THE CONE-BEARING TREES: ILLUSTRATED BY THE SCOTCH PINE; THE SPRUCE
FIR; THE SILVER FIR; THE LARCH; THE CEDAR; THE ARAUCARIA; THE ARBOR
VITÆ; THE CYPRESS; THE DECIDUOUS CYPRESS; THE JUNIPER; THE YEW; AND
THE CYCADEÆ.
The greater part of the trees included in this chapter are comprised
by Richard, De Candolle, and other foreign botanists, in the order
Coniferæ; which they have divided into three sections: viz., the
Abietineæ, or Pine and Fir tribe; the Cupressineæ, or Cypress tribe;
and the Taxineæ, or Yew tribe. The last tribe, however, Dr. Lindley has
formed into a separate order, which will probably be adopted. Most of
the genera have, what the Germans so graphically call needle leaves;
that is, their leaves are long and narrow, and terminate in a sharp
point. The flowers also are quite different from what is generally
understood by that name; being in fact nothing but scales: those of the
male flowers containing the pollen in the body of the scale, and those
of the female producing the ovules, or incipient seeds at the base.
The fruit of the Abietineæ is a cone, the scales of which open when
the seeds are ripe. That of the Cupressineæ is also called a cone by
botanists, but it is rounder, and has not so many scales. The fruit of
the Taxineæ is an open succulent cup, bearing the seed or nut in its
centre.
Linnæus placed nearly all the hardy Abietineæ in the genus Pinus,
and since his time botanists have disagreed exceedingly respecting
the generic names of the different plants; no less than twelve
different divisions of them having been published, by as many eminent
botanists, since the commencement of the present century. The best,
however, appears to be that of M. Richard, which was approved by De
Candolle, and which has been adopted with a slight alteration in Mr.
Loudon’s _Arboretum Britannicum._ According to this arrangement, the
hardy Abietineæ are divided into five genera; viz., Pinus, the Pine,
including all the resinous trees with long leaves, which grow two or
more together in a sheath; Abies, the Spruce Fir, the leaves of which
do not grow in a sheath, but are scattered round the branches, the
leaves themselves being short, flat, and the same on both sides; Picea,
the Silver Fir, the leaves of which resemble those of Abies, except
that the edges curl in, and the under surface is quite different from
the upper one, being marked with two white lines, one on each side the
midrib; the leaves are also placed nearly in two rows, one on each
side the branch; Larix, the Larch, the leaves of which are very slender
and produced in tufts, but which fall off every winter; and Cedrus,
the Cedar, the leaves of which resemble those of the Larch, but which
do not fall off every winter. The distinctions between these genera
in the leaves only are very clear, and easily remembered; and their
cones differ as decidedly: those of the Pines are hard and thick at
the tips of the scales, which remain on after the seed drops; those
of the Spruce Firs are thin at the tips of the scales, which also
remain on the cones after they have lost their seeds, and the cones
are drooping, and tapering at both ends; those of the Silver Firs are
erect, cylindrical, and of nearly the same diameter throughout, and the
scales fall with the seeds; those of the Larch are erect, but small
and conical, and the scales remain on after the seeds have fallen; and
those of the Cedar are erect, oval, and with deciduous scales. To the
hardy genera may now be added Araucaria, as one species of this genus
(_A. imbricata_) has been found quite hardy in Britain.
The Cupressineæ are divided into four or five genera; viz., _Thuja_,
the Arbor Vitæ, some of the species of which have been formed into
a new genus under the name of Callitris; _Cupressus_, the Cypress;
_Taxodium_, or _Schubertia_, the deciduous Cypress; and _Juniperus_,
the Juniper. The only needle-leaved trees belonging to Taxineæ belong
to the genus Taxus, the Yew, unless we separate from it the new genus
Torryea.
§ 1. THE ABIETINEÆ.—THE PINE AND FIR TRIBE.
The plants included in this section, with the exception of the Larch,
are evergreens. They are all lofty trees, with straight erect stems,
and their branches growing in whorls or tiers, so as to produce a very
peculiar and striking effect. The male and female catkins are on the
same plant; the female one containing two seeds at the base of each
scale. The pollen of the male flowers is so abundant that any one
passing through a grove of these trees in May or June, might fancy it
was raining brimstone. Most of the species are timber trees, producing
the wood called deal; that used for the flooring and other parts of
houses, being principally the wood of the Scotch Pine, and the Norway
Spruce. Most of the species produce turpentine, which is the thin
part of the sap which flows from the tree when a notch is cut in the
trunk; the thick part of the sap when purified by boiling is the yellow
resin. Tar is produced by cutting the roots and wood of pine and fir
trees into pieces, and putting them into a sort of oven; when the tar
runs from the charred wood, and lamp-black is made from the soot which
collects on the roof of the oven. Pitch is boiled tar. Pyroligneous
acid is obtained by burning the wood into charcoal in an iron cylinder,
and condensing the vapour that arises from it.
THE GENUS PINUS.
[Illustration: FIG. 93.—BRANCH OF THE SCOTCH PINE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 94.—CONE OF THE SCOTCH PINE (_Pinus sylvestris_).]
This genus, according to Linnæus, was made to include all the Pines and
Firs, the Cedar and the Larch; and this arrangement has been followed
by the late A. B. Lambert, Esq., in his magnificent work on this tribe.
In its present restricted form, it contains only those plants that have
long slender leaves, which are produced in membranaceous sheaths, (see
_a_ in _fig._ 93) two, three, or five together. The male flowers are
produced in long upright catkins, (_m_) growing two or three together,
and they consist each of one scale, which is surmounted by a kind of
crest, (_b_). The pollen is contained in two cells formed in the body
of each scale, which open lengthways, as shown in the scale of the
Scotch Pine (_Pinus sylvestris_), at (_g_) in _fig._ 94. The female
scales or carpels when ripe form a strobile or cone (_d_), and in the
Scotch Pine they are thickened at the tip (_e_ in _fig._ 93); but when
young they appear as shown at (_f_). Each scale is furnished with a
thin membrane-like bract on the outside, which is conspicuous when
young, but which is hidden by the scales in the ripe cone; and each has
two seeds inside, which are each furnished with a long thin transparent
wing (_c_). When the seed is ripe, the cone opens as shown at (_d_),
and the seeds falling out are carried away by the wind. When the seed
is sown and begins to germinate, the young plant sends down a root, and
pushes through the ground its upright shoot, which has six cotyledons,
bearing the husk of the seed upon their tip. All the species of the
genus Pinus agree with the Scotch Pine in the construction of their
flowers, and they differ from each other principally in their cones,
and in the number of leaves which they have in a sheath. By far the
greater number have two leaves in a sheath, (see _a_ in _fig._ 93,)
and among these are the Scotch Pine (_P. sylvestris_), which has small
straight cones without prickles; _P. Banksiana_, which has crooked
cones; _P. pungens_ and other American Pines, which have prickly cones,
every scale being furnished with a sharp spine; the Corsican Pine (_P.
Laricio_), and several allied species, which have no spines on their
cones, but every scale curving outwards; the Pinaster (_P. Pinaster_)
which has large cones, with very short broad spines, and the Stone
Pine (_P. Pinea_), the cones of which are smooth and shining, and very
large, and the seeds of which are eaten. The pines that have three
leaves in a sheath, are chiefly natives of North America, and have
prickly cones; such as _Pinus Tæda_ and its allies, _P. ponderosa_,
remarkable for its heavy wood which sinks in water, and its large
spreading branches; and _P. Sabni_ and _P. macrocarpa_, which have
long, slender, drooping leaves, and very large hooked cones. The pines
which have five leaves in a sheath, include, among others, the Weymouth
Pine (_P. Strobus_), the cones of which are long, narrow, and drooping
(see _fig._ 95); _P. Lambertiana_, which has cones above a foot long;
and _P. Cembra_, which has an oval cone, the scales of which are
concave, and the seeds without wings.
[Illustration: FIG. 95.—WEYMOUTH PINE (_P. strobus_).]
THE GENUS ABIES.—THE SPRUCE FIR.
[Illustration: FIG. 96.—SPRUCE FIR (_Abies excelsa_).]
This genus includes all the Spruce Firs, and they are readily
distinguished from the pines by their drooping cones (see _a_ in _fig._
96), the scales of which are not thickened at the tip, but drawn out
into a thin brittle membrane; and their leaves, which do not grow erect
in sheaths, but in rows standing out from the branches (_b_), and
which being the same on both sides, look as if two had grown together
to make one. The difference between the Pines and the Firs will be seen
clearly by comparing _fig._ 96, which represents a branch of the Spruce
Fir, with _fig._ 97, which represents a branch of _Pinus pumilio_, a
dwarf variety of the Scotch Pine.
[Illustration: FIG. 97.—_Pinus pumilio._]
[Illustration: FIG. 98.—THE SPRUCE FIR (_Abies excelsa_).]
The common Spruce Fir (_Abies excelsa_) is a tree of stately growth,
with an erect pyramidal form, and numerous tiers of drooping branches.
It is the loftiest of European trees, having been found in Norway 180
feet high. The crest of the male flower is larger than in the genus
Pinus, as shown at (_d_) _fig._ 98, in a magnified side view of one
of the cells of a male scale (_a_), from which the pollen has been
discharged, the empty case being shown at (_c_). The female scales
(_b_) have each a small bract at the back, and two seeds inside, (_e_)
the wings of which have each a little cavity at the lower part in
which the seed lies, so that it is naked on one side, and clothed by
the wing on the other. The Spruce Fir bears cones when the trees are
of a very small size; and these cones are very ornamental when young,
being of a rich purple, while the male catkins are yellow tinged with
red at the base. The sap from the Spruce Fir does not flow freely
when the bark is wounded, as it does from the Scotch Pine; but oozes
out gradually, and is what is called Burgundy pitch in the shops.
Spruce-beer is made from the young shoots of the American Black Spruce.
There are many species of Abies, but the most interesting are _Abies
Douglasii_, a very handsome tree only lately introduced, of very quick
growth; and the Hemlock Spruce (_Abies canadensis_). This genus is
called Pinus by the Linnean botanists, Picea by Professor Link and some
German botanists; and Dr. Lindley, who calls it Abies, includes in it
the Silver Fir, the Larch, and the Cedar.
THE GENUS PICEA.—THE SILVER FIR.
This genus, which includes all the Silver Firs, is readily
distinguished from Abies by its leaves, which grow in two rows, one on
each side the branch; thus the branch lies quite flat when placed on a
table, or any other level surface. The leaves are also not the same on
both sides as in the Spruce Firs, but the under side is marked by two
distinct lines of silvery white, one on each side the midrib. The cones
stand erect, and the dorsal bract is frequently so large as to appear
above the tips of the scales; and the scales themselves are deciduous,
falling off when the seeds are ripe, leaving the central rachis bare.
This last peculiarity is very striking; as both the Pines and Spruce
Firs retain the scales of their cones after the seeds have fallen. The
seeds of the Silver Firs are much larger than those of the Spruces; and
they are not attached to the wing in the same manner. The Silver Fir is
a noble tree, and takes its name from the epidermis of its bark; which
in young trees is of a whitish grey, and smooth, though when the tree
is about fifty or sixty years old, it cracks and peels off, leaving
the dark brown rough bark beneath. The cones are produced two or more
together; they are upright and cylindrical, being nearly as large
at both ends as in the middle. The leaves all curve upwards at the
point, thus showing conspicuously the white lines on the under side. A
remarkable circumstance connected with this tree is, that when it is
cut down, the stump will remain alive for many years, and even increase
considerably in size, without producing any leaves or branches. One
in the forests of the Jura, which was ascertained to have lived
ninety-two years after the tree had been cut down, had completely
covered the section of the wood with bark. Strasburgh turpentine is
produced from this tree. There are several species of this genus, some
of which, as for example, _Picea Webbiana_, do not show the dorsal
bract; while others, as _P. nobilis_, and _P. bracteata_, have it so
large as to make the cone appear quite shaggy. All the species abound
in resin, which frequently exudes from the cones. This genus is called
Abies by Professor Link, and the German botanists.
THE GENUS LARIX.—THE LARCH.
This genus consists of only three species, which are easily
distinguished from the other Abietineæ by their losing their leaves
every winter. The common Larch (_Larix europæa_) is a very handsome
tree, with drooping branches, and foliage of a yellowish green, which
dies off of a red tinge in autumn. The leaves are linear, and they are
produced in tufts in a sort of woody sheath, some of them appearing in
the same sheath with the female catkins. The male catkins are smaller,
but appear in the same manner. The cones are small, and show the dorsal
bracts when young, but when ripe they are seldom visible. The seeds
are winged, and so very small, that it appears wonderful that a tree
frequently above a hundred feet high can spring from them. The cones
are of a bright red when young, but they become brown when ripe. The
Larch grows very rapidly, and in situations where no other tree would
thrive. Its wood is very valuable, and its bark is nearly as useful for
tanning as that of the oak. The trees, however, in some situations are
subject to a disease called pumping, by which the centre of the trunk
becomes as hollow as though it were intended for a pump. The sap of the
Larch produces the Venice turpentine; and in some parts of France a
kind of gum, called the Manne de Briançon, which is used medicinally,
is collected from the leaves.
THE GENUS CEDRUS.—THE CEDAR.
There are only two species in this genus, the Cedar of Lebanon (_Cedrus
Libani_), and the Deodar (_C. Deodara_). The male catkins of the Cedar
of Lebanon are produced singly, and each scale has a large crest. The
cones are ovate, and the scales, which are very short and broad, fall
with the seeds, in the same manner as those of the Silver Fir. The
leaves resemble those of the Larch, but they are not deciduous. The
male and female catkins are very often on different plants; and the
trees attain a considerable age before they produce perfect seeds.
The Cedar is remarkable for the enormous size of its branches, and for
the shelf-like character they assume. The tree in a living state lasts
several centuries, but the wood is of a very coarse grain and not at
all durable; and though the resin appears so abundant in the cones as
to ooze through the scales, there is so little in the trunk that it is
never used for turpentine.
The Deodar Cedar (_C. Deodara_) closely resembles the common Cedar
in its catkins and cones, but the foliage is of a beautiful glaucous
green, and the leaves are so much longer as to give a peculiarly
graceful character to the tree. The wood is remarkably durable, very
fragrant, and of an extremely fine grain, taking so bright a polish,
that a table which Mr. Lambert had of it in his drawing-room has
been compared to a slab of brown agate. The trunk abounds in resin,
and it produces in India a great quantity of fluid turpentine, which
though it is of rather a coarse quality, is much used by the natives;
pitch and tar are also produced by charring the wood. The tree on the
Himalayas grows above 150 feet high, with a trunk 30 feet or more in
circumference, and it is said to live to a great age. It was only
introduced into Britain in 1822, but there are numerous specimens of it
in different parts of the kingdom, all of which appear quite hardy.
THE GENUS ARAUCARIA.
_Araucaria imbricata_, the only hardy species, is a very singular
tree. The trunk is quite straight, with a strong leading shoot, and
whorls of branches of great length, and far apart from each other,
covered closely with scale-like leaves. These large horizontal arms,
clothed with closely imbricated leaves, resemble, in the young trees,
snakes partly coiled round the trunk, and stretching out their long,
slender, flexible bodies in quest of prey. The male and female flowers
are on different trees. The male catkins are cone-shaped, the scales
serving as filaments to the anthers produced at their base. The cone
is round and very large, with numerous wedge-shaped scales, and large
eatable seeds or nuts, which have each a short, callous, marginal
wing. The trunk is covered with a very thick corky bark; the wood is
white, finely grained, and durable. The trees when wounded yield a
milky juice, which hardens into a fine yellow resin; and the kernel of
the nut, which is as large as an almond, is used by the Indians as an
important article of food. The tree is a native of the Andes of Peru,
and when first introduced it was called the Chilian Pine. It has now
become quite common in this country, and the Earl of Harrington has
planted an avenue with it at Elvaston Castle.
There are several species, but the other kinds are too tender to bear
British winters without protection. The Norfolk Island Pine (_A.
excelsa_) is a splendid tree, with light feathery foliage; as is the
Moreton Bay Pine (_A. Cunninghami_).
§ II. CUPRESSINEÆ.—THE CYPRESS TRIBE.
Most of the plants contained in this section are evergreen shrubs
or low trees, but some of them attain a considerable size. Only one
species, the deciduous Cypress, loses its leaves in winter. Many of the
species are only half-hardy in Britain, and none of them are grown in
this country for their timber. They all exude resin occasionally from
their leaves and branches, but none of them produce turpentine. The
catkins are but few flowered, and the cones are roundish. The leaves
are frequently imbricated, at least when young; though in many of the
species they vary considerably, even on the same tree.
THE GENUS THUJA.—THE ARBOR VITÆ.
[Illustration: FIG. 99.—YOUNG PLANT OF THE ARBOR VITÆ.]
There are several species of this genus, but only two are common
in British gardens. Of these the American Arbor Vitæ (_Thuja
occidentalis_) is the largest tree; though it seldom grows above
30 feet high, and it is a great many years before it even attains
that height. The male flowers and the female flowers are distinct,
but on the same tree. The male catkins are small cones, with the
pollen inclosed in four cases that are attached to the inside of
the scale, near its base. The female catkins consist of six scales,
with two ovules at the base of each; and the ripe cone has a sharp
point projecting from each scale. The seeds have scarcely any wing;
and when they germinate, they have only two cotyledons. The young
plants send down a very long tap root (see _fig._ 99), and have some
of their leaves imbricated and others loose. The Chinese Arbor Vitæ
(_T. orientalis_) seldom reaches the height of 20 feet, but it may be
also distinguished from the preceding species by its more dense habit
of growth, by its branches being turned upwards instead of spreading
horizontally, and by its leaves being smaller, closer together, and of
a lighter green.
THE GENUS CALLITRIS.
Callitris is a genus separated from Thuja, of which only one
species is as yet common in British shrubberies. This is the Gum
Sandarach-tree, formerly called _Thuja articulata_, but now named
_Callitris quadrivalvis_. The branches of this tree are articulated,
that is, they may be broken off at the joints without lacerating the
bark. The leaves are very small, quite flat, and articulated like
the branches. The male catkins form a cone, in which the scales are
disposed in four rows, with three or four anthers at the base of each.
