_The Theory of Concentric Spheres, supported by arguments drawn from
Terrestrial facts; such as the migration of animals to and from the
arctic regions, and from refraction, and the variation of the compass,
observed in high northern latitudes._
I would now advert to a few of the known terrestrial facts, which have
a tendency to support the theory advanced by Captain Symmes; such as
the migration of animals, including beasts, birds, and fishes, in the
arctic regions; and from refraction, and the variation of the compass
observed in high northern latitudes.
It is a fact well attested by whalers and fishers in the northern
seas; and one that almost every author who adverts to the northern
fisheries confirms, that innumerable and almost incredible numbers of
whales, mackerel, herring, and other migratory fish, annually come
down in the spring season of the year, from the artic seas towards
the equator. Some authors describe the shoals of herring alone, to
be equal in surface to the island of Great Britain. Besides these,
innumerable shoals of other fish also come down. These fish when they
first come from the north in the spring, are in their best plight and
fattest condition: but as the season advances, and they move on to the
southward, they become poor; so much so, that by the time they get on
the coast of France, or Spain, as fishermen say, they are scarce worth
catching.
The history of the migratory fish affords strong grounds to conclude,
that the shoals which come from the north, are like swarms of bees from
the mother hive, never to return; particularly the herring and other
small fish. They are not known to return in shoals: and it is doubted
by some writers on the subject whether any of them ever return north
again, or whether they are not entirely consumed by men, and by other
fish.
Whalers and other fishermen who go to the north, generally prosecute
their business in the seas between latitudes sixty and seventy degrees,
where whales are most abundant. Pinkerton, in his voyages, states, that
the Dutch, who at different periods got detained in the ice, and were
compelled to winter in high northern latitudes, could find but few
fish to subsist on during the winter: which proves that the migrating
fish do not winter amongst, or on this side of the ice.――All these
facts relative to fish, appear to be well authenticated. Now, were the
earth a compact and solid spheroid, according to the old theory; and
were the seas frozen nearly to the bottom at the poles, as we would
be led to conclude, where could all those fish, that come down to us
every spring, breed? or, if they even all returned in the autumn,
and all the north were a sea that did not freeze even to the poles,
it would require a great stretch of credulity to imagine where they
could obtain food for the winter; or even if their source of food were
inexhaustible, could the region of the pole afford space sufficient for
their health, so as to migrate south in the spring? If the earth be
not hollow, (or at least greatly concave about the poles) where could
all those fish find room in winter? But on Symmes's plan, admitting
the globe to be a hollow sphere, and the inner, or concave part, as
habitable as without, (at least as habitable for fish) the whole matter
is at once explained.
Whales, and various fish, delight in cold regions. According to
Symmes's Theory, a zone at a short distance beyond the real verge of
the sphere, (which constitutes the coldest part, or as he has thought
proper to term it, "the icy circle,") commencing at the highest point,
in about latitude sixty-eight degrees, in the northern sea, near
Norway, thence gradually declining to about latitude fifty degrees in
the Pacific ocean, which is the lowest point, and thence regularly
round again to the highest point. A certain distance beyond this, and
short of the apparent verge, this zone, or icy circle exists, which is
believed to be the coldest region of the earth. After passing this, we
would advance into the interior of the globe, and into a milder clime.
In the interior region, it is contended, those immense shoals of fish
are propagated and grow, which annually come out and afford us such
an abundant supply: nor does it appear that the interior parts of the
sphere are altogether forsaken by the fish in summer; for shoals of fat
mackerel and herring come down from the north in autumn, as well as in
the spring.
The seal, another animal found in cold regions, is also said to migrate
north twice each year; going once beyond the icy circle to produce
their young; and again to complete their growth, always returning
remarkably fat――an evidence that they find something more than snow
and ice to feed on in the country to which they migrate.
