contact previously to subjecting them to complete
desiccation, this inflammation would not have taken place, the
experiment was repeated with the following precautions: after the
muscular fibre had been subjected to the action of the pestle in
combination with the prescribed quantity of nitrate of potash, the
mass was boiled with water for some hours, and then gently evaporated
to dryness; even now, by applying a piece of red-hot charcoal, it was
found that the nitre was in a condition to enter [p486] into active
combustion, and if the cylinder had been again charged and subjected
to a temperature capable of producing ignition, there cannot be a
doubt, but that a similar inflammation would have taken place.
However this might be, this quantity of material was now mixed
with hydrate of potash to an equal weight with the nitre used; and
the mass subjected to the heat of a sand-bath for some hours, and
afterwards submitted to the action of a naked fire for rather more
than an hour, and the heat brought up to redness. No considerable
action took place, but some particles of the carbonaceous matter were
ejected, and produced brilliant scintillations in the fire, so that
we may conclude, notwithstanding the presence of so large a quantity
of potash, the properties of the nitre were not destroyed.
H. P.
_Canal-street, Birmingham_.
FOOTNOTE:
[134] Pages 207 and 208.
III. NATURAL HISTORY.
1. _Squalls of Wind on the African Shores_.—The following description
is by D. M. Milnegraden, from the relations of his father. “The
approach of the squall is generally foreboded by the appearance of
jet black clouds over the land, moving in a direction towards the
sea, at the same time that a gentle breeze blows towards the shore.
In these circumstances, the precaution which my father usually
adopted, was to take in immediately all sail, so as to leave the ship
under bare poles, and send the whole of the crew below decks. As the
tornado approaches nearer, the rain is observed to be gushing down
in torrents, and the lightning darting down from the clouds with
such profusion, as to resemble continued showers of electric matter.
When, however, the squall comes within the distance of about half a
mile from the ship, these electric appearances altogether cease; the
rain only continues in the same manner. As the tornado is passing
over the ship, a loud crackling noise is distinctly heard among
the rigging, occasioned by the electric matter streaming down the
masts, whose points serve to attract it, and I think that I have been
told, that when this phenomenon takes place at night, a glimmering
of light is observed over every part of the rigging. But when the
squall has removed to about half a mile beyond the ship, exactly
the same appearances return by which the squall was characterised
in coming off the shore, and before reaching the same distance from
the ship. The lightning is again seen to be descending in continued
sheets and in such abundance as even to resemble the torrents of rain
themselves which accompany the squall. These squalls take place every
day during a certain season of the year called the Harmatan season.
The jet black clouds begin to appear moving from the mountains about
nine in the morning, and reach the sea about two in the afternoon.
Another very singular fact attending these tornados is, that, after
they have moved out eight or nine leagues to sea, where [p487] they
become apparently expended, the lightning is seen to rise up from the
sea. The violence of the wind during the continuance of the storm is
excessive.”—_Jameson’s Journal_, 1823, p. 367.
2. _Destruction of an Oak by Lightning_.—M. Muncke describes a case
in which an oak, being struck by lightning, was rent and destroyed
in an extraordinary manner. The trunk of the tree was about fifteen
feet in height, a foot and a half or two feet in diameter at the
branches, and three feet in diameter at the root. The top of the
tree was separated as if by the stroke of a hatchet, and without
any appearance of carbonization: the trunk was torn into a thousand
pieces, exceedingly small in size when compared with the original
mass, and thrown to a great distance. The division and destruction
was such as to sustain the thought, that in certain cases the
lightning might cause the entire dispersion of the tree, an opinion
which was suggested by the circumstance that lightning which had
fallen at Le Chateau de Marbourg left no traces of a rafter that had
occurred in its course.—_Bull. Univ._ A. viii. 194.
3. _Description of a Meteoric Fire-Ball seen at New Haven by the Rev.
S. E. Dwight_.—The meteor appeared on Saturday evening, March 21,
1813, a little before ten o’clock. The sky was much overcast, but
the covering thin, and the stars were in full view towards the north
where the meteor appeared. Dr. Dwight was standing on a platform on
the north side of the house looking eastward, when the light first
broke upon him, and for a moment supposed it to be lightning, but was
instantly induced by its continuance to look at the luminary. The
following are the observations made at the time.
i. The meteor was at first about 35° above the horizon, and, judging
from the course of a fence near at hand, its direction about N. 20°.