The female catkins are solitary, and they divide, when ripe, into four
woody valves or scales, only two of which bear seeds. The seeds are
small, and have a wing on one side. The tree is a native of Morocco and
Barbary, in which countries it produces the gum-sandarach, which exudes
like tears from every part of the plant. The wood is fragrant, very
finely grained, and extremely durable, as is shown in the roof of the
Cathedral of Cordova, built in the ninth century, which is of the wood
of this tree.
THE GENUS CUPRESSUS.—THE CYPRESS.
The evergreen cypress (_Cupressus sempervirens_) is a cone-like,
tapering tree, with its branches growing close to its trunk, and rarely
attaining the height of fifty feet even in its native country. The
male catkins are longer than those of the arbor vitæ, and the female
ones contain more ovules. The cone is buckler-shaped, and it divides,
when ripe, into eight or ten corky scales, each of which has four
nuts attached; the cone being partially divided into cells, which may
be seen, when the scales have been removed to show the interior. The
pollen of each male flower is contained in four cells, attached to the
lower part of the inside of the scales. The wood is remarkably hard and
fragrant, and it is of a fine close grain; it is also very durable.
It is supposed to have been the gopher-wood of Holy Writ, and the
citron-wood of the ancient Romans, the beauty of which in tables was so
celebrated.
The White Cedar (_Cupressus thyoides_) is a species of Cypress, having
imbricated leaves, and the same kind of cone; and the Cedar of Goa (_C.
lusitanica_) is another species of Cupressus, which appears from the
shape of its cones to be nearly allied to the Arbor vitæ. There are
some other species, but they are not common in British gardens.
THE GEXUS TAXODIUM.—THE DECIDUOUS CYPRESS.
The Deciduous Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_) has numerous leaves
arranged in two even rows, one on each side of the branch, which fall
off in autumn, assuming a reddish tinge before they drop. This genus
was separated from Cupressus, because the male catkins, instead of
being produced singly at the tips of the branches, are in clusters or
panicles, and the anther-like scales, have the pollen in five cells.
The cone, which is very small, has only two seeds to each scale,
instead of four; and the young plant has five or more cotyledons,
while the Cypress has only two. The deciduous Cypress was placed in the
genus Cupressus by Linnæus, and afterwards it was called _Schubertia
disticha_ by Mirbel. The tree, which grows 120 feet high and upwards
in America, with a trunk forty feet in circumference at the base, has
generally, when of this size, the lower part of its trunk hollow, often
to the height of five feet or six feet from the ground. The roots also
send up conical protuberances two feet high, and four feet or five
feet wide, which are always hollow. These curious knobs are called in
America “cypress knees;” and the negroes use them for bee-hives. The
wood of the deciduous Cypress is used in building in Virginia. There is
another species (_T. sempervirens_) which does not lose its leaves in
winter, a native of California, but it has not yet been introduced.
THE GENUS JUNIPERUS.—THE JUNIPER.
[Illustration: FIG. 100.—JUNIPER (_Juniperus communis_).]
The species of this genus are extremely variable in their leaves, which
differ exceedingly on the same plant, and in the size to which the
plants attain; as even the common Juniper, though generally a shrub
not above three feet high, sometimes becomes a tree. In the common
Juniper (_Juniperus communis_) the leaves are narrow and pointed, and
they are placed in whorls, three in each, round the branches. The male
and female flowers are generally on different plants, but sometimes
on the same. The male catkins are sometimes at the end of the shoots,
but generally they spring from the axils of the leaves. The pollen
cases vary from three to six, and they are attached to the back of each
scale, which may be called the stamen (see _a_ in _fig._ 100). The
female catkin, when young, resembles a very small bud, and consists of
three fleshy ovaries, almost hidden by the thick scales at their base.
These ovaries grow together, and soon present the appearance shown,
but magnified, at _c_. As they ripen, they rise out of the scales and
become the fleshy strobile, _b_; and finally the spongy berry shown of
its natural size at _d_, containing three seeds or nuts, each of which
is flat on one side, _f_, and angular on the other, _e_, with five
glandular indentations at its base. The berries are first green, but
they afterwards become of a dark purple, and are covered with a fine
bloom. The Juniper berries are very fragrant, and the glands in their
stones contain a kind of oil. These berries when crushed are used in
making gin and hollands.
There are a great many species of Juniperus, but one of the most
remarkable is the Red Cedar (_J. virginiana_). This is a tree forty
feet or forty-five feet high. The leaves, when young, are scale-like;
but when older they become loose and feathery, so that there are two
kinds of leaves on the same tree. The male and female flowers are very
small, and the berry is only two-seeded. The sap-wood of this tree is
quite white, but the heart-wood is red, and it is used occasionally for
making black-lead pencils, particularly those of the commoner kinds,
though the Bermuda Juniper is preferred for the superior ones. This
last species (_J. bermudiana_) is rather tender in England, and it is
seldom grown in this country. Its berries are of a dark red, and they
are produced at the ends of the branches; and the wood has so strong a
fragrance that shavings of it are put in drawers to keep away moths.
The Savin (_J. Sabina_), and several other species, have the old leaves
scale-like, as well as those on the young wood. All the species have
berry-like fruit, which is generally purple or dark red, and which
varies principally in the number of stones or nuts that it contains.
The fruit of all the Junipers is very slow in ripening, and in some of
the species it remains two years on the tree.
§ 3. TAXINEÆ.—THE YEW TRIBE.
The only needle-leaved tree in this section is the Yew, and this is the
only one I shall describe; as though the Salisburia and some of the
New Zealand resinous trees are included in it by modern botanists, the
latter are at present very rare in this country; and the Salisburia,
though it has been introduced more than a hundred years, and is
frequently found in shrubberies, has not yet produced fruit in Britain.
THE GENUS TAXUS.—THE YEW.
[Illustration: FIG 101.—THE COMMON YEW (_Taxus baccata_).]
The common Yew (_Taxus baccata_) has the male and female flowers on
different plants. The catkins of the male flowers consist of a number
of scales, out of which the anthers grow like a cluster of primroses,
as shown, magnified, in _fig._ 101 at _a_. The female flowers somewhat
resemble those of the Juniper; the ovary being enveloped in scales
(_b_), from which it gradually emerges as it swells (_c_), till at
last, when ripe (_d_), it opens at the top, and displays the ripe nut
enveloped in a red juicy cup. The wood of the Yew is remarkably tough,
and the growth of the plant is very slow.
To these may be added the very singular plants comprised in the order
Cycadaceæ, which are on the debatable ground between the exogenous and
endogenous plants. They bear cones like the pines and firs, but in
their leaves, and the manner in which they unroll them, they resemble
the ferns, and in the outside of their stems the palms; while from
the wood being in concentric circles, they must be classed among the
Exogens. It would be unsuitable to a work like this to enter into any
of the discussions of botanists respecting these curious plants; it
may be sufficient here to say that they are considered to be trees,
the central cylindrical part being called the trunk; the soft pith in
which, in some of the kinds of Cycas, is manufactured into a spurious
sort of sago. The roughness on the stem arises from the remains of the
footstalks of old leaves. The leaves are pinnate, and unroll instead
of unfolding. The flowers are male and female, both of which are
produced in cones in Zamia; and the male flowers in cones in Cycas,
while the female ones appear on the margin, and in the notches of
abortive leaves, which spring in a mass from the centre.
MODERN BOTANY FOR LADIES.
PART II.
SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM ACCORDING TO PROFESSOR DE CANDOLLE.
INTRODUCTION.
All plants are by this system first divided into the Vasculares and
the Cellulares; and to explain the difference between these two great
divisions, it will be necessary to say a few words on the construction
of plants, though this subject belongs properly to vegetable
physiology. All plants are composed of two kinds of matter: viz.
Cellular Tissue, which may be compared to the flesh of animals; and
Vascular Tissue, which consists of spiral vessels and ducts, which may
be compared to the nerves and veins. If any one will take the leaf of
a hyacinth and break it by doubling it first on one side and then on
the other, and will then draw the parts gently a little way asunder,
the spiral vessels will be seen distinctly with the naked eye; as
though very fine, they are sufficiently strong to sustain the weight
of the lower part of the leaf for a short time. Now these vessels
are much more conspicuous in some plants than in others; and in some
of the inferior plants, such as lichens and fungi, they are wanting
altogether. Their presence or absence has therefore been chosen to mark
the two great divisions of the Natural System; the Vasculares being
those plants which have both vascular and cellular tissue, and the
Cellulares being those which have cellular tissue only.
[Illustration: FIG. 102.—COTYLEDONS, LEAVES, AND WOOD OF A
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT.]
The Vasculares are much more numerous than the Cellulares; and they
are re-divided into sub-classes, which it also requires the aid of
vegetable physiology to explain. All plants, when in a growing state,
require the moisture taken up by their roots to be elaborated, and
mixed with air in the leaves before it becomes sap; that is, before
it is fit to contribute to their nourishment. Now, when a seed begins
to germinate, its root descends into the ground and its plumule, or
ascending shoot, rises upwards; but the leaves folded up in the latter
are too weak and tender to elaborate the sap; and besides, they cannot
act till they are fully expanded, and they want nourishment to give
them strength to unfold; the roots are also not sufficiently developed
to absorb moisture. To supply the wants of the young plant while it
remains in this feeble and imperfect state, a quantity of albumen is
laid up in the seed; and it is evident that this substance must be
extremely nourishing, as it forms, when ground, what we call flour. The
young plant is thus provided with food, till its roots are sufficiently
developed to obtain it from the soil; and to enable it to elaborate
this food and to turn it into sap, it is, in most cases furnished
with one or more seed-leaves, or cotyledons, (see _c_ in _fig._ 102,)
which drop off as soon as the true leaves are sufficiently advanced to
be able to perform their proper functions. The cotyledons differ in
number, form, and substance in the different genera; but in all plants,
they are very different from the true leaves, being admirably contrived
for answering the end for which they are designed; and it having been
found that the plants having two or more cotyledons differ widely in
many other respects from those having only one cotyledon, the number
of the cotyledons has been chosen as the distinguishing mark of the
second great division of plants according to the Natural System.
The Vascular plants are therefore again divided into the Dicotyledonous
plants, which have two or more cotyledons; and the Monocotyledonous
plants, which have only one cotyledon: and to these modern botanists
add the Acotyledonous plants, which have no cotyledon, as some of
them have spiral vessels, or at least ducts, though most of the
Acotyledonous plants belong to the Cellulares. These divisions are not
only marked by their cotyledons, but they are so distinct in other
respects, that it is sufficient for a botanist to see a leaf, or even
a bit of wood without leaves, of any plant, to know at first sight to
which of these three divisions the plant belongs.
If the leaf of a Dicotyledonous plant be examined, it will be found to
have a strong vein up the centre, from which other veins proceed on
each side (as shown at _a_ in _fig._ 102); and if it be held up to the
light, the rest of the leaf will be found to be intersected by numerous
smaller veins, so as to appear like network, and hence these leaves
are said to be reticulated. The trunk and branches of trees belonging
to this division consist, when young, of pith, wood, and bark. At
first the substance within the bark is little more than pith, but as
the returning sap deposits every year a layer of wood just within the
bark, which presses against the previous layers so as to contract them,
they press in turn against the pith, which becomes smaller and smaller
every year, till at last, in old trees, it is scarcely perceptible. The
layers of wood are always perfectly distinct from each other, and they
are called concentric rings (_b_); while faint lines, with which they
are intersected, and which proceed like rays from the remains of the
pith in the centre, are called medullary rays. A layer of wood being
deposited every year, the age of the tree may be discovered by counting
the concentric rings; also if the tree has grown rapidly, the layers
will be thicker than if it has grown slowly; and if it has had one side
more exposed to the sun than the other, the remains of the pith will be
on one side instead of in the centre, and the layers will be thinner on
that side than on the other. The newest layer of wood, which is called
the alburnum or sap-wood, is of a paler colour and more porous texture
than the rest of the tree, and it is of less value as timber. It is
from the manner in which the successive layers of wood are deposited
that Dicotyledonous trees are called exogens, which signifies, to
increase from the outside.
If the leaf of a Monocotyledonous plant be held up to the light, the
principal veins will be found to form parallel lines of nearly equal
thickness, the central one being very little, if any, larger than the
others (see _a_ in _fig._ 103). The trees belonging to this division
are all natives of the tropics, and their softest and newest wood is
in the centre, where fresh deposits are made every year inside the old
wood; and hence, these trees are called endogens, which signifies, to
increase from within. The wood of these trees has neither medullary
rays nor concentric rings; and a section of it appears pierced with
numerous holes (_b_), as may be seen by cutting off a slice of bamboo.
The germination of a Monocotyledonous plant, with the cotyledon
remaining in the ground, is shown at _c_.
[Illustration: FIG. 103.—MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT.]
The Dicotyledones and the Monocotyledones have all visible flowers,
and are hence called Phanerogamæ; but the Acotyledones have no visible
flowers, and they are hence called Cryptogamæ, which signifies that
their flowers are hidden. The most remarkable of the Cryptogamous
plants are the ferns, some of which become lofty trees; the wood of
which is in curious wavy lines, as it appears to be formed by the
footstalks of the decayed leaves growing together and becoming woody.
The veins in the leaves or fronds of the ferns are forked.
Besides the great divisions already mentioned, the Dicotyledonous
plants have been divided into the Dichlamydeæ, or those having both
calyx and a corolla; and the Monochlamydeæ, or those having only a
calyx; but there are so many exceptions, as to render this division of
little value. The Monochlamydeæ are not subdivided, but the Dichlamydeæ
are again divided into the Thalamifloræ, in which the petals and
the stamens grow separately out of the thalamus or flat part of the
receptacle, and generally from below the pistil; the Calycifloræ, in
which the stamens and petals are either attached to the calyx, or to a
lining of it formed by the dilated receptacle; and the Corollifloræ,
in which the petals grow together, so as to form a cup for the pistil,
and which have the stamens attached to the corolla, but quite distinct
from the calyx. The Monocotyledones have also been re-divided into the
Petaloid, or those with regular flowers, like the bulbous plants, and
Orchidaceæ; and the Glumaceous plants, or those with scales or glumes
instead of petals, as in the sedges and the grasses. The Acotyledones
are divided into those with leaves, as the ferns; and those without
leaves, as the mosses, lichens, and fungi.
I have only to add that each sub-class is divided into numerous orders,
which are differently arranged by different botanists; the object being
to place those nearest together which are most alike. As no one of
these arrangements appears to be decidedly better than the others, I
have adopted that given in Mr. Loudon’s _Hortus Britannicus_; marking,
where, they occur, the new orders which have been formed, and the
alterations in the old ones that have been made since that work was
written.
CHAPTER I.
PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS—DICOTYLEDONÆ—I. DICHLAMYDEÆ.
§ I.—THALAMIFLORÆ.
In all the plants contained in this chapter the receptacle is a fleshy
substance called the thalamus, or disk, which is surrounded by the
calyx, and out of which the carpels or seed-vessels, the stamens, and
the petals, all grow separately from each other. Sixty-five orders
are included in this division, but I shall only describe those which
contain plants which have been introduced into Britain, except where
the orders chance to contain plants well known in commerce.
ORDER I.—RANUNCULACEÆ.
The plants belonging to this order are known by their numerous stamens,
the anthers of which burst outwardly; by their carpels growing close
together without adhering, except in one or two instances; and by the
stem-clasping petioles of their leaves, which are generally deeply cut.
The flowers when regular have five petals and five sepals, but they
differ widely in shape, and the calyx of several of them is coloured so
as to resemble a corolla. The seeds are frequently cariopsides; and
the plants abound in a watery juice which is acrid, and in most cases
poisonous.
ORDER II.—DILLENIACEÆ.
This order resembles Raminculaceæ in having five petals, five sepals,
and numerous stamens; but the anthers burst inwardly instead of
outwardly, and there are never more than five carpels, and seldom more
than two, which often grow into a berry-like fruit, as in the genus
Dillenia from which the order takes its name. One species of this genus
is occasionally seen in English hothouses, _Dillenia speciosa_. It has
yellow flowers with the five petals apart at the base, and the sepals
edged with white. The fruit consists of five carpels growing together
with a sort of crown formed by the spreading stigmas. Another genus,
some of the species of which are found in British greenhouses, is
_Hibbertia_. The species are generally climbing plants, with flowers
like those of Dillenia, but smaller, though _H. dentata_ has the petals
close together. The difference between the genera consists principally
in the carpels, which in Hibbertia are distinct with long filiform
styles curving inwards. All the plants contained in this order are
evergreen exotic shrubs and trees with simple alternate leaves, and,
with only two or three exceptions, the flowers are yellow.
ORDER III.—MAGNOLIACEÆ.
This order was divided by De Candolle into two tribes: viz. _Illicieæ_,
the Aniseed tribe; and _Magnolieæ_, the Magnolia tribe. The first,
which is now made a distinct order, under the name of Winteraceæ,
contains three genera, only one of which, Illicium, is common in this
country. The only hardy species of this genus, _I. floridanum_, the
Florida Aniseed tree, has very dark purple flowers, which appear to
be double from the great number of the petals, which are from twenty
to thirty. The carpels are also numerous, and arranged so as to form
a star. All the plants in this tribe are highly aromatic, and one
species, _Drimys Winteri_, which has white fragrant flowers, produces
an aromatic bark that is used in medicine.
The tribe Magnolieæ is distinguished by the fruit consisting of a
number of carpels arranged so as to form a cone. There are six genera
in this order, the most remarkable of which are Magnolia, Liriodendron,
Talauma, and Michelia, the last genus consisting of stove trees, with
very fragrant flowers, which are generally of a pale yellow, and only
one species of which, _M. Champaca_, has been introduced.
Of these genera Magnolia is undoubtedly the best known; as nearly all
the species are common in British gardens. This genus is divided into
two sections, one containing the American Magnolias, and the other
those from Asia, which are principally from China and Japan.
[Illustration: FIG. 104.—FLOWER OF MAGNOLIA CONSPICUA OPENED TO SHOW
THE STAMENS AND PISTIL.]
The latter may be illustrated by _Magnolia conspicua_, sometimes called
_M. Yulan_. The flower-buds are inclosed in a brown hairy case formed
of two short bracts which become loose at the base, and are pushed
off by the expanding flower. The flower itself (see _fig._ 104) is
cup-shaped, and it is divided into six white fleshy petals. The calyx
consists of three sepals,—which fall off soon after the petals expand.
In the centre of the flower is the receptacle, drawn up into a fleshy
cone, with a great number of carpels attached to it, each of which has
one cell containing two ovules, and a curved stigma. Around this cone
grow the stamens, with very long anthers standing up like palisades,
and very short thick filaments. The fruit is oval, with the ovaries
somewhat distant from each other. The flowers appear before the leaves.