Numerous other facts of importance, relative to the migration
of quadrupeds, are well authenticated by travellers and others:
particularly that of the rein-deer. In Rees's Cyclopedia, under the
head, "Hudson's Bay," it is stated, that the rein-deer are seen in
the spring season of the year, about the month of March or April,
coming down from the north, in droves of eight or ten thousand, and
that they are known to return northward in the month of October, when
the snow becomes deep. Hudson's Bay is situated between sixty and
sixty-five degrees north latitude. We are informed by professor Adams
of St. Petersburgh, that on the northern coast of Asia, every autumn
the rein-deer start north-eastwardly from the river Lena, and return
again in the spring, in good condition: the mouth of the river Lena
is in about latitude seventy degrees north. This appears to me rather
a mystery according to the old theory of the earth, for why should
those deer when the cold commences, seek a colder climate, and a more
sterile country? The inhospitable coast of Liberia and Hudson's Bay, in
the gloom of a dark winter, I should suppose, would be cold enough,
without their seeking to spend the winter among nothing but eternal
mountains of ice at the pole; where nature must be robed in snows and
crowned with storms.
Hearne, who travelled very high north and northwest on the continent
of America, details various facts in his journal, which strongly
corroborate Symmes's position. Some of the facts he attempts to explain
agreeably to his own ideas, and others he considers inexplicable.
Among a great collection of facts, he states, that large droves of
_musk-oxen_ abound within the arctic circle, few of which ever come
so far south as the Hudsons-Bay factories. He mentions seeing in the
course of one day, several herds of those animals, of seventy or eighty
in a herd, in about latitude sixty-eight degrees. He states that the
polar white bears are very rarely found by any of the Indians in
winter; and that their winter retreats appear to be unknown;[6] that
they are sometimes seen retiring towards the sea on the ice in autumn;
and appear again in great numbers in the latter end of March, bringing
their young with them.
Hearne also states, that the white or arctic foxes are, some years,
remarkably plentiful; and always come from the north; that their
numbers almost exceed credibility; that it is well known none of them
ever migrate again to the northward; and that naturalists are at a
loss to know where they originate.[7] He also mentions that all kinds
of game, as well as fish, in those high latitudes, are at some seasons
excessively plentiful, and at others extremely scarce.
These facts strongly corroborate the doctrine of a hollow sphere:
otherwise, why should the rein-deer, and other animals, migrate north
instead of south; as our Buffalo on the plains of Missouri do, when
pressed with snow and cold weather? Instinct generally leads animals
to fruitful and productive, rather than unproductive, regions; why
then proceed north on the approach of winter, unless in expectation
of finding a warmer climate, or, at least, a more mild and plentiful
country, beyond the icy circle? Independent of the immense droves of
rein-deer, great numbers of musk-oxen, white bears, and white foxes,
spend their winters towards the north; which tends to establish the
fact, that a considerable extent of land must exist in that quarter
of the earth. This, however, would infringe on the space necessary to
accommodate the vast quantities of fish which appear to be propagated
in that region, if the old system were true.
If we were to judge of the internal surface of the sphere, by
its animal productions,――admitting that those animals heretofore
enumerated, are propagated there,――we should conclude that the internal
region of the earth is as much more favourable to the support of animal
life, as the rein-deer is larger than our deer, and the white bear
larger than our bear; and, consequently, we must conclude that there
are more salubrious climates and better countries within, than any we
have yet discovered without.
Hearne also informs us that swans, geese, brants, ducks, and other
wild water-fowl, are so numerous about Hudson's Bay, in the spring and
summer, that the company every season salt up vast quantities of them,
sometimes sixty or seventy hogs-heads.[8] He enumerates ten different
species of geese, several of which, (particularly the snow geese, the
blue geese, brent geese, and horned wavey,) lay their eggs and raise
their young in some country unknown, even to the Indians;[9] as their
eggs and young are never seen by them, neither have the most accurate
observers been able to discover where they make their winter residence;
as it is well known that they do not migrate to the southward; but
few of them ever pass to the south, and some of the species are said
never to have been seen south of latitude fifty-nine degrees.[10] Most
of those fowls molt or shed their feathers in a peculiar manner, in
summer, and become nearly naked. Hence it would seem that they must
breed in winter while absent, for it is impossible that they could lay
and sit whilst molting; whereas, the migratory geese and ducks of this
country are not known to shed their feathers, in any great degree; and
are well known to raise their young in the summer, whilst in the north.