E.
ii. Its figure nearly that of an ellipse, with the ends in a slight
degree sharpened or angular.
iii. The length of its transverse diameter appeared to be about equal
to the apparent diameter of the moon when on the meridian, and that
of the conjugate about three fourths of the transverse.
iv. The colour rather more yellow than that of the moon.
v. A tail of light, ten or twelve degrees in length, was formed
behind it; broadest near the body; decreasing in breadth very slowly
for about two-fifths of its length, after which it was uniform, and
about as wide as the apparent diameter of Venus. The direction of the
tail was coincident with that of the transverse diameter.
vi. The ball was far more luminous than the tail, and the part
connected with the tail scarcely less distinct than the opposite part.
vii. The light was such that all objects cast distinct shadows,
though less strongly marked than when the moon is full.
viii. Numerous sparks continually issued from the ball of the [p488]
meteor; they were of the apparent size, but much more brilliant
than the smaller stars, and after descending a little distance,
disappeared.
ix. The meteor was visible for about eight or perhaps ten seconds.
x. A second or two before its disappearance, three much larger
sparks or luminous fragments were thrown off at once, two of them
the apparent size of Venus, the third larger. These were the last
pieces which were seen to leave the body. Their paths were at first
nearly parallel with that of the meteor, yet beneath it. From this
direction, however, they all deviated constantly and rapidly, in
parabolic curves, until they seemed falling perpendicularly towards
the earth. Each fragment became less and less distinct until it
disappeared. The largest continued visible until about 20° from the
horizon.
xi. The meteor itself disappeared as suddenly as if, in one
indivisible moment, it had passed into a medium absolutely opaque,
or as if, at a given moment, it had left the atmosphere; but a few
moments afterwards there was a distinct and somewhat extensive
illumination over that part of the sky for about a second.
xii. When the meteor disappeared, it was about 30° above the horizon
in the direction of N. 45° E. or 25° east of the place where it was
first seen. The direction of the path was probably from W. by S. to
E. by N. The meteor was obviously going from the observer, its path
making an angle with the optic axis of about 60°.
xiii. Between eight and ten minutes after the disappearance of the
meteor, there was a loud and heavy report, accompanied by a very
sensible jar; it did not much resemble either thunder or the report
of a cannon, but was louder, shorter, and sharper than either, and
was followed by no perceptible echo.
xiv. A friend of Dr. Dwight’s, who was in Berlin at the time, about
twenty-three miles due N. of Newhaven, saw the meteor distinctly, but
made no particular observations. His account accorded generally with
that given; but the meteor appeared to him larger, more elevated, and
somewhat more to the east in its apparent place. No account could
be obtained of any fragments which had fallen from it.—_Silliman’s
Journal_, xiii. 35.
4. _Remarkable Meteoric Phenomenon, described by_ Chladni.—A noise,
resembling thunder in its rolling nature, was heard at Saarbruck
and the environs, about four o’clock on the 1st of April, 1826, the
atmosphere being clear, and the sun shining brightly. During the
sound, a greyish object, apparently about three feet and a half in
height, was seen in the air, rapidly approaching the earth, and there
expanding itself like a sheet; there was then silence for about a
minute, after which another sound, resembling thunder, was heard, as
if it had originated at the place where the meteor fell. Nothing was
found when the place was afterwards examined.—_Bull. Univ._ A. viii.
143. [p489]
5. _Aurora Borealis seen in the Day-time at Canonmills_.—The morning
of Sunday, September 9th, was rainy, with a light gale from the N.E.
Before mid-day the wind began to veer to the west, and the clouds
in the north-western horizon cleared away: the blue sky in that
quarter assumed the form of the segment of a very large circle,
with a well-defined line, the clouds above continuing dense, and
covering the rest of the heavens. The centre of the azure arch
gradually inclined more to the north, and reached an elevation of
nearly 20°. In a short time very thin fleecy clouds began to rise
from the horizon within the blue arch; and through these very faint
perpendicular streaks, of a sort of milky light, could be perceived
shooting; the eye being thus guided, could likewise detect the same
pale streaks passing over the intense azure arch, but they were
extremely slight and evanescent. Between nine and ten in the evening
of the same day, the aurora borealis was very brilliant: so that
there is no reason to doubt that the azure arch in the morning, and
the pale light seen shooting across it, were connected with the same
phenomenon.—_Jameson’s Jour._ 1827, p. 378.
6. _Aurora Borealis in Siberia_.—Baron Wrangle says, that in Siberia,
when shooting stars pass across the space occupied by polar lights,
fiery beams suddenly arise in the place traversed by the shooting
star: further, that when a polar beam rises high towards the zenith,
the full moon also being high, it gradually forms a luminous circle
around the moon, at a distance of 20° or 30° from her, remains in
this form for a short time, and then disappears.