The other Asiatic species are _M. gracilis_ or _Kobus_, _M. discolor_,
_obovata_, or _purpurea_, and _M. fuscata_; the former two forming
handsome shrubs in the open ground, and having cup-shaped flowers which
are white within and purplish on the outside, and the latter being a
greenhouse plant, with brown very fragrant flowers.
[Illustration: FIG. 105.—THE FLOWER-BUD OF THE EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA.]
[Illustration: FIG. 106.—THE RIPE FRUIT AND SEEDS OF THE EVERGREEN
MAGNOLIA.]
The American species of Magnolia differ in having their flower-buds
enveloped in one long spathe-like bract, as shown in _fig._ 105. The
ovaries grow close together; and, when ripe, the carpels, which look
like the scales of a fir-cone (see _fig._ 106), burst by a slit down
the back; and the seeds, which are covered with a red juicy pulp, burst
out, and hang down by a long white thread, which in the course of a few
days withers away. The principal species of American Magnolias are the
evergreen Magnolia, or Big Laurel (_M. grandiflora_); the Umbrella Tree
(_M. tripetala_), which grows like a shrub with several stems rising
from the ground; the Cucumber-tree (_M. acuminata_), the flowers of
which are bluish and the leaves pointed; Beaver wood (_M. glauca_),
the flowers of which are small, and the leaves covered with a glaucous
bloom; _M. auriculata_, _M. pyramidata_ and _M. macrophylla_, which are
nearly allied to the Cucumber-tree; and _M. cordata_, the flowers of
which are yellowish. All these Magnolias produce their leaves before
their flowers; and in this also they differ from _M. conspicua_, the
flowers of which appear before the leaves.
The genus Liriodendron contains only two species differing slightly in
the leaves. Both are lofty trees, with cup-shaped flowers of six petals
curiously stained with red and yellow, and bent back at the tip. The
calyx consists of three sepals, which remain on as long as the petals.
The fruit is cone-shaped, but the carpels, which are each furnished
with a kind of wing, instead of opening when ripe, fall with the seed
enclosed.
The genus Talauma differs from Magnolia principally in the carpels,
which open irregularly by valves; and in the number of petals, which
vary from six to twelve. Only two species are common in British
hothouses, _T. Candolli_, commonly called _Magnolia odoratissima_; and
_T. pumila_, sometimes called _M. pumila_ and sometimes _Liriodendron
lilifera_: both are natives of Java, and both have cream-coloured, or
yellowish flowers, which are remarkably fragrant at night.
ORDER IV. ANONACEÆ.—THE CUSTARD-APPLE TRIBE.
The hardy plants belonging to this order, that are well known in
Britain, were formerly included in the genus Anona; but now the only
species retained in that genus are stove plants, natives of the West
Indies, with yellowish brown or dark purple flowers, the calyx of
which is in three sepals, and the corolla in three or six thick fleshy
petals, and which have numerous stamens with large angular anthers,
and very short filaments. The carpels are numerous, but they grow
altogether into a fleshy eatable fruit, divided into many cells, each
containing one seed. This fruit is called the custard apple or sour sop
in the West Indies; and it differs in flavour in the different species,
but the most delicious kind is produced by _A. Cherimolia_, a native
of Peru. The hardy species included in Anona by Linnæus have been
separated from that genus, and formed into another under the name of
_Asimina_, the principal distinction between them being in the fruit;
which in the genus Asimina consists of two or three berry-like carpels
growing together, not eatable, and each containing many seeds. _A.
triloba_, the hardiest species, is a large shrub, with dark brownish
purple flowers. The plants in this order are all aromatic.
ORDER V.—MENISPERMACEÆ.—THE COCCULUS TRIBE.
All the plants contained in this order are climbing exotic shrubs,
generally with drooping racemes of small delicate flowers, the male
and female flowers being on different plants. The number of sepals and
petals varies in the different genera, and sometimes the petals are
wanting. The stamens frequently grow together into a central column;
and the fruit is a drupe or one-seeded berry, generally scarlet, but
sometimes black. The principal plants in this order which are known
in England, are, _Menispermum canadensis_ (the Canadian Moon Seed), a
very ornamental hardy, climbing, shrub; _Cocculus palmatus_, the root
of which is a tonic drug, called Columba root; _Anamirta Cocculus_,
which produces the berries called _Cocculus indicus_ in the shops,
which are said to be used in porter to give it an intoxicating
property; _Schizandra coccinea_, a greenhouse climber with scarlet
flowers; and _Kadsura japonica_, a climbing shrub with white flowers
and red berries, which proves quite hardy in the open air. _Kadsura_,
_Schizandra_, and three other genera, little known in this country,
have been formed into a new order under the name of Schizandriaceæ. The
qualities of all these plants are tonic.
ORDER VI. BERBERIDEÆ.—THE BERBERRY TRIBE.
[Illustration: FIG. 107.—DETAILS OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT OF THE COMMON
BERBERRY, PARTLY MAGNIFIED.]
Each flower of the common Berberry (_Berberis vulgaris_) has on the
outside three little bracteal scales, which are reddish on the back,
and soon fall off. The flower itself consists of a corolla of six
petals, and a calyx of six sepals, though as these divisions are all of
the same size and shape, and of the same colour and texture, it is not
very easy to distinguish the calyx from the corolla. The petals will
however be found on examination to have each two little glands at the
base, as shown at _a_ in _fig._ 107, which the sepals are without. The
sepals are placed exactly behind the petals, so that the one appears a
lining of the other; and, being concave, the petals serve as a kind of
cradle to the stamens, as shown at _b_. There are six stamens, which
have broad filaments; and instead of anthers the filaments are widened
at the tip, and each contains two cases for the pollen (_c_); these
cases are each furnished with a valve-like lid (_d_), which opens and
curls back when the pollen is ripe. The pistil (_e_) is pitcher-shaped,
with a very thick style, and a flat stigma. It stands erect, while the
stamens are spread out so as to be a long way from it, but they are
so irritable that the slightest touch makes them spring forward and
discharge their pollen on the stigma, afterwards falling back into
their former places. The flowers are yellow, and they are produced in
long drooping racemes; and they are succeeded by red oblong berries
(_f_), each of which contains two seeds (_g_). The receptacle, with the
stamens growing out of it from beneath the pistil, is shown at _i_.
The common Berberries are all deciduous shrubs, with simple leaves,
which are produced in tufts, as shown in _fig._ 108, each leaf being
delicately fringed with hair-like teeth. Each tuft of leaves has two
or three sharply-pointed stipules, which are easily distinguished from
the leaves, by their margins being without teeth; and below these are
three spines, which, when young, are soft and look like folded leaves,
but which, when older, become hard, and sharply pointed. These spines
are considered by some botanists to be abortive branches. There are
many different kinds of Berberry, which differ principally in the size
of the flowers and in the colour of the fruit; but which also vary in
the size and shape of the leaves, and in the manner in which they are
toothed.
[Illustration: FIG. 108.—FLOWERS OF THE BERBERRY, NATURAL SIZE.]
The Ash-leaved Berberries were formed into a separate genus called
Mahonia by Nuttall; and this genus has been adopted by Professor de
Candolle, and other botanists. Dr. Lindley, however, includes all the
species in the genus Berberis, and he has been followed by Mr. George
Don in his new edition of Sweet’s _Hortus Britannicus_. Whether the
genus Mahonia be a good one or not, the plants composing it are very
distinct from the true Berberries. The leaves of the Mahonias are
evergreen, and pinnate; and the leaflets instead of being fringed
with fine hairs, are broadly serrated, the points being tipped by a
sharp prickle or mucro (see _a_ in _fig._ 109); and the petiole is
articulated, and somewhat stem-clasping at the base (_b_). The flowers
are in erect racemes, and smaller than those of the Berberry; they
are also more globular, being less widely opened, and the petals are
without any glands. The filaments of the stamens have two hair-like
teeth just below the lobes of the anthers; and the fruit has from
three to nine seeds in each berry; while the Berberries have only
one or two. There are many kinds of Magnolia, but the handsomest is
_M. Aquifolium_, a hardy shrub, with dark green shining leaves, like
the holly. All the species both of Berberis and Mahonia have yellow
flowers; and the Mahonias all flower very abundantly, and very early in
spring.
[Illustration: FIG. 109.—A COMPOUND LEAF, BEING THAT OF MAHONIA
AQUIFOLIUM.]
The principal other plants belonging to this order are, _Nandina
domestica_, a very pretty shrub with white flowers, from China, which
requires a greenhouse in England; several species of Epimedium, some
of which are from Japan, with purple and white flowers; a few species
of Leontice, pretty plants with yellow flowers; and a plant called
_Diphylleia cymosa_, with white flowers and blue berries, a native of
North America. All these plants are easily recognised by their broad
stamens, and the curling back of the valves of their anthers.
ORDER VII. PODOPHYLLACEÆ.—THE MAY-APPLE TRIBE.
This order contains only two genera; viz., Podophyllum and Jeffersonia;
both of which have a calyx of three or four sepals, and a white corolla
of from six to nine petals. Podophyllum has numerous stamens, and a
fleshy berry with only one cell, which does not open when ripe; and
Jeffersonia has eight or nine stamens, and a capsule which opens all
round the apex. _Podophyllum peltatum_ is the May-apple, and its fruit
is eatable when ripe, though very acid; the leaves are very large,
and peltate, that is, with the footstalk attached to the centre; and
_Jeffersonia diphylla_ is a little plant, without any stem but that
which supports the flower. Both are natives of America, where they are
found in moist shady places.
ORDER VIII. HYDROPELTIDEÆ.
This order, which many botanists combine with the preceding one, also
consists of only two genera; viz., _Cabomba_ and _Hydropeltis_; and of
these _Cabomba aquatica_ is a stove aquatic, and _Hydropeltis purpurea_
is a hardy water plant, with peltate leaves, and dull purple flowers.
ORDER IX. NYMPHÆACEÆ.—THE WATER-LILY TRIBE.
[Illustration: FIG. 110.—THE FLOWER, LEAF, AND SEED-VESSEL OF THE WHITE
WATER-LILY, GREATLY REDUCED IN SIZE.]
The principal genera in this order are Nymphæa, Euryale, Victoria,
Nuphar, and Nelumbium. The flowers of the common White Water-lily
(_Nymphæa alba_) consist of numerous sepals, petals, and stamens, all
of which might be mistaken for petals, being principally distinguished
by their colour. The sepals, (_a_ in _fig_. 110,) are green on the
outside, but they are white within, and of the same fleshy substance
as the petals (_b_). The stamens (_c_) look like narrow yellow petals;
they are pointed, and bear the pollen in two lobes near the point,
which open longitudinally when ripe. The inner row of stamens are
without anthers, and form a kind of vandyke edging to the pistil, as
shown at _e_. The pistil consists generally of sixteen carpels, growing
together into a vase-like, many-celled berry, as shown at _d_; the
spreading stigmas, which have also grown together, forming a kind of
lid. The carpels are completely enclosed by the receptacle which rises
up round them, and forms a thick fleshy covering, as shown at _f_.
The seeds are numerous, and they are covered with a thick leathery
skin. The embryo is small, and it is surrounded by a great mass of
floury albumen. The leaves (_g_) are large and nearly round; and
the main root, which is called a rhizoma, is thick and fleshy, and
is, indeed, an underground stem. There are several kinds of Nymphæa,
the most remarkable of which is the Egyptian Lotos (_N. Lotos_), the
flowers of which are white tinged with pink; and both the roots and
seeds of which are eaten. _Euryale_ is a genus of South American
Water-lilies, generally with small flowers, and large rough leaves; and
_Victoria regina_, also a native of South America, is perhaps the most
magnificent Water-lily in the world; the leaf, which is peltate and
turned up at the brim, being of a deep crimson on its lower surface, is
upwards of six feet in diameter; and the flowers are more than a foot
in diameter, with a corolla of more than a hundred large white petals
tinged with pink.
The genus Nuphar consists of only three or four species, the most
common of which is _N. lutea_, the common yellow Water-lily, a native
of Britain. The flower has a cup-shaped calyx of five large yellow
sepals, the tips of which curve inwards. The petals are small,
truncate, and flat, with a small pore on the back of each; and the
stamens, which are very numerous, have broad petal-like filaments.
They differ, however, very much in appearance from those of the genus
Nymphæa, and they are differently placed, springing from the base
of the vase-like pistil, and not from the upper part. There are from
sixteen to twenty carpels enclosed in the dilated receptacle, to which
the stigmas form a ray-like cover; and each carpel contains several
seeds. The leaves are somewhat cordate, and rise rather above the
surface of the water, and the rhizoma, or root-stem, is very thick. The
common yellow Water-lily, or Brandy-bottle, as it is sometimes called
from the smell of its flowers, is common in every part of England, and
it is generally found in small ponds or ditches. The other species are
mostly natives of North America.
The Indian Lotos (_Nelumbium speciosum_) differs so much from both
the preceding genera, as to be considered by some botanists to form
a different natural order. The sepals and petals are so intermingled
in the flower as to be scarcely distinguishable; but the filaments of
the stamens are less broad and petal-like. The disk is still elevated,
but it has lost the vase-like form, and it appears as though the top
had been abruptly cut off; while the carpels are no longer joined
together, but are plunged each separately in the fleshy receptacle,
or torus, with their stigmas quite distinct. As the carpels are only
half immersed in the torus, and thus show their styles and stigmas,
they have a very singular and bottle-like appearance; and the torus,
when they are taken out of it, looks like a piece of honey-comb. The
rhizoma is white and fleshy. The stalks of the flowers and leaves
rise considerably above the water; and thus the flowers have not the
graceful appearance of those of the Nymphæa, which seem to repose on
the surface. The leaf is very large, being sometimes one or two feet
in diameter; and it is always peltate, with the stalk exactly in the
centre. There is only one seed in each carpel of the Nelumbium; and
this seed, which has no thick leathery skin, is of about the size
and shape of an acorn. It is very good to eat, having a sweet milky
flavour, and in botanical construction it resembles the common bean,
having no albumen, but a very large embryo. This is probably the reason
why it has been supposed to be the bean of Pythagoras, and why it is
called the Sacred Bean of India. One of the Hindoo fables represents
the god Bramah as first appearing in the form of a child, cradled on a
Lotos leaf, and floating on the waste of waters.
There are several kinds of Nelumbium, one of which, a native of
America, has double yellow flowers; and they all require a stove in
England.
ORDER X. SARRACENIEÆ.—THE SIDE-SADDLE PLANT.
There is only one genus in this order, which can never be mistaken
for any other, from the pitcher-shaped petioles of its leaves, and
its singular flowers. It is a native of Canada, but it rarely flowers
without a stove in England. It is a dwarf plant, and it is thus easily
distinguished from the Chinese Pitcher plant, which grows eight or ten
feet high, and which belongs to quite a different order.
ORDER XI. PAPAVERACEÆ.—THE POPPY TRIBE.
This tribe contains several genera, all of which have a thick glutinous
juice when broken, which poisons by stupifying. The genera most common
in British gardens are Papaver, the Poppy; Argemone, the Prickly Poppy;
Meconopsis, the Welsh Poppy; Sanguinaria, Blood-root; Eschscholtzia;
Hunnemania; Rœmeria; Glaucium, Horned Poppy; Chelidonium, Greater
Celandine or Swallow-wort; Hypecoum; Platystemon, and Platystigma. Most
of these plants are either annual, or last only two or three years, and
they have all very handsome flowers, which are generally large and of
showy colours.
[Illustration: FIG. 111.—FLOWER, LEAF, AND SEED-VESSEL OF THE COMMON
POPPY.]
The common Corn Poppy (_Papaver Rhœas_) has a showy flower, the corolla
of which consists of four very large scarlet petals, the outer two
much exceeding the others in size (see _a_ in _fig._ 111). The calyx
is green, and it is divided into only two sepals, (see _b_,) which
fall off soon after the expansion of the flower. The petals are all
curiously crumpled in the bud, and they present quite a wrinkled
appearance when the flowers are first opened. The stamens are very
numerous, and the anthers, which are black, are of the kind called
_innate_; that is, the filament is only attached to them at the lower
part (_c_). The seed-vessel of the Corn Poppy is, when ripe, a dry
leathery capsule (_d_) with numerous angles, each angle indicating a
carpel; for the capsule of the Poppy, though one-celled when ripe,
consists, in fact, of a number of carpels grown together. The remains
of these imperfect carpels are perceptible in the little valves shown
at _f_, which open at the top of each to discharge the seed when it is
ripe; and in the slightly-peaked cover (_e_), which consists of as many
stigmas grown together as there appear to have been carpels. When the
capsule is cut open (as shown in the capsule at _g_, from which the
fourth part has been removed), remains of the carpels will be found in
several projections from the sides, which partially divide the inside
of the capsule into several imperfect cells, in which the young seeds
are formed; though none of these portions reach the centre. The ovules,
when first formed in the ovary, are attached to these projections,
which are called parietal placentæ; but as the seeds ripen they become
loose, and if a dry Poppy-head be shaken, they will be found to rattle.
The leaves of the Corn Poppy are what is called pinnatifid, (see _h_
in _fig._ 111,) that is, they are so deeply cut as to appear almost
in separate leaflets; and the whole plant (except the petals and the
capsule) is covered with short bristly hairs (_i_), which stand out
horizontally.
The Opium Poppy (_Papaver somniferum_) differs from the Corn Poppy in
several respects. First, the whole plant is glabrous, that is, devoid
of either hairs or bristles; the capsule also is much larger and more
fleshy in an unripe state, and the crown-like lid is smoother, and
curved over like a plume of feathers, (see _a_ in _fig._ 112.)
[Illustration: FIG. 112.—THE FLOWER, BUD, LEAVES, AND CAPSULE OF THE
OPIUM POPPY, MUCH SMALLER THAN THE NATURAL SIZE.]