It may, therefore, be inferred, that many of those water-fowls, which
Hearne describes, raise their young beyond the icy circle and within
the sphere. As many of the ten species of geese he saw there, are
unknown further south, it establishes the fact, that they do not come
to the south to winter.
In the papers of the Honourable D. Barrington, and Colonel Beaufoy, on
the possibility of approaching the north pole, read before the Royal
Society of London, there is an extensive collection of instances cited,
where navigators have reached high northern latitudes; from which it
appears to be well authenticated, that navigators have in numerous
instances reached the latitude of eighty-two, eighty-three, and
eighty-four degrees:[11] and some are said to have sailed as far north
as eighty-eight and eighty-nine degrees.[12] It is almost uniformly
stated, that in those high latitudes, the sea is clear of ice, or
nearly so, and the weather moderate.[13] To cite the various instances
in which navigators have sailed far north, would be too tedious:[14]
the whole book principally consists of a series of facts, which have
a strong bearing on the subject, and to which I would refer the reader
who feels disposed to investigate. The whole appears to strengthen the
opinion, that there is a barrier, or circle of ice, about where the
whalers go to fish; but, when that is passed, we come to an open sea,
and a more temperate region.
The sea is stated to be open, and always clear of ice, even in the
middle of winter, on the northern part of Spitzbergen, which is
situated in latitude eighty degrees north; and the further north the
more clear it is of ice.[15] But, at the same season, on the southern
parts of Spitzbergen, the sea is bound up with solid and compact ice.
If the doctrine be true, that the earth is a solid spheroid, the cold
must increase regularly as we approach the pole, and, consequently,
vegetation invariably diminish: this, however, is ascertained not
to be the fact. Nova-Zembla, which is situated in north latitude
seventy-six degrees, produces no timber, nor even a blade of grass,[16]
consequently, all the quadrupeds which frequent it, are foxes and
bears; both carniverous animals. On the coast of Greenland, about
latitude sixty-five and seventy degrees, neither timber nor grass
grows;[17] while on the northern parts of Spitzbergen, they have
rein-deer, which are often exceedingly fat; and Mr. Grey mentions
three or four species of plants which grow and flower there, during the
summer.[18]
On any meridian passing through England, it is ascertained to be
more temperate at the latitude of eighty degrees north, than at
seventy-three degrees:[19] and both Pinkerton and Barrington inform
us, that beyond the latitude of seventy-five degrees, the north winds
are frequently warm in winter;[20] that in the middle of winter for
several weeks, there falls almost continued rain; and that vegetables
and animals are more abundant at the latitude of eighty degrees than at
seventy-six degrees.
It has long been observed that the climates vary very considerably
on the same parallels of latitude. New York, which is situated in
latitude 40 degrees, is known to be considerably colder in the winter
than London, which is situated in latitude fifty-five degrees; and the
parallel of latitude forty degrees on the plains of Missouri is much
colder than the city of New-York. The climate at St. Peters, on the
Mississippi, which is in latitude forty-six degrees, is said to be
considerably colder than Quebec.[21] This difference of climate has, by
some, been attempted to be accounted for, on the principle that land
is colder than water, and that the cold is occasioned by the large
portion of land in the continent of America: however, I submit to the
consideration of the reader, whether so great a difference could arise
from a cause of this nature.