7. _On the Presence of Ammonia in Argillaceous Minerals_.—Being
engaged in the examination of different specimens of gypsum, M. Bouis
observed, that traces of ammonia were evident in one containing
much argillaceous matter. The peculiar odour common to argillaceous
minerals when breathed upon, was very striking in this specimen of
gypsum; when a portion of it was moistened with solution of potash,
and muriatic acid brought near, white vapours were produced, and
reddened litmus paper was very quickly rendered of a blue colour in
its vicinity.
It was now suspected that all mineral substances, emitting an
argillaceous odour, contained ammonia; a great number of specimens
were tried, being moistened with solution of caustic potash, and
examined by litmus paper. In no case was ammonia absent, and with
common clay it continued to be evolved for more than two days.
Amongst the substances tried, were pipe clay, other clays, numerous
gypsums, Paris plaster, steatite, &c. The antiquity of the mineral
seemed to have no relation to the ammonia.
M. Bouis concludes that, in all cases, the argillaceous smell
of minerals is connected with, and dependent upon, the presence
of ammonia, the latter being the vehicle of this particular
odour.—_Annales de Chimie_, xxxv. 333. [p490]
8. _Composition of Apatite_.—According to M. Rose, the apatite from
the following localities gave the annexed proportions of chloride and
fluoride of calcium, the rest being phosphate of lime with occasional
traces of iron and magnesia:—
S. G. Chlo. Calc. Fluor. Calc.
Apatite from Suarum in Norway 3.174 4.280 4.590
Cabo de Gota in Spain 3.235 0.885 7.049
Arendal 3.194 0.801 7.010
Greiner in the Tyrol 3.175 0.150 7.690
Faldigl, ditto 3.166 0.100 7.620
St. Gothard 3.197 trace 7.690
Ehrenfriedersdorf 3.211 trace 7.690
_Annales de Chimie_.
9. _Burmese Petroleum Wells_.—“The gentlemen of the mission examined
carefully the celebrated Petroleum Wells, near which they remained
for eight days, owing to the accident of the steam-vessel taking the
ground in their vicinity. Some of the wells are from thirty-seven to
fifty-three fathoms in depth, and are said to yield at an average,
daily, from 130 to 185 gallons of the earth-oil. The wells are
scattered over an area of about sixteen square miles. The wells are
private property, the owners paying a tax of five per cent. of the
produce to the state. This commodity is almost universally used
by the Burmans as lamp oil. Its price on the spot does not, on an
average, exceed from fivepence to sevenpence halfpenny per cwt. The
other useful mineral or saline productions of the Burman empire are
coal, saltpetre, soda, and culinary salt. One of the lakes affording
the latter, which is within six or seven miles of the capital, was
examined by the gentlemen of the mission.” Crawford’s Mission to
Ava.—_Jameson’s Journal_, 1827, p. 366.
10. _Direction of the Branches of Trees_.—Professor Eaton remarks
that all trees with spreading branches accommodate the direction
of the lower branches to the surface of the earth over which they
extend, as may be seen in orchards growing on the sides of hills,
and in all open forests; and inquires what influence can the earth
have upon the branches on the upper side of a tree, which causes them
to form a different angle with the body of the tree from the angle
formed by the branches on the lower side, so that all the branches
hold a parallel direction to the earth’s surface.—_Silliman’s
Journal_, xiii. 194.
11. _Effects of Light on Vegetation_.—The following observations by
Professor Eaton are dated Rensselaer school, Troy, April 30, 1827.
“Clouds and rain have obscured the hemisphere during the last six
days. In that time the leaves of all the forests which are seen from
this place have greatly expanded. But they were all of a pallid hue
until this afternoon. Within the period of about six hours, they have
all changed their colour to a beautiful green. As the only efficient
change which has taken place, is that we have a [p491] serene sky,
and a bright sun, we may say with confidence that this change of
colour is produced by the action of the sun’s rays.”
“Seven years ago, next month, I had a still more favourable
opportunity to observe this phenomenon in company with the Hon. J.
Lansing, late Chancellor of this State. While we were engaged in
taking a geological survey of his manor of Blenheim, the leaves of
the forest had expanded to almost the common size in cloudy weather.
I believe the sun had scarcely shone upon them in twenty days.