The fleshiness of the unripe seed-vessel of the Poppy puzzled me
extremely at first, as I knew that the ripe capsule of this Poppy is
always dry and leathery; but it was soon explained to me, that this
fleshy substance is, in fact, an elongation of the receptacle or disk,
which rises up round the carpels, and envelops them, in the same way
as the disk of the Water-lily grows round the pistil and carpels of
that plant, but which dries up as the fruit ripens. The leaves of the
Opium Poppy (_b_) differ from those of the Corn Poppy, in being much
broader, and only slightly cut or notched; they are also glaucous, that
is, of a bluish or sea-green, and they are clasped round the stem at
their base (as shown at _c_). All the Papaveraceæ abound in a thick
glutinous juice, which in the Poppies has the colour and appearance
of milk, and which possesses stupifying properties; but in the Opium
Poppy this juice is particularly abundant. Opium is, in fact, procured
by wounding the fleshy capsule with a sharp knife, and suffering the
milky juice which exudes to dry in the sun; after which it is scraped
off with a blunt instrument, and pressed into cakes for sale. The opium
of commerce is produced in hot countries; but even in England, any one
who chooses may procure a small quantity of opium, by wounding the
fleshy capsule of the common White Poppy when it is about half ripe. A
milky juice will issue from the wound, which when dry becomes opium,
and would be poisonous if taken in excess. The capsule of the White or
Opium Poppy has, when ripe, a little window-like opening under each
stigma for the discharge of the seeds, which contain abundance of oil,
and may be safely eaten, though the rest of the plant is poisonous.
There are many different kinds of Poppy; but they all agree in the
corolla of their flowers being in four petals, or in some number
divisible by four; and in the calyx, which is generally in two sepals,
dropping off as soon as the flowers expand. All the species abound in
a milky juice, which poisons by stupifying; and they all agree in the
general construction of the capsule, with its fleshy envelop and its
stigma-formed lid. The petals are always crumpled in the bud, and they
fall very soon, so that the beauty of the flowers is very short-lived.
The flower-buds droop; but when the flowers expand, the stalk becomes
erect, and remains so while the capsule containing the seeds is
ripening; a wise provision, common to many plants, to prevent the seeds
from falling too soon. The calyx of most of the Poppies is in only two
sepals; but in the two showy perennial species, called _P. orientale_
and _P. bracteatum_, the calyx is in three sepals.
Among the other plants belonging to the order Papaveraceæ, may be
mentioned the Horned Poppy (_Glaucium luteum_), which, instead of an
obovate capsule, has a long horn-like pod, divided into two cells, the
valves opening from the top to the bottom. The whole plant is glaucous;
and the leaves, which are broad and notched, clasp the stem at their
base, like those of the Opium Poppy. The Prickly Poppy (_Argemone
mexicana_) has the whole plant covered with strong prickles; the leaves
are wrinkled and curved up at the margin; the calyx has three sepals;
and the capsules are in four or five valves, the stigmas forming a kind
of cross at the top. The stem and leaves when bruised give out a thick
glutinous juice, which, instead of being white like that of the Poppy,
is yellow.
The Eschscholtzia is the last genus of the order Papaveraceæ that I
shall mention here, and it deserves a particular description, both from
its popularity and the beauty of its flowers, and from the singularity
of its botanical construction. The bud when it first appears is
enfolded in a calyx, which is pointed at its upper extremity, and
appears to have a kind of rim near its base. When the flower is ready
to expand, the calyx detaches itself all round from the projecting
rim, and rises gradually without opening, till the flower actually
pushes it off. The detached calyx resembles an extinguisher, and hence
it is called calyptrate, which has that signification. The flower is
cup-shaped; there are four petals and four stigmas, two of which are
much longer than the others. The capsules are elongated like those
of the Horned Poppy, but they are distinguished by the projection
of the flat fleshy disk at their base; they are two-valved and
two-celled. The leaves are glaucous, and finely cut. There are three
species, or perhaps varieties, which differ principally in the degree
of enlargement of the receptacle or disk. They have all large fleshy
roots, which bleed copiously if wounded, and for this reason the plants
are difficult to remove unless when quite young.
ORDER XII. FUMARIACEÆ.—THE FUMITORY TRIBE.
The flowers of plants of this order are so peculiar in their shape, as
when once seen to be easily remembered. There are two small sepals,
which soon fall off, and four petals of an irregular shape, two of them
being drawn out into a kind of spur. There are six stamens, and the
fruit is silique-formed. The plants have somewhat of a smoky smell, and
when broken yield a watery juice. The principal genera are Fumaria,
Corydalis, and Diclytra.
ORDER XIII. CRUCIFERÆ.—CRUCIFEROUS PLANTS.
[Illustration: FIG. 113.—THE FLOWER AND STAMENS AND PISTIL OF THE
SEA-KALE, TO ILLUSTRATE THE CRUCIFERÆ.]
[Illustration: FIG. 114.—A SILLICLE.]
The Cruciferous plants form so natural an order, that when one of them
has been described the others may be easily recognised. They have all
a separate calyx and corolla, each in four divisions; the four sepals
being placed alternately with the four petals, the latter forming a
cross (as shown at _a_ in _fig._ 113), whence the name of Cruciferous,
which signifies cross-bearing. There are six stamens (_b_), two of
which are much shorter than the others; and two carpels with one style,
and a capitate or divided stigma. The seed-vessel is a kind of pod,
either short and broad, like that of the Shepherd’s Purse (_fig._ 114),
where it is called a sillicle; or long and narrow, like that of the
Cabbage, which is called a silique. The two valves of the silique open
naturally when ripe, from the bottom curving upwards, (see _fig._ 115,)
and the seeds are deposited on a thin membrane between the cells, which
is the dissepiment. All the Cruciferæ, from abounding in nitrogen,
have an unpleasant smell when decaying, like putrid flesh; and when
cultivated, they even in a wild state require abundance of animal
manure; hence, they are generally found near human habitations, or
where cattle are kept. When wild, they have generally acrid properties;
and though these are in most cases softened by cultivation, yet they
are still perceptible in the roots of the Horse-Radish, and the common
Radish, and in the leaves and seeds of Mustard, and the different
kinds of Cress, &c. This acridity, however, is never so great as to
be injurious; and Cruciferous plants, particularly if their texture
be succulent and watery, may always be eaten with perfect safety.
Even those which, in a wild state, are tough and stringy, such as the
wild Cabbage and the root of the wild Turnip, become excellent by
cultivation; and all Cruciferous plants are so extremely nourishing as
to be considered next in this quality to animal food.
[Illustration: FIG. 115.—A SILIQUE.]
Among the many garden flowers which belong to this order, few are
more popular than the common Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_). Its
hardiness, and the facility with which it is raised and cultivated—the
gaiety of its flowers, their profusion, and their delightful fragrance,
combine to make it a general favourite; and I think I cannot take
a flower to illustrate the order which is more generally known and
liked. The flowers of the Wallflower (see _fig._ 116, _a_) consist of
four petals, each of which is furnished with a long tapering point,
called the claw (_b_), and a broad flat part called the limb (_c_).
The claws of the petals are buried in a calyx of four sepals, placed
alternately to the petals, and somewhat swelled out at the base, (see
_d_). The stigma (_e_) is two-lobed, and forms a kind of notched head.
There are six stamens, which appear at first to be all nearly of the
same height, but on examination it will be found that two are somewhat
shorter than the others. The seed-vessel is of course the lower part
of the pistil; which, after the petals drop, becomes elongated into a
somewhat cylindrical silique, which contains several flattish seeds.
[Illustration: FIG. 116.—FLOWERS OF THE WALLFLOWER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 117.—FLOWER OF THE BROMPTON STOCK.]
The Brompton Stock (_Mathiola incana_), and the Ten-week Stock (_M.
annua_), differ from the Wallflower principally in the shape of the
stigma (see _fig._ 117, _a_). The petals have also rather longer claws,
and hang looser, as shown at _b_. The Virginian Stock (_Malcomia
maritima_) has a roundish silique, and only one stigma, which ends in
a long tapering point. The Candytuft (_Iberis umbellata_) has a short
pod or sillicle, which has the appearance of being cut off at the
point, and which contains only one seed in each cell; and the outer
two petals of the flower are somewhat larger than the inner ones. Many
other Cruciferous plants might be described, but I think my readers
will have pleasure in seeking them out themselves, and examining them,
to discover their points of agreement and of difference; particularly
as, though the order is such a very large one, the flowers of all the
plants are so much alike, that no one can be in doubt respecting their
alliance.
ORDER XIV.—RESEDACEÆ.—THE MIGNONETTE.
The common Mignonette (_Reseda odorata_) was once included in the order
Capparideæ; but it is now made into a little order by itself, called
Resedaceæ. The flower, as is well known, is by no means remarkable
for its beauty, though it is for its fragrance; but when examined
botanically, it will be found well deserving of attention, from the
singularity of its construction. It has a green calyx of six sepals,
which are only remarkable for being what botanists call linear; that
is, long and narrow, and of equal width throughout—a very unusual
form for sepals. Within the calyx are the petals, six fleshy, green,
heart-shaped bodies; with a hair-like fringe round the lower part,
and with the upper part cut into a tuft of segments so different in
colour and texture from the lower part, that it is scarcely possible
to believe that they are one. This upper part of the petal is called
the crest, and it is pure white; the segments into which it is divided
appearing to be a great number of delicate little petals growing out of
a fleshy heart-shaped disk.
It is worth gathering a flower of Mignonette, and taking off one of the
petals to look at it in a microscope; and one of moderate size, which
may be bought for 12_s._ at the Bazaars, will be quite sufficient for
the purpose. It will then be found that the fleshy part of the petal
is as easily detached from the rest of the flower as petals usually
are, but that it is so firmly fixed to the crest as to be inseparable
without cutting. The disk is, however, dilated and curiously drawn out
between the stamens which are inserted in its base, and the petals, as
though to form a barrier between them. It will be quite visible when
the petals are removed, as it is as firmly attached to the stalk of
the flower as the petals are to their crests. Between this elevated
part of the disk and the calyx is a green substance which looks like
a part of the stalk, but which belongs to the disk. There are twelve
stamens, with large orange-coloured anthers, which are at first erect,
but afterwards bend forward horizontally; and in the middle of the
stamens is the ovary, an oblong hollow cell, with a three-lobed stigma,
forming three erect points. Inside the ovary from each stigma runs the
kind of nerve called the placenta, and to each nerve are attached three
rows of seeds. The substance of the ovary is always soft and leaf-like,
even when it becomes a ripe capsule; and though it is greatly swelled
out and bladdery, it retains the same leaf-like and somewhat wrinkled
appearance to the last. When the capsule is ripe, each of the pointed
lobes, which formed its upper extremity, opens down the middle, thus
forming a curious three-cornered mouth for the discharge of the seed.
The flowers form what is called an upright raceme, springing from a
succulent main stem, which is, however, somewhat woody at the base. The
plant indeed, though treated in England as an annual, is a shrub in the
plains of Barbary, of which it is a native; and even in this country
it may be made to assume the character of a small tree, by keeping it
during winter in a hothouse or greenhouse. I was very much surprised
to find that Mignonette has been introduced barely a century; and it
seems difficult to imagine how those of our ancestors who were fond
of flower-gardens contrived to do without it. I have only to add that
there are several species of Reseda, one of which (_R. luteola_) is a
British plant used in dyeing, and is called Dyer’s Weed, or Weld.
ORDER XV.—DATISCEÆ.
There is only one genus of three species, which are coarse hardy
perennials, having the appearance of hemp; and only grown in England in
botanic gardens.
ORDER XVI.—CAPPARIDEÆ.—THE CAPER TRIBE.
This order is divided into two sections, viz., the true Capers, and
the Cleomes; both of which have very long and conspicuous stamens. The
common Caper (_Capparis spinosa_) has a large and handsome flower,
with a distinct calyx and corolla, both in four parts. The petals are
white, and so delicate in their texture as to fade in a few hours if
exposed to the sun; and the stamens, which are very numerous, have rich
purple filaments. In the centre is the pistil, with a very long stalk,
and the ovary at the point, instead of at the base, with no style, and
a very small stigma. In consequence of this curious construction, the
seed-pod, which is fleshy, and hangs downwards, appears to be on a much
longer stalk than the flower. The shrub is spiny, and in its natural
habitat it grows among stones and rocks. It is the unopened flower-buds
that are pickled. The genus Cleome consists principally of annuals,
with very handsome flowers, which have very long stamens, and a pistil
of the same construction as in Capparis, but the fruit is a dry
capsule. The anthers of the stamens are often enfolded in the flowers
before they are fully expanded, so that the filaments appear bent, till
at last they open fully and hang down. There are a few other genera in
the order, but they are little known in England.
ORDER XVII.—FLACOURTIANEÆ.
The plants belonging to this order are mostly Indian plants, little
known in Europe.
ORDER XVIII.—BIXINEÆ.—THE ARNOTTA TRIBE.
_Bixa Orellana_ is a shrub, a native of South America, which requires
a bark stove in England. It has pink flowers with five petals, and a
green calyx of as many sepals. The stamens are numerous; but they are
on rather short filaments. The leaves are very large and heart-shaped.
The fruit is a berry, and the pulp in which the seeds are immersed,
when dry, is the Arnotta used in colouring cheese.
ORDER XIX.—CISTINEÆ.—THE CISTUS TRIBE.
There are only four genera in this order, viz., Cistus, Helianthemum,
Hudsonia, and Lechea; and though there are almost innumerable plants
comprised in it, they nearly all belong to the first two.
All the plants belonging to the genera Cistus, the Rock-rose, and
Helianthemum, the Sun-rose, have showy flowers, each having five
petals, which are crumpled in the bud like those of the Poppy; they
also resemble the petals of the Poppy tribe in falling almost as soon
as they have expanded, as every one must have observed who has noticed
the flowers of a Gum-Cistus. The calyx in both Cistus and Helianthemum
generally consists of five sepals, two of which are larger and of a
paler green than the others, and grow a little below them; and this
calyx remains on after the petals have fallen, and, indeed, till the
seed is ripe. In the Gum-Cistus, however, and some other species, the
two outer sepals are wanting. There are a great many stamens, which are
rather short, and form a tuft in the centre of the flower, surrounding
the pistil, which has a round flat-headed stigma, a rather long style,
and an ovary divided into five cells. The seeds are numerous, and each
has a separate footstalk, by which it is attached to the placentas,
which, in the Cistus tribe, are in the centre of the ovary, and not
proceeding from its sides, as in the Mignonette. The capsule, which
remains covered with the calyx till it is quite ripe, divides into five
or ten concave valves, each having a placenta, to which the seeds were
attached, in its centre. The seed of any plant belonging to the order
Cistaceæ, is remarkable when cut open for the great size of the embryo
enclosed in it, and the curious manner in which it is curled up. The
embryo is the germ of the future plant, and it is usually buried in a
great mass of albumen, or floury matter intended for the nourishment of
the young plant, till its roots are in a fit state to supply it with
nourishment. In the seed of the Cistus, there is scarcely any albumen;
but in its stead a long narrow embryo, coiled up like a sleeping snake.
The Gum-Cistus is generally called, in the nurseries, Cistus
ladaniferus; but it differs materially from the plant so named by
Linnæus, as that has a ten-celled capsule, while the capsule of the
common Gum-Cistus (which botanists call _C. Cyperius_) has only five
cells. The leaves also differ, the under surface of those of the one
kind being woolly, and of the other smooth; the one is also a native
of Spain and Portugal, and the other, as the specific name imports, of
Cyprus. Both species, and also _C. Ledon_, exude from their stems and
leaves, a kind of gum or resin called Ladanum or Labdanum, which is
used in medicine. It is from this gum having been formerly always mixed
with opium when that drug was dissolved in spirits of wine, that the
name of laudanum is given to the tincture of opium.
The two genera, Cistus and Helianthemum, differ chiefly in the
capsule, which in the latter genus is triangular and one-celled,
opening into three valves, each of which has a narrow dissepiment down
its centre. To prevent any confusion arising from the use of these
terms, I may here observe that when a capsule is divided into several
cells, having no communication with each other, the membranes that
separate them are called dissepiments; while the nerve-like part of it
to which the seeds are attached is named the placenta. Sometimes the
placenta is merely a nerve running down the side of the capsule, when
the capsule is one-celled, without any dissepiment or division; and
sometimes the dissepiment does not spread across the capsule so as to
divide it into different cells, but only projects a little way from the
side towards the centre, as in the one-celled capsule of the Poppy,
(see p. 260,) and in that of the Helianthemum, when the seed-vessel
opens naturally into different parts, as in the Gum Cistus, these parts
are called valves, as are also the parts of pods, as shown in the
curled-up valves of the silique, _fig._ 115, in p. 268.
To return to the Helianthemum, the species of this genus are generally
used for rockwork, as they are all dwarf plants, though many of the
genus Cistus are large shrubs four or five feet high. The English name
of the Helianthemum, Sun-rose, is very appropriate, as the flowers
will only expand in sunshine, and will even decay in the bud without
opening at all, when gloomy weather lasts for several days.
ORDER XX. VIOLACEÆ—THE VIOLET TRIBE.
The order Violaceæ, though not a large one, contains several genera,
but the most interesting is the genus Viola, which includes among many
other species the Sweet Violet (_Viola odorata_), and the Heartsease
(_V. tricolor_). The flowers of both species have many claims to
admiration, but they do not add the charm of regularity in construction
to their other attractions, as, in fact, few flowers are less
symmetrical. The flowers of both are nearly alike in their details;
but to avoid confusion, I will describe them separately. The calyx of
the Heartsease consists of five pointed distinct sepals, two of them
rather smaller than the others. These sepals are not attached, as in
most other plants, at their base; but so as to leave nearly a quarter
of their length standing up, far beyond the place where they are fixed
to the receptacle, so as to form a sort of border or cup round the
stem, and between it and the flower. The sepals are green, but they
are edged with a delicate whitish membrane at the margin, scarcely to
be seen without a microscope. There are five petals which are also
irregular in their construction, two of them being much larger than
the others, and generally of a different colour; and one even of the
other three being quite different in form to its companions. The two
large petals at the back of the flower, which in the common Heartsease
are generally dark purple, are laid over each other, and behind the
two below them. These two side-petals, which form the centre of the
flower, are both furred at the base; and the lower petal, which is
placed between them, has its claw drawn out behind into a spur, which
passes between two of the sepals; and which, when the flower is looked
at from behind, appears to be part of the calyx. The furred part of the
two side-petals forms a triangular, roof-like opening, peeping out of
which, is seen a small pale-green ball-like substance, which a fanciful
imagination might liken to a head looking through a dormer window;
and this is all that is to be seen in place of the usual apparatus of
stamens and pistils. As all seed-producing flowers must have stamens
and pistils, and as it is well known that Heartseases and Violets do
produce seed in abundance, it is clear that these important organs are
not wanting; but where are they? It is easy to guess, after being so
far initiated in the mysteries of botany, that the little globular body
is a part of the pistil; but where are the stamens? It is necessary
to pull the flower to pieces to discover them. Commencing this work of
destruction, which I always feel remorse at perpetrating, for I love
flowers too well not to feel pain at destroying them; commencing this
work, I repeat, the petals and the sepals must be carefully removed
from the stem; a task of some little difficulty, as both sepals and
petals are firmly attached to the receptacle, and the lower petal must
have its spur opened with a pin to avoid hurting the delicate organs
it contains. When the outer coverings of calyx and corolla are thus
both removed, the seed-producing organs will be discovered, and it
will be found that they consist of five very curiously-formed stamens,
with as singular a pistil, in their centre. The stamens have no
apparent filaments, and the anthers, which seem to be inserted in the
receptacle, look like seeds, each tipped with a bit of brown skin, and
having what appears to be a white rib in front. This rib is the anther;
and the broader part is the dilated filament, which is drawn out beyond
it, on both sides, and above, so as to form the brown tip above the
anther already mentioned. Two of the anthers have each, in addition to
these peculiarities, a long tail, which the spur of the lower petal
concealed, when the flower was in a perfect state. The pistil consists
of a large ovary, full of ovules, with a narrow style, which is drawn
out into the hollow globular termination which is seen through the
triangular opening in the flower. The globe has an opening in front,
under which is a kind of lip, which looks like a shutter let down to
show the opening; and though, from its thick fleshy nature, it looks
like a stigma, it is only the outer covering of that organ, for the
stigma lies within the opening. In this manner the stigma and anthers
are completely concealed; and thus it will be seen, that nothing can be
more complex and intricate than the construction of the flowers of the
Heartsease.