In the northern sea, between Spitzbergen and the continent of America,
there is a strong current, which always comes from the north, and
sets southwardly.[22] It has been stated by some, that, in the spring
season of the year, the water of this current is warmer and fresher
than the surrounding water of the sea. Various other currents have,
at different times, been observed, in different parts of the sea,
setting from the north. Floating southwardly on these currents, have
been seen large masses of ice, from fresh water rivers, with wolves
and bears occasionally on them. New fallen trees have also been seen
floating from the north; and various kinds of timber, some of which
the species have hitherto been unknown, are frequently found lodged
on the northern part of the coast of Norway, having drifted from some
region still farther north. Trees have also been found floating in the
ocean at latitude eighty degrees; when no timber is known to grow north
of latitude seventy degrees. Also, seeds unknown to our botanists,
and those of tropical plants have been found drifted on the coast of
Norway, and parts adjacent, many of which were in so fresh a state
as to vegetate and grow;[23] when it is well known that no plant of
their species comes to perfection in any known climate far without the
tropics. And, what makes the matter particularly extraordinary, is,
that these things appear to be drifted by currents coming from the
north; when, according to the old theory, we must believe the sea to
be always frozen at the poles, which would render it difficult, if not
impossible, to account for the existence of the currents at all.
In the United States of America, and in Europe, the Aurora Borealis
is always seen to the north: But many of those travellers and
navigators, who penetrated to high northern latitudes, observed the
Aurora Borealis in the south, and never in the north. The region in
which it is believed to exist, is supposed to be about the place where
the verge commences, and about fifty or sixty miles above the plane
of the earth's surface; and that the travellers who discovered these
appearances south of them, were at that time beyond the verge.
The Indians discovered by Captain Ross, on the coast of Baffin's bay,
in the summer of 1818, in latitude seventy-five degrees fifty-five
minutes north, when interrogated from whence they came, pointed to
the north, where, according to their account, there were "plenty of
people;"[24] that it was a warmer country; and that there was much
water there. And when Captain Ross informed them that he came from the
contrary direction, pointing to the south, they replied, "that could
not be, because there was nothing but ice in that direction:"[25]
Consequently these people must live in a country not composed of ice;
for it appears they deem such an one uninhabitable. Hence we must
infer, if the relation given by Captain Ross be correct, that, north of
where they then were, the climate becomes more mild, and is habitable;
a change, the cause of which is not easily accounted for on the old
philosophic principles.
In high northern latitudes, owing to refraction, or some other peculiar
circumstance, which hitherto has not, to my knowledge, been attempted
to be accounted for, the extent of vision appears to be greatly
increased; so that objects, much further than the ordinary distance,
are distinctly seen; frequently appearing elevated above the sea, or
their real situation; and their image sometimes pictured in the sky.
The real objects, themselves, are sometimes seen with the naked eye one
hundred and forty or one hundred and fifty miles,[26] and sometimes
at the astonishing distance of two hundred miles. These facts are
well attested by Captain Ross and other navigators. How this can be
accounted for, on the formation maintained by the old theory, I cannot
conjecture. I believe it is admitted that the deck of a vessel at sea,
any where between the equator and latitude fifty or sixty degrees,
cannot be discovered, even by the best telescope, at a greater distance
than twelve or fifteen miles.[27] Nay, were there no end to vision, and
could the eye penetrate two hundred miles through our atmosphere with
sufficient clearness, it would require an observer to be elevated about
five miles, before he could discover an object on the surface of the
earth two hundred miles distant. But, on the edge of the verge of the
polar opening, if the atmosphere were clear, and the power of vision
strong enough, an observer might discover objects situated on the verge
at any point all round the sphere; as they would be on an exact plane
with the observer. And on the contrary, travelling across the verge
from the convexity to the concavity of the sphere, a very few miles
make objects disappear.
All northern navigators and travellers agree, that high north the
sun becomes less bright, and the sky darker, than in more southern
latitudes. Is not this owing to the rays of the sun being refracted
round the verge of the polar opening? Another circumstance, observed
by navigators, who have visited high latitudes is, that the latitude
and longitude, as found by celestial observation, frequently differ
very materially, sometimes as much as one half, from that given by
the log-line.[28] It has also been observed that the mercury in the
barometer is less fluctuating in northern regions, than it is further
south.