Standing upon a hill, we observed that the dense forests upon the
opposite side of the Schoharie were almost white. The sun now began
to shine in full brightness. The colour of the forest absolutely
changed so fast that we could perceive its progress. By the middle of
the afternoon, the whole of these extensive forests, many miles in
length, presented their usual summer dress.”—_Silliman’s Journal_,
xiii. 193.
12. _Organization and Reproduction of the Trufle_.—The trufle,
according to the account given of it by M. Turpin, in a memoir read
to the Academy of Sciences, is a vegetable entirely destitute of
leafy appendages or of roots; it is nothing more than a rounded
subterraneous mass, absorbing nourishment upon every point of its
surface, and the reproduction of which is dependent upon bodies
generated within its substance. The trufle is composed of, i.
globular vesicles, destined, to the reproduction of the vegetable;
ii. short and barren filaments, called by M. Turpin, _tigellules_.
The whole forms a substance, at first white, but which becomes brown
by age, with the exception of particular white veins. This change of
colour is dependent upon the presence of the reproductive bodies or
_trufinelles_. Each globular vesicle is fitted to give birth, on its
internal surface, to a multitude of these reproductive bodies, but
there are only a few of them which perfect the young vegetable. These
dilate considerably, and produce internally other smaller vesicles,
of which, two, three, or four increase in size, become brown, are
beset with small points on their exterior surface, and fill the
interior of the larger vesicle. The small masses thus formed, are the
_trufinelles_, and become trufles after the death of their parent.
Thus the brown parts of the trufle are those which contain the
trufinelles, and the interposed white veins are the parts which are
destitute of trufinelles. The parent trufle, having accomplished its
growth and the formation of the reproductive bodies within, gradually
dissolves and supplies that aliment to the young vegetable which is
proper for them; the cavity originally occupied by it in the earth
is then left occupied by a multitude of young trufles, of which the
stronger starve or destroy the others, whilst they frequently adhere
together, and, enlarging in size, reproduce the phenomena already
described.
The reporters of this memoir to the Academy state that they have
verified M. Turpin’s account, but point out a circumstance in the
natural history of the trufle, which is still unexplained. If the
[p492] method described be the only mode in which the trufle
is reproduced, then it is difficult to comprehend the enormous
multiplication of that vegetable in certain parts of France, where
immense quantities are annually collected without exhausting or even
diminishing the race. If the plant has no means of progression, how
can the young trufles leave the place of their birth, and become
disseminated over the soil? The Mémoire received the approbation of
the Academy.—_Revue Ency._ xxxv. 794.
13. _Alteration of Corn in a subterraneous Repository_.—An inhabitant
of Deneuvre in the department of Merthe, whilst excavating in the
locality of the ancient citadel of that town, found a large quantity
of corn which appeared to have been carbonized. A portion was sent
to M. Braconnot for examination, but without any particulars of the
cavity containing it. The grain was smooth on the exterior, and
unchanged in form, but its aspect announced the entire destruction
of its proximate principles. It floated on water, could be crushed
between the finger to a black powder, and when rubbed on paper left
traces resembling those of black chalk.
Being analysed, it was found to consist principally of a substance
resembling ulmine in its properties, ulmate of lime and carbonaceous
matter: the proportions were
Ulmine 26.5
Ulmate of lime, containing some phosphate of lime
and a little oxide of iron 42.0
Carbonaceous matter 30.0
Muriates of potash and lime 1.5
Nitrates of potash and lime 1.5
Fatty matter of the consistency of wax, undetermined.
-----
100.0
Although the time during which this corn has been stored up is
probably very long, still M. Braconnot thinks the principal cause of
the change in it has been humidity; and thinks also that the same
may have been the case with the corn lately found in an Egyptian
tomb[135], and quotes the known fact of corn having been found at
Scarpone, an ancient Roman station, preserved in good condition,
during eighteen centuries, in a reservoir constructed of Roman mortar.
The best use that could be made of the carbonized corn of Deneuvre
was to apply it as a manure, for it contained the best elements of
a substance of this kind, and M. Braconnot had long since observed
the presence of ulmine in good manure, its acid properties, and its
effects on vegetation. He adds also that Bruyères earth of excellent
quality gave one-fourth of a combustible matter formed of ulmine
and a carbonaceous body but little soluble in potash, the remaining
three-fourths being a pure siliceous sand without a trace of lime.
Yet so effectual is this earth, that, where it cannot be obtained,
certain exotics cannot be cultivated.—_Annales de Chimie_, xxxv. 262.
[p493]
FOOTNOTE:
[135] See p. 210 of the last Number.