Who could suppose that all these elaborate details would be necessary
to illustrate so simple a flower as that of the Violet? And yet the
construction of the flowers of the Violet and those of the Heartsease
are essentially the same. The sepals of the Violet are extended at
the base, like those of the Heartsease, and the corolla consists of
the same number of petals, which are equally irregular in their form,
though not in their colour; the lower petal is drawn out, in the same
manner, into a spur, which is much longer than that of the Heartsease,
though the rest of the flower is smaller. The stamens are formed with
the same regular irregularity, only the tails of the two irregular
ones are larger and stronger, in the same proportion as the spur is
larger which is intended to conceal them. The pistil is of the same
shape, with the same curiously constructed and perforated style, which
is bent in its narrow part and swelled out into a hollow globe at the
tip; and in both species, the ovary is one-celled with three parietal
placentas, that is, with three nerve-like projections from the sides of
the capsule, having four rows of seeds attached to each. The capsule
looks like a smooth shining berry, and it remains partially shrouded by
the calyx, till the seeds are ripe; when it bursts open with an elastic
spring, and divides into three valves, each of which has the placenta
bearing the seeds in its centre.
In all these points the Heartsease and the Violet are alike; but they
differ materially in the leaves, which in the Violet are broad and
heart-shaped, without stipules; but in the Heartsease are small and
ovate, with such very large and deeply-cut stipules, that they are
by most persons mistaken for the leaves. I may here be asked what
are stipules, and in what do they differ from leaves? In answer to
the first question, I can only inform my readers that stipules are
generally little leaf-like bodies, which seem to act as attendants upon
leaves, as bracts seem to wait upon flowers; but in what they differ
from leaves, except in size and shape, I have not been able to learn.
Even Dr. Lindley in the last edition of his Introduction to Botany,
says, “What stipules really are is not well made out.”
The Heartsease and the Violet differ also in their habit of growth.
The Violet is a creeping plant with no stalks but those supporting
the flowers, while the Heartsease stands erect, with a thick square
stem, so strong, that, notwithstanding its succulent nature, it may be
trained like a little tree.
ORDER XXI. DROSERACEÆ—THE SUN-DEW TRIBE.
There are three genera in this tribe that are well known: _Drosera_,
the Sun-dew; _Dionæa muscipula_, Venus’s Fly-trap; and _Parnassia
palustris_, the Grass of Parnassus; all bog plants. The species of the
genus Drosera are remarkable for the curious manner in which the leaves
and peduncles are coiled up when they first appear, and in which they
slowly unroll themselves as they grow. They are also beautifully edged
with a sort of fringe of glandular red hairs, and a fluid exudes from
these glands which makes them always appear as though covered with
dew. The common Sun-dew (_D. rotundifolia_) is a British plant, with
short roundish leaves; but other species are natives of New Holland
and North America; and several of them have long slender leaves like
threads. Venus’s Fly-trap (_Dionæa muscipula_) is a native of Carolina,
in North America; the leaves are curiously formed of two lobes, which
close and open as if hinged, and they are furnished with glandular
hairs, which are so extremely irritable as to make the leaves close at
the slightest touch, and thus to imprison any unfortunate insect that
may be within the lobes. The petiole is so much dilated as to look like
a leaf, but the real leaf consists of only the two roundish lobes edged
with teeth that form the Fly-trap. The flowers are white, and they are
produced in corymbs. The corolla has five petals, which do not fall
off when they wither, but roll up so as to look like the cocoon of an
insect.
ORDER XXII. POLYGALEÆ—THE MILKWORT TRIBE.
The genus Polygala is well known from the very handsome greenhouse
plants which it contains. The flowers at first sight appear to resemble
those of the Sweet Pea, having two wings like a standard, and a sort of
keel; their construction is, however, very curious, and so complicated,
as to be very difficult either to describe or to understand. The calyx
is said by modern botanists to consist of five sepals, three of which
are green and two lilac, these last being the part that resembles
the standard of the Sweet Pea. The corolla is also said to consist
of five petals, two of which stand erect, and the other three grow
together to form the keel. The latter have their upper part cut into
a kind of crest, like that of the Mignonette. Below the crest, the
united petals form a kind of hood, under which are arranged the eight
stamens, four on each side. The stamens themselves are as remarkable
as the other parts of the flower; the filaments grow together into a
thin kind of leaf, and each anther has but one cell, and opens by a
pore at the apex. The pistil is also very curiously formed, as the
style and stigma have the appearance of a gaping monopetalous corolla.
The fruit is a flat two-celled capsule, which, when ripe, opens by two
lips, separating from each other, and showing a seed within each cell.
Even the seeds are not like other seeds, for each has a large white
protuberance at one end, called a corancula.
ORDER XXIII. TREMANDREÆ.
Slender New Holland shrubs, with the habit of Heaths, rarely met with
in British gardens.
ORDER XXIV. PITTOSPOREÆ.—THE PITTOSPORUM TRIBE.
The principal genera included in this order are Pittosporum,
Billardiera and Sollya, all resinous shrubs, with alternate leaves
without stipules, and the sepals and petals, each five in number, and
laid over each other like scales in the bud. The seeds are numerous,
and immersed in fibrous pulp. The commonest species of Pittosporum is
_P. Tobira_, a native of China, easily known by its thick leathery
leaves, the midribs of which are strongly marked, and whitish. The
flowers are erect, and produced in cymes or heads; and the petals are
united into a tube with a spreading limb. The capsule is one-celled,
and two or three valved, with an imperfect dissepiment in the centre
of each valve; and the seeds are numerous, and buried in a resinous
fibrous pulp. The Billardieras are generally climbing shrubs, with pale
greenish bell-shaped, and almost erect flowers, which are produced
singly or in pairs, and which have the tips of their petals turned
back. The fruit is a fleshy berry, with a shining skin of a deep blue,
and it is called the Apple Berry in Australia, of which country the
species are natives. This fruit is said to be eaten in Australia, but
it seems difficult to imagine how this can be the case; as though
the outer part of the berry is of a soft spongy nature, it is dry and
insipid; and there is no internal pulp, for the seeds lie loose in the
cells. In _Sollya heterophylla_ the flowers are drooping, on long and
very slender pedicels, and they are produced in cymes. The corolla is
campanulate, with the tips of the petals not recurved, and the anthers
are much shorter than in Billardiera. The fruit is a soft fleshy berry,
divided into two cells, each containing two rows of seeds immersed in
pulp, and when cut open, it smells strongly of turpentine. The plant
generally called _Sollya linearis_ has a dry and leathery pericardium;
and for this reason and on account of the spreading of its anthers,
it was placed by Mr. Cunningham in a new genus, which he called
_Cheiranthera._
ORDER XXV. FRANKENIACEÆ.—THE FRANKENIA TRIBE.
The genus Frankenia consists principally of the British weeds called
Sea Heath; and the other genera included in the order are seldom seen
in British gardens, from the seeds which have been imported seldom
arriving in a state fit for vegetation.
ORDER XXVI.—CARYOPHYLLACEÆ—THE CARNATION TRIBE.
The plants belonging to this order have so strong a family likeness to
each other as to be easily recognised; and they are all distinguished
botanically by the swollen joints of their stems, and their opposite
undivided leaves, which are generally connate, that is united, and
sheathing the stem. The order is divided into two sections, viz.:
Sileneæ, in which the sepals are united into a tube, and which
section includes the genera Silene, Dianthus, Saponaria, Lychnis, and
Agrostemma; and Alsineæ, in which the sepals are either quite distinct,
or only slightly cohering at the base, and which includes Stellaria,
Arenaria, Cerastium, Spergula, and several other British weeds. The
Chickweed was called by Linnæus _Alsine media_, but the genus Alsine is
now united to Stellaria.
[Illustration: FIG. 118.—THE CARNATION.]
The Wild or Clove Carnation (_Dianthus Caryophyllus_), which may be
considered the type of the order, has an erect stem, swollen at the
joints, with connate leaves, (see _a_ in _fig._ 118). The flower, when
single, consists of five petals, each with a very long narrow claw
(_b_), and a rather broad limb or blade (_c_) serrated at the edge.
The calyx (_f_) is tubular, with five vandyked teeth, which are in
fact the tips of five sepals, into which the tube of the calyx may be
easily divided with a pin. The tubular form of the calyx is admirably
contrived to support the long claws of the petals, and to keep them in
their proper places; particularly when the flowers are double, as the
weight of the petals in that case frequently bursts the tube of the
calyx. Every one fond of pinks and carnations must have observed the
miserable appearance of the flower when thus deprived of its natural
support; and to prevent the premature destruction of prize-flowers by
this misfortune, professed florists sometimes slip a curiously-cut
piece of card-board over the bud, which remains on after the expansion
of the flower, and prevents the petals from falling out of place. Some
florists tie the calyx round with thread, instead of using a pasteboard
ring, which answers the same purpose. At the base of the calyx are
two, four, or six leafy appendages (_g_), resembling bracts, which
are called the calycine scales. These imbricated scales are, however,
only found in the genus Dianthus. There are ten stamens (_d_) unequal
in height, but none of them longer than the ovary round which they
are placed. The ovary and the stamens are concealed in the cup of the
flower, but the former is furnished with two styles, terminating in two
long stigmas (_e_), which project beyond the flower, and which, when
magnified, appear delicately fringed.
The genus Dianthus includes the Carnation, the Pink (_Dianthus
plumarius_), the Chinese Pink (_D. sinensis_), the Sweet William (_D.
barbatus_), and many ornamental flowers. Of these the Sweet William has
the claws of its petals bearded; the flowers are produced in bundles
or fascicles; and the calycine scales are so numerous and awl-shaped,
that they give a bristly appearance to the flowers. The different
species of Soap-wort (_Saponaria_) differ from Dianthus, in having
no calycine scales; and this is also the case with the berry-bearing
Campion (_Cucubalus baccifer_), the fruit of which is a fleshy capsule
or berry, which finally becomes black, and has a singular appearance
in the centre of the cup-like calyx, which remains on till the fruit
is ripe. The flower of this plant is white, and the petals have a
two-cleft limb. All the numerous species of Catchfly (_Silene_) are
also without calycine scales, and the petals are generally deeply
two-cleft; but they are distinguished by having a crown of petal-like
scales in the throat of the corolla. There are also three styles
instead of two; and the capsules are three-celled at the base, ending
in six teeth at the top. The species have frequently a glutinous frothy
moisture on the stem, in which flies sometimes become entangled, and
hence the English name of the genus. One species, the Bladder Campion
(_S. inflata_), has been used as food, and its young shoots, when
boiled and sent to table like Asparagus, are said to have the flavour
of green peas. The different species of Lychnis and Agrostemma resemble
Silene closely in every respect, except in the styles, which are five,
instead of three; these two genera, Viscaria, and Githago, differ
very slightly from each other; and several of the species are known
by different names: thus Ragged Robin (_Lychnis flos cuculi_) is made
by some botanists an Agrostemma; the Corn-cockle is sometimes called
_Githago segetum_, and sometimes _Agrostemma Githago_; the common Rose
Campion is called sometimes Lychnis, and sometimes Agrostemma; and the
Rock Lychnis, or Red German Catchfly, sometimes _Lychnis Viscaria_, and
sometimes _Viscaria vulgaris_.
ORDER XXVII.—LINACEÆ.—THE FLAX TRIBE.
The order Linaceæ is a very small one; and, indeed, it consists
principally of the genus Linum. The Flax was formerly included in the
Caryophyllaceæ, which it resembles in having five petals, five sepals,
and five stamens; but it also resembles the Mallow in its capsules, and
in its stamens growing together at the base; and the Cistus in its
persistent calyx, and the disposition of its sepals. These links, which
connect one order with another, and make them appear alike but not the
same, form, I think, one of the most interesting parts of the Natural
System. We are led on from one gradation to another, by scarcely
perceptible shades of difference through the vegetable kingdom; and,
indeed, through the whole system of creation: the beautiful harmony,
and unity of design, visible throughout, bearing the strong impress of
the Divinity whose power has made the whole.
The common Flax (_Linum usitatissimum_), though in its appearance only
an insignificant weed, is a plant of great benefit to man. The fibres
of the stem are used to make linen, and the seeds (linseed) are crushed
for oil. The flowers are blue, and have five regularly-shaped petals,
which are twisted in the bud; and a distinct calyx of five pointed
sepals, two of which grow from a little below the others, as in the
Gum Cistus; and, as in that plant, the calyx remains on till the seeds
are ripe. There are five stamens, the filaments of which grow together
slightly at the base, and there are five little points like filaments
without anthers, rising between the stamens. The petals are connected
with the ring formed by the united filaments, and sometimes the petals
themselves grow slightly together at the base. The capsule consists of
five two-celled carpels, grown together; each cell containing one seed,
and each carpel terminating in a rather slender style, tipped with a
ball-like stigma. When ripe, the capsule opens naturally, by dividing
into ten valves, to discharge the seeds; which are flat and shining,
with a large embryo. These seeds are called Linseed in the shops, from
Linum, the botanical name of the plant; and, as is well known, they are
not only used for various purposes, but oil is expressed from them. The
stem of the common Flax, though it is only an annual, consists of woody
fibre, like that of a tree in its young state; and it is this fibrous
part that makes the yarn for thread, after it has been separated from
the fleshy part, by steeping the stems for a long time in water. The
perennial Flax (_Linum perenne_), which, as its name imports, lasts
several years, differs in little else from the common kind, except that
its sepals are obtuse, and its leaves are much smaller and narrower.
Both these are natives of Britain. There are many other species, some
of which have yellow flowers.
ORDER XXVIII.—MALVACEÆ.—THE MALLOW TRIBE.
FIG. 119.—THE FLOWER, STAMENS, AND PISTILS OF THE ALTHÆA FRUTEX.
All the plants belonging to Malvaceæ bear so much resemblance to each
other, that this order may be considered a very natural one; and it
is one very remarkable for the botanical construction of its flowers.
In some respects it resembles Linaceæ, quite enough indeed to show
clearly the chain by which they are so beautifully linked together;
but in others, it differs so decidedly as to show how completely they
are distinct. _Fig._ 119, which represents the flower and seed-vessel
of the Althæa frutex (_Hibiscus syriacus_), will serve to show the
chief peculiarities of this order. The calyx consists of five sepals,
below which is an involucrum of six or seven leaflets, which have the
appearance of a second calyx. The corolla is cup-shaped, and consists
of five petals, which are close together at the base, and this is
peculiar to the genus Hibiscus. The capsule is round and somewhat
convex, being nearly in the shape of what is called a batch-cake,
as shown at _c_; it consists of five carpels grown together, each
containing many seeds; and when ripe, it bursts naturally into five
valves, each of which has a dissepiment down the centre. The filaments
grow together very curiously, inclosing the styles, and forming a
column in the centre of the flower, which is the distinguishing mark
of the Malvaceæ. Some of the stamens are shorter than others, and as
part of each filament is detached, the anthers form the fringe-like
border to the column, shown at _d_. The anthers are kidney-shaped
and one-celled, and this is another of the characteristics of the
order; but the styles are terminated by five ball-shaped stigmas, like
those of the Linum. There are many kinds of Hibiscus; but perhaps the
best known are: _H. rosa sinensis_, the species which is so often
represented in Chinese drawings, and the petals of which are so
astringent, that they are said to be used in China by the men to black
their shoes, and by the women to dye their hair; and the Bladder Ketmia
(_H. Trionum_), which takes its English name from its inflated capsule.
All the plants belonging to the order Malvaceæ have a central column,
round which are placed numerous carpels, which grow together and form
a many-celled capsule; and they all have kidney-shaped, one-celled
anthers. They have also always an involucrum below the calyx, but
this involucrum differs in the different genera. In the genus Malva,
the involucrum consists of three leaflets, which in the common Mallow
(_Malva sylvestris_) are oblong. The petals are wedge-shaped, and they
are what botanists call auricled; that is, they are set so far apart at
the base that light can be seen through them. The stamens are all of
nearly the same height, and they form a kind of bunch round the styles,
which are pointed. The capsule consists of a circle of woolly-looking
carpels growing close together, but so as to be easily detached with a
pin, and each fitting into a little groove in the receptacle, in which
they are placed. As the seeds ripen, the involucrum falls off, but the
large loose-looking calyx remains on. There is only one seed in each
carpel; but as there are generally eleven carpels in each capsule,
each seed-vessel contains this number of seeds. The leaves are lobed
and toothed; and the whole plant is covered with long hairs, which are
disposed in little star-like tufts.
The genus Malope closely resembles the Mallow; except that the petals
are not wedge-shaped, and that it has a still larger calyx, the long
sepals of which shroud the capsule as the involucre of the filbert
does the nut. The involucrum is composed of three broad, heart-shaped
leaflets, which remain on till the seed is ripe. The petals are also
not so even along the margin; and the carpels are so disposed as to
form a cone-shaped capsule, instead of a flat one.