Those appearances observed in the southern hemisphere, which are termed
Magellanic clouds, by navigators, have not, so far as I know, been
accounted for. They are three in number, of an irregular shape, and
observed by night in the South Atlantic, and the south-east parts of
the Pacific oceans, (reversed from New-Holland and New-Zealand,) but
never visible in the eastern parts of the Indian ocean: their colour
is like that of far distant mountains, on which the sun is shining. In
the one sea they appear due south, and in the other to the left. They
are stationary, appearing perpetually fixed at a certain height, and
in a particular situation, as viewed from any given place. The stars
and the heavens, in their diurnal revolutions, sweep by them, and they
remain the same. To the navigator, who proceeds to the east or west,
they appear to be more or less to the right or left of the meridian,
in proportion as he changes his longitude; and as he sails south, they
increase in height, until they reach the zenith, and finally become
north, when seen by an observer south of the straits of Magellan, which
is in latitude fifty-two degrees south. Captain Symmes accounts for
the appearance of these clouds by the great refractive power of the
atmosphere about the polar openings; causing the opposite side of the
verge to appear pictured in the sky, as navigators inform us objects do
sometimes appear, in the arctic regions; and in the manner Scoresby's
ship appeared in the sky, with every particular about her so accurately
represented, as to be at once identified by the observers, though the
vessel, at that time, was at such a distance as to render it rather
incredible how she could be seen at all. As proof of this position,
Captain Symmes alleges, that the relative position, shape, and
proportions of these clouds, agree in their general outlines with the
southern part of New-Zealand, the southeast part of New-Holland, and
the whole of Van-Dieman's land, which are situated on, and near to the
verge of the sphere, opposite to where the clouds are visible. These
clouds are only seen in the night when the atmosphere is clear, at
which time the sun is shining on the islands in question. Hence it is
alleged, that from these facts, their relative appearance is deducible.
As we are never sensible that the rays of light are refracted by the
medium through which they pass before they reach our visual organs; we
frequently imagine objects to be situated where they really are not;
and such is believed to be the case as respects Van-Dieman's and the
circumjacent land, as before described.
Franklin, in his journey far north, on the continent of America,
discovered a cloud, which appeared to remain always in the same
position, and which the Indians informed him was permanent. Not having
the book at hand, I cannot now advert particularly to what he says on
the subject: but, from memory only, recollect that he states something
to that effect. If such an appearance exist there, may it not be
accounted for in the same manner as the Magellanic clouds?
Navigators, who have sailed far north, admit the variation of the
needle to be excessive. Captain Ross found it in Baffin's Bay, to be
as much as one hundred and ten degrees; and Parry, during his voyage
in 1822, found it so changed, that the needle pointed within about
fourteen degrees of south. All, I believe, concur, that this is a
phenomenon which universally occurs in high northern latitudes; but
it has hitherto remained unexplained. I believe, according to the old
theory, the needle is imagined to be attracted by something at or near
the pole: were this supposition correct, the needle would uniformly
maintain its polarity on proceeding north, on any given meridian,
until you arrived at the very pole itself. The possibility of a moving
magnetic cause is difficult, if not impossible, to be reconciled
with a solid globe; yet that the magnetic needle does vary on the
same meridian, and to a most extraordinary degree, in high northern
latitudes, is confirmed beyond all doubt. Why not then urge the
variableness of the magnetic cause against the possibility of a solid
globe?