The genus Lavatera has the leaflets of the involucre joined to the
middle, so as to form a kind of three-cornered saucer below the
capsule; and the capsule itself is completely covered with a part of
the receptacle, which is dilated, and curved down over it. Lastly, the
genus Althæa, the Marsh Mallow, has the involucrum cleft into six or
nine divisions, and the carpels united into a globular capsule. The
Hollyhock (_A. rosea_) belongs to this genus. Many other genera might
be mentioned, but these will suffice to give my readers a general idea
of the order, and of the points of difference which distinguish one
genus from another. Among the exotic plants belonging to the order is
the cotton tree (_Gossypium herbaceum_), the cotton being the woolly
matter which envelops the seeds in the capsule. All the Malvaceæ abound
in mucilage, and they all have woody fibre in their stems.
ORDER XXIX.—BOMBACEÆ.—THE SILK COTTON TREE TRIBE.
This order is closely allied to Malvaceæ, and it differs principally in
the tube formed by the stamens being divided into five bundles near the
top. It includes the Baobab, or Monkey-bread (_Adansonia digitata_),
said to be the largest tree in the world; the Screw tree (_Helicteres
Isora_), so named from its curiously-twisted fruit; _Carolinia
princeps_; the Silk Cotton tree (_Bombax Ceiba_); and the Hand-plant
(_Cheirostemon platanoides_),—this is the Hand-plant so named from the
lobes of its leaves resembling fingers,—all stove plants in Britain.
ORDER XXX.—BYTTNERIACEÆ.—THE BYTTNERIA TRIBE.
This order is divided into five sections, which some botanists make
distinct orders. It is very nearly allied to Malvaceæ, but the
anthers are two-celled. The principal genus in the first section
(_Sterculieæ_) is Sterculia, which has several carpels distinct and
arranged like a star: the species are trees with large handsome
leaves which are articulated at the base, and axillary panicles or
racemes of flowers. The second section (_Byttnerieæ_) contains among
other plants _Theobroma Cacao_, from the fruit and seeds of which
Cocoa and Chocolate are prepared. The third section (_Lasiopetaleæ_)
is well known in England, by the pretty Australian shrubs included
in the genera Thomasia and Lasiopetalum, the leaves of which have
their under surface downy, and generally brown. The fourth section
(_Hermannieæ_), and the sixth (_Wallichieæ_), contain no plant common
in English gardens; and the fifth (_Dombeyaceæ_) is best known by
_Astrapæa Wallichii_. The qualities of all the plants in this order are
mucilaginous.
ORDER XXXI.—TILIACEÆ.—THE LINDEN TRIBE.
FIG. 120.—THE FLOWERS AND SEED-VESSEL OF THE COMMON LIME TREE.
The only genus belonging to the natural order Tiliaceæ which is easily
to be procured in Britain is that of Tilia, the Lime trees. The common
Lime (_Tilia europæa_) is generally a tall, well-formed tree, with
rather broad leaves, which are heart-shaped at the base, tapering at
the point, and serrated at the margin: they are also smooth on the
outer surface, thin, and of a light and delicate texture; below there
is a little tuft of hair at the angle of the veins. The flowers are
produced in cymes or compound umbels (see _fig._ 120); and their main
pedicel appears to spring from one long entire bract (_a_). The calyx
is in five sepals, and it falls off before the corolla, which is
composed of five pale yellow petals, which are very sweet-scented.
The stamens are numerous, and the filaments separate, bearing
two-celled anthers, which burst by long slits. The ovary has only one
style, the tip of which is cleft into five small stigmas; and it is
divided into five cells, each containing one or two ovules. The fruit
or capsule (_b_) is round, and has a leathery skin, covered with a soft
down; and when ripe, the cells often become united so as to form one,
with only one or two perfect seeds in the whole capsule, the other
ovules proving abortive. The whole plant abounds in mucilage, and the
sap when boiled affords sugar. The inner bark is so tough and fibrous,
that it is used for making what are called bast mats: it being first
rendered flexible by steeping it for a long time in water. The wood
is of very fine texture, but soft and white, and it is thus admirably
adapted for carving. The American Limes have a small scale at the base
of each petal of the flower; but the other differences between the
species are very slight.
ORDER XXXII.—ELÆOCARPÆ.—THE ELÆOCARPUS TRIBE.
East India shrubs and trees, little known in Britain. “The hard and
wrinkled seeds of Elæocarpus are made into necklaces in the East
Indies, and, set in gold, are sold in our shops.”—(_Hook._)
ORDER XXXII*.—DIPTEROCARPÆ.—THE CAMPHOR TREE TRIBE.
There are two kinds of Camphor, one produced by boiling the branches
of a kind of laurel, and the other (the Camphor of Sumatra) is found
in large pieces in the hollow parts of the branches of _Dryobalanops
Camphora_, one of the species included in this order. None of these
trees have been introduced into Britain.
ORDER XXXIII.—CHELONACEÆ, OR HUGONIACEÆ.
Small trees and shrubs, natives of the East Indies and Madagascar; only
the genus Hugonia is known in Britain.
ORDER XXXIV.—TERNSTRŒMIACEÆ.—THE TERNSTRŒMIA TRIBE.
The principal plants in this order common in England are Gordonia,
Stuartia, and Malachodendron. _Gordonia Lasianthus_, the Loblolly Bay,
is a small evergreen tree, with white flowers, about the size of a
rose. It is a native of America; and Stuartia and Malachodendron are
beautiful low trees or shrubs, with large white flowers from the same
country. The flowers have five large petals; the stamens are numerous,
with the filaments growing together at the base, and attached to the
petals; and there are five carpels more or less connected. Gordonia has
its five sepals leathery, and covered with a silky down; its stamens
almost in five distinct bundles, a five-celled capsule, and its seeds
each furnished with a wing. Stuartia has a permanent calyx, five-cleft,
but not parted into distinct sepals, with two bracts at the base, and a
woody five-celled capsule, with seeds without wings; and Malachodendron
(which was formerly called _Stuartia pentagynia_) has a calyx similar
to that of Stuartia, but the edges of the petals are curiously
crenulated, and there are five distinct carpels, each containing only
one seed. Some botanists include the Camellia and the Tea in the order
Ternstrœmiaceæ.
ORDER XXXV.—CAMELLIACEÆ.—THE CAMELLIA TRIBE.
There are two genera in this order, the Camellia and the Tea. The
flower-bud of the Camellia is inclosed in a calyx of five, seven, or
nine concave sepals, on the outside of which are several bracts, which
remain on till the flower has expanded, but which are distinguished
from the sepals by their dark brown colour. The sepals and the bracts
are laid over one another like scales, and thus the flower lies
encased in a complete coat of mail. The single flower is cup-shaped,
with five, seven, or nine petals, which are sometimes joined together
at the base. The stamens have long slender filaments, which either
grow together at the base, or are separated into several bundles. The
anthers are elliptical and versatile; that is, they are poised so
lightly on the filament as to quiver with the slightest breeze. The
ovary is of a conical shape, and it has three or five slender styles,
ending in as many pointed stigmas, and growing together at the base.
The capsule is three or five-celled; and when ripe it bursts into three
or five valves, in the middle of each of which is a dissepiment, which,
before the capsule opened, was attached to an axis or column in the
centre. The seeds are large and few, and they are fixed to the central
placenta. There is no albumen, but the embryo has two large, thick,
oily cotyledons, which look as if they were jointed at the base. The
leaves are leathery, dark-green and shining, and they are ovate in
form, ending in a long point, and sharply serrated. The flowers spring
from the axils of the leaves, and grow close to the stem without any
footstalk; and the leaf-bud for the ensuing shoot grows beside the
flower-bud.
I have above described the _Camellia japonica_, from which nearly
all the Camellias in British gardens have sprung; but there are some
other species. The finest of these is _C. reticulata_, which has very
large, loose, widely-spreading flowers, of a remarkably rich crimson.
The leaves are oblong, flat, and reticulately veined, being of a
much finer texture than those of _C. japonica_. The ovary is two or
four-celled, and it is covered with fine silky hairs. _C. maliflora_
is a very beautiful species with small semi-double flowers, coloured
like an apple blossom. This Camellia is by some botanists thought to
be a variety of _C. Sasanqua_, an elegant species with white fragrant
flowers; but the ovary of the first is smooth, and that of the second
covered with hairs, which most botanists consider a specific difference.
The Tea tree (_Thea viridis_) is very nearly allied to the Camellia;
but there are many points of difference. The flower of the Tea tree
has a footstalk; the calyx has only five sepals; the filaments of the
stamens do not grow together; the capsules are three-seeded; and the
dissepiments are formed by the edges of the valves being bent inwards,
instead of being attached to a central axis. The leaves are also much
longer than they are broad, and they are of a thinner texture and
pale green; and the outside of the capsule, which is furrowed in the
Camellia, is quite smooth in the Tea tree. It is said that both the
green and the black Tea are made from the leaves of _Thea viridis_; but
there is another species called _Thea Bohea_, which has smaller leaves,
and is a more tender, and less vigorous-growing plant. The young leaves
of _Camellia Sasanqua_, and some of the other Camellias, are also
dried, and mixed with the tea. All these plants are natives of Japan
and China, and require a slight protection in England during winter.
ORDER XXXVI.—OLACINEÆ.—THE OLAX TRIBE.
Exotic trees from the East and West Indies, little known in Britain.
_Heistria coccinea_, a native of Martinique, is said to be the
Partridge wood of the cabinet-makers.
ORDER XXXVII.—AURANTIACEÆ.—THE ORANGE TRIBE.
[Illustration: FIG. 121.—FLOWER AND SEED OF THE ORANGE.]
The natural order Aurantiaceæ contains fourteen genera; but the only
one I think my readers will feel an interest in is the genus Citrus.
This genus comprises, among several other species, _C. medica_, the
Citron; _C. Limetta_, the sweet Lime; _C. Limonum_, the Lemon; _C.
Paradisi_, the Forbidden fruit; _C. decumana_, the Shaddock; _C.
Aurantium_, the Sweet Orange; and _C. vulgaris_, the Bitter or Seville
Orange. to these may be added _C. nobilis_ the Mandarin Orange, the
fruit of which is reddish, and which parts naturally from its rind,
which is sweet, and may be eaten. All the species agree in having
a tube-like calyx, scalloped into five short teeth, and a flower
of generally five fleshy petals, (see _a_ in _fig._ 121), though
the number occasionally varies from four to nine. These petals are
elliptic in shape, concave, and always widely opened. In the centre
of the flower are the stamens, varying from twenty (which is the
ordinary number) to sixty; the anthers are two-lobed, and oblong, and
the filaments are somewhat thickened at the base, and united there
into several small bundles (_b_), but free above. The pistil has a
somewhat globular ovary, with a cylindrical style, terminating in a
stigma, which is slightly raised in the centre. The disk in which the
stamens are inserted, forms a ring round the ovary. The fruit (_fig._
122), which is considered by botanists to be a kind of berry, is in
fact a seed-vessel with numerous cells, divided by dissepiments and a
central placenta (_a_); the cells being the quarters of the Orange,
the dissepiments the divisions between them, and the placenta the
central pith. When the flower first expands, the ovary, if cut open
and examined, will be found to be divided into several cells, each
containing two rows of ovules. As in the preceding genera, however,
many of these ovules become abortive; and as the cells fill gradually
with cellular pulp, the seeds become detached from the placenta, and
buried in it. The seeds themselves are very interesting; they are
covered with a thick wrinkled skin, and they show distinctly the hilum
(_c_ in _fig._ 121), the chalaza (_d_) and the raphe or connecting cord
between them, parts which are seldom to be distinguished in seeds with
the naked eye.
[Illustration: FIG. 122.—LEAF AND FRUIT OF THE ORANGE.]
The leaves, calyx, and petals of the Orange, if held up to the light,
appear covered with little dots. These dots are cells, covered with
a transparent membrane, and filled with a kind of oil, which is
exceedingly fragrant. The rind of the fruit is covered with similar
cells, filled with a pungent oily liquid. The leaves are smooth and
shining; and they are articulated; that is, they can be separated from
the petiole or footstalk without lacerating them. In most of the
species, the petioles are winged; that is, they are dilated into little
leaves on each side (see _d_ in _fig._ 122). The different species vary
chiefly in the number of stamens, the thickness of the rind, the shape
of the fruit, and in the wings of the petioles. In the Citron these
wings are wanting entirely, and instead of them there are spines in the
axils of the leaves; there are generally forty stamens, and the rind of
the fruit is very thick. In the sweet Lime, the petioles are slightly
winged, and there are about thirty stamens; the fruit is small and
round, with a slight protuberance at one end like that of the Lemon,
and the pulp is sweet. In the Lemon the petioles are somewhat winged,
the flowers have about thirty stamens; the fruit is oblong, with an
acid pulp, and a thin rind. The Sweet Orange has winged petioles,
about twenty stamens, and a fruit with a thin rind and sweet pulp;
and the Seville Orange differs principally in having a thicker rind
and bitter pulp. The China, St. Michael, and Malta Oranges, with many
others, are all varieties of the Sweet Orange (_Citrus Aurantium_); and
there are many other species, which I have not thought it necessary to
describe.—All the species above-mentioned are natives of Asia, and most
of them of China, but they have been so long cultivated in Europe and
America, as to have become almost naturalised.
ORDER XXXVIII.—HYPERICINEÆ.—THE HYPERICUM TRIBE.
The genus Hypericum, or St. John’s Wort, agrees with the orange in
having its leaves full of transparent cells; but these cells are filled
with a yellow, resinous juice, resembling gamboge in its medicinal
properties, and having a very disagreeable smell. There are five
petals in the corolla; and the calyx consists of five sepals, which
are unequal in size and shape, and joined together for only a short
distance. Like the orange the filaments grow together at the base,
in separate clusters or bundles; but in the Hypericum these clusters
are so perfectly distinct, that the stamens may be readily separated
into three or five bundles (according to the species), by slightly
pulling them. The capsule is dry, and of a membrane-like texture, and
it consists of three or five carpels, containing many seeds, and each
having a separate style, and a pointed stigma. The flowers are very
showy, from their large golden yellow petals and numerous stamens. The
genus Androsæmum, the Tutsan, or Park-leaves, has been separated from
Hypericum on account of its fruit being one-celled and one-seeded,
with a fleshy covering, which yields a red juice when pressed. _H.
calycinum_, with large yellow flowers and five tufts of stamens, is
the handsomest species; but _H. perforatum_ is the true St. John’s
Wort, which the country people used formerly to gather on midsummer
eve, as a preservative against witchcraft.
ORDER XXXIX.—GUTTIFERÆ.—THE MANGOSTEEN TRIBE.
The only genus in this order that contains plants interesting to the
English reader is Garcinia; and the most remarkable species are _G.
Mangostana_, the Mangosteen, said to be the most delicious fruit in the
world, and _G. Cambogia_, the tree producing the gamboge, which is a
kind of gum that oozes out from the stem. Both are natives of the East
Indies.
ORDER XL.—MARCGRAAVIACEÆ.
Exotic shrubs, mostly natives of the West Indies, with spiked, or
umbellate flowers, and alternate leaves. Very seldom seen in Britain.
ORDER XLI.—HIPPOCRATACEÆ.
Exotic arborescent, or climbing shrubs, generally with inconspicuous
flowers. Natives of the East and West Indies.
ORDER XLII.—ERYTHROXYLEÆ.—THE RED WOOD TRIBE.
Exotic shrubs, and low trees, remarkable from the redness of their
wood, but with small greenish flowers. The leaves of _Erythroxylon
Coca_ possess an intoxicating quality, and are chewed by the Peruvians,
in the same manner as the Turks take opium.
ORDER XLIII.—MALPIGHIACEÆ.—THE BARBADOES CHERRY TRIBE.
Several species of Malpighia, the Barbadoes Cherry, are found
occasionally in our stoves. The corolla of these plants, when closed,
bears considerable resemblance to that of a Kalmia; but the flower
when expanded is more like that of a Clarkia, from the long claws of
the five petals, and the distance they are placed apart. Several of
the species have their leaves and stems beset with stinging bristles,
which adhere to the hands when touched. The fruit, which is eatable,
but insipid, is a berry-like drupe, containing three one-seeded nuts.
The species are natives of the West Indies, and they require a stove
in England. The flowers are generally rose-coloured or purplish; but
they are sometimes yellow. The common Barbadoes Cherry is called _M.
glabra_, and its leaves are without stings. In Hiptage, another genus
of this order, four of the petals of the flowers are white, and one
yellow; and in Banisteria, the species are generally climbing shrubs,
always with yellow flowers. Some of the species of Banisteria are
occasionally found in stoves in this country, where their beautiful
feathery yellow flowers have very much the appearance of those of the
Canary bird flower (_Tropæolum peregrinum_).
ORDER XLIV.—ACERINEÆ.—THE MAPLE TRIBE.
[Illustration: 123.—FLOWER AND SAMARA OF THE SYCAMORE. (_Acer
Pseudo-Platanus._)]
The common Maple (_Acer campestre_) and the Sycamore (_A.
Pseudo-Platanus_) are the only plants belonging to this order, that
are natives of Britain; though so many kinds of ornamental Acers are
now found in our parks and pleasure-grounds. Few trees are indeed more
deserving of culture than the American Maples, both for their beauty
in early spring, and for the rich shades of yellow and brown which
their leaves assume in autumn. The Maple tribe is a very small one; it
consists indeed of only the genera Acer and Negundo, and an obscure
Nepal genus, of which there are no plants in Britain. Of all the Acers,
one of the handsomest is the Sycamore tree (_A._ _Pseudo-Platanus_);
the flower of this species (see _e_ in _fig._ 123) is of a yellowish
green; and as in early spring, when it appears, we are delighted at
the sight of any thing in the way of flowers, it really looks very
beautiful. Before I began to study botany, I had never noticed the
blossoms of the forest trees, and when I was shown the light-feathery
flowers of the Lime, and the gracefully-drooping ones of the Sycamore,
I was quite astonished. The flowers of the Sycamore grow in a drooping
raceme; the calyx is divided into five parts, but as it is scarcely
distinguishable from the petals, which are five in number, and placed
alternately with the sepals, it appears to be in ten divisions (see
_a_). These flowers are partly male and female (see _b_ and _c_), and
partly perfect. In the perfect flowers there are eight stamens, and two
stigmas; and the ovary when ripe expands into a curiously winged pod,
called a samara (_d_), but differently shaped to the samara of the Ash,
the thickened parts at the base of which contain the seeds. There is
no albumen in the seed, which, when put into the ground, expands into
two long thin cotyledons, (_a_ in _fig._ 124) which, if once pointed
out, will always be known again instantly. If a ripe seed be opened
when quite fresh, the cotyledons or seed leaves will be found within
it, fresh, green, and succulent; and these leaves (_a_ in _fig._ 124),
which rise above the ground as soon as the seed begins to germinate,
differ widely in shape from the true leaves (_b_) which are serrated,
and of a much thicker texture. The bracts of the Sycamore (_f_ in
_fig._ 123) are thick and leathery, and of a rich dark brown. The
leaves are serrated at the margin; and the lower ones are cut into
five lobes; but those near the flowers have generally only three lobes
(_e_), and in all the leaves, two of the lobes are not so deeply cut as
the others.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.—YOUNG SYCAMORE.]
There are many species of Acer, most of which are tall trees; and they
are chiefly distinguished from each other by the shape of the leaves
and of the samaras, or keys, the wings of which, in some species, are
near together, as shown at _d_ in _fig._ 123, and in others widely
apart, as in the common hedge Maple (_A. campestris_), and in the
Norway Maples, as shown at _a_ in _fig._ 125. This figure represents
the flowers of the Norway Maple (_Acer platanoides_), which are in what
botanists call a corymb, and stand erect, instead of drooping like
those of the sycamore. The leaves are deeply five-lobed, and the lobes
are so coarsely toothed, that the teeth have almost the appearance of
lobules. The buds of this plant in winter are large and red, and when
they open in spring, the bracts (_b_) curl back over the scales (_c_).
The leaves become of a clear yellowish red in autumn, and the whole
plant is very ornamental. When a leaf of this tree is broken off, a
milky sap issues from the broken petiole or leaf-stalk, which is of an
acrid nature; differing in this respect, materially from the sap of
the trunk, which is very sweet. Sugar indeed may be made from the sap
of the trunk of almost all the Maples; but particularly in America,
from that of the Sugar Maple (_Acer saccharinum_). The flowers of
the red American Maple (_Acer rubrum_) are red, and as from their
colour, and their appearing a fortnight before the leaves, they are
very conspicuous, I have given a magnified representation of them in
_fig._ 126, that my readers may have an opportunity of examining the
male and female flowers from a living tree. In _fig._ 126, _a a_ are
male flowers, having no stigmas; and _b b_ are female ones, having no
stamens.
[Illustration: FIG. 125.—FLOWERS AND SAMARA OF THE NORWAY MAPLE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 126.—FLOWERS OF THE RED MAPLE (_Acer rubrum_).]
The leaves of _Acer rubrum_ become red in autumn. The Tatarian Maple
differs from the other species in having entire leaves, and the samaras
are red when young; but all the other kinds of Acer common in British
gardens bear a strong family likeness to each other. The Ash-leaved
Maple is now made into a separate genus, and is called _Negundo
fraxinifolia_. This tree is easily distinguished from the Maples by
its compound leaves, which resemble those of the Ash, and its long
pea-green shoots, which have very few buds. The male and female flowers
of the Negundo are on different trees, and they are so small as to be
seldom seen, though the racemes of samaras or keys which succeed the
flowers are very conspicuous. The Negundo is a native of America, and
its leaves turn yellow in autumn.
ORDER XLV.—HIPPOCASTANEÆ, OR ÆSCULACEÆ. THE HORSE-CHESTNUT TRIBE.
[Illustration: FIG. 127.—FLOWERS OF THE HORSE-CHESTNUT.]
[Illustration: FIG. 128.—HORSE-CHESTNUT.]
This order contains only two genera; viz., Æsculus, the Horse-chestnut,
and Pavia, the Buckeye; both of which are generally called
Horse-chestnuts, though the genera are easily distinguished by their
fruit, the husk of which is smooth in the Pavias, but rough in the
true Horse-chestnuts. The buds of all the species of both genera are
covered with bracted scales, most of which fall off when the leaves
and flowers expand; and those of the common Horse-chestnut (_Æsculus
Hippocastanum_) are very large, and covered with a kind of gum. Four
large compound leaves, each consisting of five or seven leaflets, and
a raceme of sixty-eight flowers, have been unfolded on dissecting one
of these buds, before the leaves unfold in spring. The flowers of this
species are produced in large, upright panicled racemes (see _a_ in
_fig._ 127); and the leaves (_b_) are compound, consisting of five
or seven leaflets, disposed in a palmate manner. Two of the inner
bracts, which remain after the outer scales (which are very numerous)
have fallen, are shown at _c_. I mention this particularly, as these
remaining bracts have very much the appearance of stipules, and it
is one of the characters of the Horse-chestnuts that their leaves
are without stipules. The flowers consist of five petals, two of
which (_d_ in _fig._ 128) are somewhat smaller than the others. Each
petal consists of a broad blade or limb (_e_), and a very narrow claw
(_f_). There are seven stamens, three of which (_g_) are shorter than
the others. The filaments are inserted in the receptacle (_h_), and
surround the pistil, which is hairy, and has a long style and a curved
stigma (_i_). The ovary is two-celled, and each cell contains two
ovules, but seldom more than one seed ripens. The nut (_k_) is large,
and covered with a shining brown skin, which is strongly marked with
the hilum. When put into the ground, the cotyledons do not appear in
the shape of seed-leaves, but remain in the ground, and the plumule and
radicle are protruded as shown in _fig._ 129. The Acorn germinates in a
similar manner, as already shown in _fig._ 86 in p. 192.
[Illustration: FIG. 129.—YOUNG PLANT OF HORSE-CHESTNUT.]
[Illustration: FIG. 130.—SCARLET HORSE-CHESTNUT.]
[Illustration: FIG. 131.—YELLOW HORSE-CHESTNUT.]
The flowers of the different species of Æsculus vary considerably; as,
for example, in the Scarlet Horse-chestnut (_Æ. rubicunda_), the calyx
is tubular (see _a_ in _fig._ 130), and there are but four petals, the
upper two of which (_b_) are narrower than the lower ones (_c_), and
have bearded claws. This species has sometimes eight stamens. In the
Yellow Horse-chestnut, or yellow flowered American Buckeye, the upper
petals (_a_ in _fig._ 131) are very much smaller than the lower ones
(_b_), and both have very long claws. There are four petals, which
conceal the stamens, of which there are frequently only six. The seed
of Pavia has only a small hilum, which resembles the pupil of an eye
(see _fig._ 132); and hence the genus has received its American name of
Buckeye. In one species (_P. macrostachya_), the nut is eatable, and
very much resembles that of a Sweet Chestnut when boiled in milk. The
stamens in this species are much longer than the petals, and they give
a peculiarly light and elegant appearance to the flowers; which, unlike
those of the other species, do not appear till the latter end of summer
or autumn.
[Illustration: FIG. 132.—NUT OF THE BUCKEYE.]
ORDER XLVI.—RHIZOBOLEÆ—THE CARYOCAR TRIBE.
Trees of large size, natives of tropical America. _Caryocar nuciferum_
produces the Suwarrow, or Butter-nut of the fruiterers’ shops.
ORDER XLVII.—SAPINDACEÆ.—SOAP-TREE TRIBE.
The only plant in this order which will grow in the open air in
England is _Kölreuteria paniculata_, a beautiful tree, with very
elegant leaves, and panicles of yellow flowers, which are succeeded
by a bladdery capsule, which is divided into three cells in its lower
part, though it is only one-celled above. The rind and pulp of the
fruit of _Sapindus Saponaria_ are used as soap in those countries of
which it is a native. The nuts of this plant are round and hard, and of
such a shining black that they are made into buttons and beads by the
inhabitants of Spanish America. The whole plant, if thrown into ponds
containing fish, will intoxicate, and sometimes kill them. Another
interesting plant belonging to this order is the Chinese fruit called
Litchi (_Euphoria_ or _Nephelium Litchi_); which has its sweet eatable
pulp enclosed in a kind of nut, much wrinkled on the outside; so that
the fruit lies within the stone, instead of being on the outside of it.
These hard, stone-like berries grow in loose racemes.
ORDER XLVIII.—MELIACEÆ.—THE BEAD-TREE TRIBE.
_Melia Azederach_, the Pride of India, or Indian Lilac, or Bead-tree,
for it is known by all these names, is a native of Syria, which
has become almost naturalised in the South of Europe, particularly
near the Mediterranean. The leaves are bi-pinnate, the flowers are
violet-coloured, and the fruit, which resembles that of the cherry, is
of a pale yellow when ripe. The pulp is poisonous, and the stones are
used for making rosaries in the Roman Catholic countries.
ORDER XLVIII*.—CEDRELEÆ.—THE MAHOGANY TRIBE.
This order was at first united to Meliaceæ by De Candolle, but it has
been separated on account of its winged seeds. It contains, among other
genera, the Mahogany tree (_Swietenia Mahagoni_), and the West Indian
Cedar (_Cedrela_). The leaves of these trees are alternate and pinnate,
with unequal-sided leaflets; and the flowers are in large spreading
panicles composed of numerous little cymes. The fruit is capsular, and
the seeds are winged. The genera contained in this order, all require a
stove in Great Britain.
ORDER XLIX.—AMPELIDEÆ.—THE VINE TRIBE.
[Illustration: FIG. 133.—FLOWERS OF THE VINE.]
The natural order Ampelideæ contains several genera, but of these
only the Vine and the five-leaved Ivy are common in British gardens.
It seems almost ridiculous to talk of the flowers of the Vine, as
the bunches, even when they first appear, seem to consist of only
very small grapes, which gradually become large ones. The flowers,
however, though small and insignificant, are perfect, and they have
each a distinct and regularly formed calyx and corolla. The calyx of
the common Grape (_Vitis vinifera_) is very small, and remains on
till the fruit is ripe; there are five petals (_a_ in _fig._ 133),
which never expand, but remain fastened together at the tip, detaching
themselves at the base, when it is necessary that they should give
room to the ripening stamens (_b_). The petals, which form a kind
of extinguisher, when they are raised by the five stamens, fall off
(_c_), and occasion the chaffy appearance observable in clusters of
Vine-flowers. The ovary is, when young, in two cells, each containing
two seeds; and it is crowned with a nearly flat, round stigma, without
any style. When the fruit begins to swell, the ovary becomes filled
with a pulp, which is solid, and not contained in bags like that of
the Orange; and the dissepiment that divided the two cells gradually
wastes away. Two, and sometimes three of the seeds also frequently
disappear, so that four seeds are rarely found in the ripe grape. The
seeds themselves are bony, and covered with a jelly-like matter; and
when they are cut open, they are found to consist of a large quantity
of hard albumen, with a very small embryo at the tip. The Vine is a
climbing shrub, with lobed leaves, which are frequently deeply cut;
the bunches in which the grapes are disposed are called branched or
thyrsoid racemes (see 137), and the tendrils, by which the plant
climbs, are supposed to be abortive peduncles, drawn out into these
long, flexible, curling bodies, instead of producing bunches of grapes.
The footstalks of the leaves are articulated, and will separate from
the branch without tearing them. The different species of vines differ
from each other chiefly in their leaves; but in the American grapes the
calyx is sometimes entire, and sometimes the stamens and pistils are in
different flowers.
The five-leaved Ivy, or Virginian Creeper (_Ampelopsis hederacea_),
differs very little from the Vine in the botanical construction of its
flowers. The calyx is, however, almost entire, and the five petals
separate in the same way as those of other flowers; but in other
respects they closely resemble those of the Vines. The berries are
small, and not palatable, though they might be eaten with perfect
safety. The leaves are palmate, and they are divided into three or five
stalked leaflets. The stems are climbing and rooting; and the leaves
take a beautiful deep red in autumn. The genus Cissus also belongs to
this order.
ORDER L.—GERANIACEÆ.—THE GERANIUM TRIBE.
The order Geraniaceæ contains several genera of well-known plants, the
most popular of which are _Pelargonium_, _Erodium_, and _Geranium_,
signifying Stork’s-bill, Heron’s-bill, and Crane’s-bill, which differ
very slightly from each other. The greenhouse Geraniums, which are all
either natives of the Cape of Good Hope, or hybrids raised in Europe
from the species originally imported, were, till lately, all included
in the genus _Pelargonium_; but what were sections of that genus
have, by some botanists, been now made separate genera. As probably,
however, this rage for giving new and different names to divisions
and subdivisions will not be generally adopted, I will not trouble
my readers with any other distinctions than those between the three
leading genera; and even these, I think they will allow, appear very
trifling. The calyx of the Pelargonium is in five sepals, and two of
them end in a kind of spur; which is, however, not very perceptible, as
it runs down the peduncle or footstalk of the flower, and grows to it,
so as to seem only a part accidentally enlarged. The corolla is in five
petals, the upper two of which are generally larger, and differently
marked to the others. Sometimes there are only four, and sometimes
there are six petals; but these are exceptions to the general rule.
The perfect stamens vary in number from four to seven; but there are
always ten filaments, which are dilated, and grow together at the base;
and I was quite delighted with the sparkling gem-like appearance of the
membrane which they form when thus united, when I looked at it through
my little microscope. In the plant now before me (a hybrid called the
Duke of Sussex), the upper parts of some of the stamens have turned
into little petals, retaining the white membrane-like part at the base,
and thus curiously exemplifying the manner in which double flowers
are formed, which is always by the metamorphosis of the stamens, or
of the stamens and pistil, into petals. The pistil of the Pelargonium
appears, when young, to consist of a five-celled ovary, with a long
slender style, the tip of which is divided into five slender curved
stigmas. The cells of the ovary are, however, five one-seeded carpels,
each having a separate style; and though both the carpels and styles
appear firmly grown together when young, yet, in fact, they only adhere
to an elongation of the receptacle (see _a_ in _fig._ 134), which is
here called the central axis, and from which, when ripe, they part with
elasticity, and curl up, as shown at _b_; the styles, or awns, as they
are sometimes called, being hairy inside.
[Illustration: FIG. 134.—SEED-VESSEL OF A PELARGONIUM.]
The shape of the unripe seed-vessel, with its persistent calyx, is
shown at _c_, and a detached seed at _d_. No plant hybridises more
freely than the Pelargonium; and thus, the number of new kinds raised
every year defies all description, and they have been so mixed and
intermixed with each other, that it is not easy to say to what species
the most splendid hybrids are allied. A few species, however, remain
nearly unchanged, and the best known of these are _P. zonale_, the
Horseshoe Geranium; _P. inquinans_, the common scarlet, the juice
of the leaves of which is said to stain the fingers brown; _P.
graveolens_, and _P. capitatum_, the rose-scented Geraniums, and _P.
tricolor_. All the Pelargoniums have their flowers in heads or umbels;
and the calyx in all of them remains on till the seeds are ripe. The
seed-vessel, or fruit, as it is called by botanists, is long and
pointed, forming some resemblance to the head of a stork; the ovary
shrouded in the persistent calyx, representing the head of the bird,
and the long styles the beak. The leaves vary in shape in the different
kinds: sometimes they are roundish, as in the Horseshoe Geranium, and
marked with a dark band or zone, whence the specific name _zonale_; and
sometimes they are deeply cut, as in the rose-scented kinds: some are
shrubby, and some herbaceous; and the stems of some species are warted,
and the roots of others tuberous.
The genus Erodium consists principally of European plants, three
of which are natives of England. The commonest of these (_Erodium
cicutarium_) is called in many parts of England the Wild Geranium; and
nearly allied to it, but less common, is _E. moschatum_. The principal
points in which this genus differs from Pelargonium are, that the
filaments of the stamens are very little united at the base; that
there are always five filaments which bear anthers, and five that are
sterile, and that the latter have each a gland at the base. The calyx
is also without the spur, and the seed-pod is thought to resemble a
heron’s head more than that of a stork. When it bursts, also, the
styles, which are hairy inside like those of the Pelargonium, do not
curl up in the same manner as in that genus, but spirally.
The genus Geranium differs from Erodium principally in having the
stamens all perfect; but the alternate ones are longer than the
others, and have a gland at the base of each. The seed-pod is said to
resemble the head of a crane, and when it bursts, the styles, which are
smooth inside, curl up round and round like the coil of a rope. The
seeds of many of the kinds are beautifully netted. Many of the species
are British weeds, and among the commonest of these may be mentioned
Herb Robert (_Geranium Robertianum_), and the Meadow Crane’s-bill (_G.
pratense_). Dr. Lindley, in his Ladies’ Botany, mentions a curious and
beautiful experiment which may be performed by pressing the petals of a
Geranium between two pieces of glass which have been previously wetted.
He says, that by pressing the two glasses firmly together, all the air
may be squeezed out of the petal, and it will become transparent. “You
may then,” he adds, “with a pretty good magnifying power, observe all
the air-vessels of the veins distinctly, looking like fine threads
of silver-wire twisted up like a spiral spring. It is on account of
this appearance that the air-vessels are called, technically, spiral
vessels.” The experiment appeared to me so easy, and at the same time
so interesting, that I tried it, but unfortunately without success;
probably owing to the want of power in my microscope.
ORDER LI.—LIMNANTHEÆ.
This little order contains only one plant, _Limnanthes Douglassi_, a
pretty Californian annual, with yellow and white flowers. It resembles
Geraniaceæ in its botanical construction, but it does not discharge its
seeds with elasticity.
ORDER LI.—TROPÆOLACEÆ.—THE NASTURTIUM TRIBE.
The well-known flowers called Nasturtium, or Indian Cress, give
their name to this order; which, in fact, consists only of the genus
Tropæolum, and an obscure genus not yet introduced. In the flowers of
the Nasturtium, the calyx and corolla are of nearly the same colour,
but they may be easily distinguished from each other. The calyx is
drawn out into a spur behind, and the petals, which are unguiculate,
or claw-shaped, are fringed at the base. The leaves and stem are
succulent, and have the taste of cress, and hence the plant has
received its popular name,—Nasturtium being the botanic name of the
water-cress. The Tropæolum has five petals, eight stamens, and three
carpels, which are joined together into a trigonal fruit, each carpel
containing one seed, which adheres to it. The embryo is large, and
fills the whole seed, which is without albumen. The unripe carpels are
sometimes pickled, and used as a substitute for capers. The whole plant
has not only the taste, but the properties, of cruciferous plants; and
even the caterpillars of the cabbage-butterflies feed upon it.
ORDER LII.—BALSAMINEÆ.—BALSAM TRIBE.
Nearly allied to the Geraniums, and resembling them, in the opening
of the seed-pods, are the beautiful plants contained in the order
Balsamineæ. The two genera best known in British gardens are Balsamina
and Impatiens. The common Balsam (_Balsamina hortensis_), has a small
green calyx of two sepals; there are four petals, one of which is drawn
out into a short spur at the base. There are five stamens, each bearing
a two-celled anther. The ovary is one-celled, but it separates into
five valves, when the seeds are ripe, bursting with elasticity, and
the valves curling inwardly from the apex to the base. There are five
stigmas, quite distinct from each other, and appearing just above the
ovary, without any style; and the peduncles are simple and one-flowered.
The genus Impatiens, which contains the common Noli-me-tangere,
or Touch-me-Not, and other similar plants, though it agrees with
Balsamina in having five anthers, has only three of them with two
cells, the others having one cell each. The stigmas also are joined
together at the base, and the capsule bursts at the slightest touch,
the valves coiling up spirally from the base to the apex, and detaching
themselves from the plant at the same time that they expel the seeds.
The peduncles grow from the axils of the leaves, and they are branched
and many-flowered. A separate order, called Hydrocereæ, has been made
of one of the species of Impatiens (_I. natans_). It is an aquatic
plant, a native of the East Indies.
ORDER LIII.—OXALIDEÆ.—THE WOOD-SORREL TRIBE.
The flowers of all the species of Oxalis, the Wood-sorrel, are very
pretty. The flowers have five regular petals, each furnished with a
claw; and the petals are spirally twisted in the bud. There are ten
stamens, and five styles. The capsule is five-celled, and five or ten
valved, the valves opening lengthways. Most of the species are natives
of South America, and greenhouse plants in England.
ORDER LIV.—ZYGOPHYLLEÆ.—THE BEAN-CAPER TRIBE.
The flowers of the Bean-caper are usually yellow; and the five petals
are long, narrow, and placed widely apart. The botanic name of
Zygophyllum signifies “with the leaves in pairs,” and this is the case
to a remarkable degree. _Fagonia cretica_ is a very pretty plant, with
purple flowers very much like those of Clarkia; and _Guiacum_, the
Lignum Vitæ, is remarkable for the hardness of its wood and the gum it
produces. Melianthus belongs to this order.
ORDER LV.—RUTACEÆ.—THE RUE TRIBE.
This order has been divided into four sections; three of which
contain well-known plants, and have been divided into three orders by
many botanists. The Rue (_Ruta graveolens_) is well known from its
strong and disagreeable smell, which is produced by the oil secreted
in transparent cells in the leaves, which have the appearance of
dots, when the leaves are held up to the light. The leaves are of
a bluish green, and the flowers of a greenish yellow; the latter
growing in cymes at the end of the branches. There are four sepals,
four petals, and eight stamens. There are four carpels, seated on an
elevated receptacle, and each containing one cell, which grow into a
four-celled fruit. In Fraxinella (_Dictamnus_) the petals are unequal;
there are ten stamens, one style, and the carpels are two-seeded.
In Diosma there are only five stamens, the style is arched, and the
capsule consists of five-horned carpels. In Corræa the leaves are
opposite; there are eight stamens, and the four petals grow together
into a tube at the base; and in Crowea there are five sepals, five
petals, and ten stamens; the leaves are also alternate. The Diosmas
have as strong a scent as the Rue, and a perfume is made from them
called Bucku at the Cape of Good Hope, of which country they are
natives.
The section Zanthoxyleæ contains the Zanthoxylum, also called the
Toothache Tree, or Prickly Ash, a native of North America, the bark
of which is very fragrant, and is said to be a cure for toothache and
rheumatism; Ptelea or Shrubby Trefoil; and _Ailantus glandulosa_.
_Zanthoxylum fraxineum_ has very pretty pinnate leaves, and small
purple flowers; _Ptelea trifoliata_ has curiously winged fruit, which
resemble those of the elm; and the Ailantus has remarkably long
compound leaves, one leaf having been known to have fourteen pairs
of leaflets, and to be upwards of three feet long. The two following
orders are included in Rutaceæ by some botanists.
ORDER LVI.—SIMARUBACEÆ.
_Quassia amara_, the bark of which is sometimes used as a substitute
for hops, is perhaps the best known plant belonging to this order. All
the species are trees or shrubs, natives of tropical America, with
bitter bark, milky juice, and pinnated leaves.
ORDER LVII.—OCHNACEÆ.
Tropical shrubs with yellow flowers and shining leaves; seldom seen in
British hothouses.
ORDER LVIII.—CORIAREÆ.
Only one species of this order is common in British gardens, viz.
_Coriaria myrtifolia_; the leaves of which are astringent, and used in
dyeing black, and the berries are poisonous.
§ II.—Calycifloræ.
The plants comprised in this division have their petals and stamens
inserted in the calyx, or in a lining of it formed by the dilated
receptacle.
ORDER LIX.—CELASTRINEÆ.
[Illustration: FIG. 135.—THE HOLLY.]
This order is divided into three sections, each containing well-known
plants. The first of these takes its name from _Staphylæa pinnata_,
the Bladder-nut. In the flowers of this plant the calyx is in
five divisions, and white tinged with pink, so as to be scarcely
distinguishable from the corolla. There are two or three carpels,
which are surrounded by the receptacle, and the styles of which adhere
slightly together. The capsule is bladdery, and consists of two or
three cells, each containing one smooth, brownish, bony seed, which
looks as though one end had been cut off at the hilum. The leaves are
compound, each having five leaflets. The second section contains, among
other plants, the Spindle-tree (_Euonymus europæus_), Cassine, and the
Staff tree (_Celastrus scandens_). The Euonymus has small whitish-green
inconspicuous flowers; but it is remarkable for the beauty of its
capsules, which are fleshy, and of a bright rose-colour, while the
seeds, which are of a bright orange, are enwrapped in a covering called
an aril, by which they remain attached to the capsule after the valves
have opened. Each capsule has five cells and five seeds, and each seed
has a little white stalk attached to its aril, like the funicle of a
pea. There are several species. The Celastrus is a climbing shrub,
remarkable for its clusters of flowers, but which has nothing else
to recommend it. The third section, Aquifoliaceæ, is made a separate
order, under the name of Ilicineæ, or Aquifoliaceæ, by many botanists;
some of whom place it in the sub-class Corollæfloræ, because the petals
are connected at the base. The most common plants that it contains
are included in the genera Ilex and Prinos. In _Ilex aquifolium_, the
Holly, the corolla (_a_ in _fig._ 135), is in four or five petals
connected at the base; there are four stamens, the cells of the anthers
of which adhere to the sides of the filament (_b_). The berry (_c_) is
four-celled, each cell containing a one-seeded nut. The leaves (_d_)
are simple, and smooth, shining and prickly at the edges, which are
curved upwards. Prinos, the Winter-berry, is a little evergreen shrub,
with red berries.
ORDER LX.—RHAMNACEÆ.
The most interesting genera in this order are Paliurus, Zizyphus,
Rhamnus, and Ceanothus. Christ’s Thorn (_Paliurus aculeatus_) is
easily known by its crooked prickly stem, and its singular fruit,
which, from its resembling a head with a broad flat hat on, the French
call, Porte-chapeau. The flowers are yellow, but they are too small
to be ornamental. _Zizyphus Jujuba_ differs from Paliurus chiefly in
its fruit, which resembles a small plum, and from the fruit of which
the Jujube lozenges are made. There are numerous species of Rhamnus,
some of which are trailing-shrubs, and others low trees. Some of the
species, such as _R. Alaternus_, are evergreen shrubs, very useful
in town-gardens, as they are not injured by smoke; others, such as
the Purging Buckthorn (_R. catharticus_), have deciduous, rough,
feather-nerved leaves, and the branchlets terminating in a thorn. The
berries of the plants in this division are sold for dyeing yellow,
under the name of French or Avignon berries. Another division includes
the species which are without thorns. All these plants have their male
and female flowers distinct. The last division of Rhamnus has perfect
flowers, and dark-purple berries, as for example, the Berry-bearing
Alder (_R. frangula_). The genus Ceanothus is well known from the
beautiful _C. azureus_. The other species have generally the same
kind of terminal, upright panicles of feathery flowers, but they are
very inferior in beauty. _C. americanus_, which has white flowers, is
sometimes called American Red-root, or New Jersey Tea.
ORDER LXI.—BRUNIACEÆ.
Small heath-like shrubs, natives of the Cape of Good Hope.
ORDER LXII.—SAMYDEÆ.
Tropical shrubs or trees with dotted leaves, and inconspicuous flowers.
ORDER LXIII.—HOMALINEÆ.
This order contains the handsome evergreen half-hardy shrub,
_Aristotelia Macqui_; the flowers are insignificant, but the berries
are black, acid, and eatable, and the leaves are smooth, shining, and
so abundant as to render the plant an excellent screen.
ORDER LXIV.—CHAILLETIACEÆ.
African plants, with panicles of small white flowers, and simple leaves.
ORDER LXV.—AQUILARINEÆ.
Trees, natives of Asia, little known in England.
ORDER LXVI.—TEREBINTHACEÆ.—THE TURPENTINE TRIBE.
This order is divided by De Candolle into seven sections; viz.,
1. Anacardiaceæ, including the Cashew-nut (_Anacardium_), the
Mango (_Mangifera_), and the Turpentine trees (_Pistacia_); 2.
Sumachineæ, which contains _Rhus_, _Schinus_, and _Duvaua_: 3,
Spondiaceæ, containing the Hog-plum (_Spondias_); 4. Burseraceæ,
including the Jamaica Birch (_Bursera_), and the Balm of Gilead
tree (_Balsamodendron_); 5. Amyrideæ, the West Indian Balsam tree
(_Amyris_); 6. _Spatheliaceæ_, the West Indian Sumach (_Spathelia_);
and 7. Connaraceæ, containing Omphalobium, and other exotic genera. Of
these modern botanists make five distinct orders, viz., Anacardiaceæ,
including the first, second, and fifth sections; Amyrideæ, Spondiaceæ,
Burseraceæ, and Connaraceæ. Ptelea, which was originally included in
this order, is now generally placed in Xanthoxylaceæ.
The plants contained in this order have in some cases perfect flowers,
and in others, the male and female flowers on different plants. They
all abound in a resinous gum; that from the Mastic tree (_Pistacia
Lentiscum_), and several of the species of Rhus, is used for making
varnish; the gum of the Turpentine tree (_P. Terebinthus_) is the Chian
or Cyprus turpentine. The flowers are small, and generally produced in
panicles, the petals are sometimes wanting. The leaves are alternate,
without stipules, and often compound. The flowers have generally five
petals, and five or ten stamens; and the fruit is drupaceous, or
capsular, varying in the different genera. In Anacardium, the peduncle
which supports the Cashew-nut is fleshy and pear-shaped, so as to
resemble a fruit more than the nut itself. The Mango has a fleshy
drupe, with a woody, fibrous stone or nut. In Pistacia, the fruit is a
dry drupe inclosing a nut, which is eatable in _P. vera_. Both the male
and female flowers in this genus are handsome, though without petals,
from the anthers being yellow, and the stigmas crimson. The different
species of Sumach, or Rhus, are all poisonous; and the Venetian Sumach
(_Rhus cotinus_) is remarkable from the appearance presented by its
flower-stalks in autumn; as all the flower-stalks which do not bear
fruit dilate, after the flowers have dropped, and become covered with a
great quantity of white cottony hair, which makes each panicle resemble
a powdered wig; and hence, the French call the tree _Arbre à perruque_.
ORDER LXVII.—LEGUMINOSÆ.—(SEE CHAP. II. IN P. 35.)
The plants belonging to this order have alternate leaves, which are
generally compound, and frequently have the common petiole tumid; they
have also two stipules at the base of the petiole, and frequently
two others to each leaflet. The pedicels are usually articulated,
and the flowers are furnished with small bracts. The flowers have
a five-parted calyx, and a corolla, sometimes papilionaceous, and
sometimes spreading, which has never more than five petals, though it
has frequently less. The fruit is a legume, though sometimes, when
there is only one seed, it has the appearance of a drupe. There are
eleven sections given in De Candolle’s Prodromus, viz., 1. _Sophoreæ_,
the Sophora tribe; 2. _Loteæ_, the Lotus tribe; 3. _Hedysareæ_, the
Sainfoin tribe; 4. _Vicieæ_, the Vetch tribe, (including the Pea and
Bean); 5. _Phaseoleæ_, the Kidney-bean tribe; 6. _Dalbergia_, the
Gum-dragon tribe; 7. _Swartzia_; 8, _Mimoseæ_, the Mimosa tribe; 9.
_Geoffrea_, the Earth-nut tribe, (including the Earth-nut _Arachis_,
and the Tonquin Bean, _Dipterix_); 10. _Cassieæ_, the Cassia tribe; and
11. _Detarieæ_. Some botanists include Moringa, the Horse-radish tree,
in Leguminosæ, but others make it a separate order under the name of
Moringeæ.
ORDER LXVIII.—ROSACEÆ.—(SEE CHAP. III. IN P. 50.)
The flowers have five sepals, combined in their lower part into a tube,
but divided above into five lobes; and the corolla has generally five
petals. There are numerous carpels, which are usually inclosed in the
fleshy tube of the calyx. The ovary is one-celled, and there is seldom
more than one seed, and scarcely ever more than two. The leaves are
alternate, generally compound, and always furnished with stipules. De
Candolle divides the order into eight tribes, viz., 1. _Chrysobalaneæ_;
2. _Amygdalineæ_; 3. _Spiraceæ_; 4. _Neuradeæ_; 5. _Dryadæ_, or
_Potentilleæ_; 6. _Sanguisorbeæ_; 7. _Roseæ_; and 8. _Pomaceæ_. Of
these, the first, second, third, and eight, are made separate orders;
the fifth, sixth, and seventh are retained in Rosaceæ. Neuradeæ was
first removed to Ficoideaceæ, and afterwards made a separate order;
and another order has been made, called Quillageæ, including only the
genera Kageneckia and Quillaja.
ORDER LXIX.—CALYCANTHACEÆ.
There are only two genera in this order, both of which are remarkable
for the fragrance of their flowers. The American Allspice (_Calycanthus
floridus_) is a shrub, with very dark blackish purple flowers, which
botanists consider to be all calyx, the plants in this order having
no petals. The lobes of the calyx are somewhat leathery in texture,
and lanceolate in form; they are very numerous, and they are disposed
in several rows, like scales. The stamens are numerous, but only the
outer twelve are fertile, and they soon fall off. The peduncle is
thickened below the flower; and the receptacle is dilated, and drawn
out over the carpels, which are arranged in it like those of the rose,
which they closely resemble, but are much larger. The leaves are
opposite and feather-nerved. _Chimonanthus fragrans_, so well-known for
its beautiful yellowish flowers, which are produced about Christmas,
belongs to this order. In this plant the lobes of the calyx are oval,
and not nearly so numerous as in Calycanthus; the outer lobes look like
bracts. The stamens are less numerous, and not deciduous; and only five
are fertile, which are united at the base. This plant was formerly
called _Calycanthus præcox_.
ORDER LXX.—GRANATEÆ.
This order has only one genus and two species. The Pomegranate (_Punica
Granatum_) has a tubular calyx, with a limb in five or seven divisions,
and the same number of petals as there are segments to the calyx. The
calyx and corolla are both of the same colour. When the petals fall,
the tube of the calyx swells, and becomes a many-celled berry, the limb
of the calyx remaining on, and forming a kind of crown to the fruit.
The cells are divided into two parts, and they contain a great number
of seeds which are plunged in a juicy pulp. The other species, _P.
nana_, only differs in being a dwarf plant, and in the leaves being
narrower. The Pomegranate was formerly included in Myrtaceæ.
ORDER LXXI.—MEMECYLEÆ.
Tropical trees and shrubs, with white or purplish flowers, and eatable
fruit.
ORDER LXXII.-COMBRETACEÆ.
This order is well-known from the two beautiful climbing stove-plants,
_Combretum purpureum_, and _Quisqualis indica_. The flowers of the
former are disposed in racemes, which have a peculiarly light and
graceful appearance, from the great length of their stamens; and as
they are of a brilliant scarlet, the name of Purpureum is very ill
applied to the species. The flowers of _Quisqualis indica_ have a very
long slender tube to the calyx, and five velvet-like petals, which vary
in colour from a yellowish white to red, changing in the course of one
day.
ORDER LXXIII.—VOCHYSIEÆ.
Brazilian trees and shrubs, with yellow flowers, and stipulate,
feather-nerved leaves.
ORDER LXXIV.—RHIZOPHOREÆ.
The Mangroves (_Rhizophora_) are tropical trees, growing in the soft
mud of rivers, particularly in that of the Niger, so that, when the
rivers are full, they appear to grow out of the water. The seeds have
the singular property of germinating in the capsule, and sending down
long roots while yet hanging on the tree, the branches of which thus
appear, at a little distance, as if covered with long white strings.
All the genera belonging to this order require a stove in England.
ORDER LXXV.—LOPHIREÆ.
The only plant contained in this order is a beautiful shrub from Sierra
Leone, with terminal corymbs of white flowers, and coriaceous leaves.
ORDER LXXVI.—ONAGRARIÆ.—(SEE CHAP. IV. IN P. 75.)
The tube of the calyx generally adheres to the ovary, and its limb is
usually two or four lobed, the lobes frequently adhering together. The
petals are either four, or equal in number to the lobes of the calyx;
they are inserted in the mouth of the tube, and are twisted in the bud.
The fruit is generally a capsule, or a berry, with two or four cells;
and there are numerous seeds. The leaves vary considerably, and are
sometimes alternate, and sometimes opposite, but never compound. De
Candolle divides this order into six sections: viz. 1. _Montinieæ_; 2.
_Fuchsieæ_; 3. _Onagreæ_, containing the Evening Primrose (_Œnothera_),
and the French Willow Herb (_Epilobium_); 4. _Jussieuæ_; 5. _Circææ_,
including the Enchanter’s Nightshade (_Circæa_), and _Lopezia_; and 6.
_Hydrocaryes_, containing the Water-caltrops (_Trapa natans_). This
last section is sometimes made a separate order.
ORDER LXXVII.—HALORAGEÆ, OR CERCODIANÆ.