According to the doctrine of hollow spheres, this whole mystery, of
the variation of the compass, can be satisfactorily explained. The
magnetic needle, it is believed, regards the centre of the polar
opening, and not the pole or axis of the earth. It will be recollected,
that the axis of the earth, being at an angle of twelve or fifteen
degrees from the plane of the polar openings, causes one part of the
verge to extend farther north than the other, the highest part of which
is nearly on a meridian running through Spitzbergen, in about latitude
sixty-eight degrees, and the lowermost side in about the fiftieth
degree. Now in proceeding north on the first meridian, running near
Spitzbergen, there ought to be no variation of the needle until you
arrive at the apparent verge, when the needle would cease to traverse;
and by proceeding onwards, would turn and point south. Should you
proceed north, on a meridian west of this, when you approached the
apparent verge, the needle would seem to turn west, but in reality,
it would be the meridian turning to the right along the verge to
its highest or most northerly point; the needle keeping at a right
angle with the verge. And, in like manner, pursuing a course north,
on a meridian east of Spitzbergen, on your approach to the apparent
verge, the needle would still direct its course at a right angle
into the polar opening, (governed, most probably, by some principle
of electricity, or other property contained in matter, and kept in
one position, subject to the shape of the earth, which may not even
yet be exactly known,) the meridian would here wind to the left, and
conduct you to the highest point of the apparent verge, north of
Spitzbergen. Hence the variation of the needle would be east in Asia,
and west in America, which I am told is the fact. From an examination
of the variation of the compass, as ascertained in different degrees
of latitude and longitude, it increases as you proceed north, and
west; which would be exactly the case in accordance with the theory of
concentric spheres.[29]
Admitting the earth to be a solid globe, and the cause of magnetism
to be some attractive power at the pole, how could the needle vary
differently on the same meridian, in different latitudes, at the
same period of time, or vary at the same place, at different periods
of time? But, admit the doctrine contended for, by the advocates
of concentric spheres, and it can be satisfactorily explained. The
observations of modern astronomers, have ascertained, that the poles,
or axis of the earth, are not always directed to the same fixed star;
and, of consequence, that the axis does not always remain parallel to
itself. This variation is discovered to be about fifty-one minutes
annually; which would make a degree in about seventy-one years: hence
the needle always pointing to the polar opening, would vary in about
that proportion, at the same place, in the same period of time.[30]
FOOTNOTES:
[6] Hearne's Journal, pp. 357, 368.
[7] Hearne's Journal, pp. 364, 365.
[8] Hearne's Journal, p. 442.
[9] Hearne's Journal, p. 442, 443, 444, 445, 446.
[10] Ibid, p. 445.
[11] Barrington and Beaufoy, pp. 21, 51.
[12] Ibid, pp. 25, 61.
[13] Ibid, pp 25, 32, 37, 61.
[14] _From the National Intelligencer of Sept. 30, 1824._
"POLAR SEAS.――The fact that there are open seas round both the earth's
poles, has received strong corroboration within the last few months.
We have now a letter on our table from a naval officer at Drontheim,
who notices the fact that Captain Sabine had good weather, and
reached eighty degrees and thirty-one minutes north latitude, without
obstruction from the ice; so that the expedition might easily have
proceeded farther had its object so required. We have also had the
pleasure to meet recently with a British officer who, with two vessels
under his command, last season penetrated to seventy-four degrees
twenty-five minutes south latitude, in the antarctic circle, which is
about three degrees beyond Cook's utmost limit. There he found the sea
perfectly clear of ice, and might have prosecuted his voyage towards
the pole, if other considerations had permitted. There was no field ice
in sight towards the south; and the water was inhabited by many finned
and hump-backed whales; the longitude was between the south Shetland
Islands, lately discovered, and Sandwich land: this proves the former
to be an Archipelago (as was supposed) and not a continent. The voyage
is remarkable as being the utmost south upon record; and we hope to
be favoured with other particulars of it. At present we have only to
add, that the variation of the needle was extraordinary, and the more
important as they could not readily be explained by the philosophical
principles at present maintained on the subject."
_Literary Gazette._
[15] Barrington and Beaufoy, p. 74.
[16] Purchas, vol. 1, p. 479.
[17] Hearne's Journal, p. 7.
[18] Barrington and Beaufoy, p. 36.――Dr. Birch's history of the Royal
Society, vol. et seq.
[19] Bar. p. 101.
[20] Barrington and Beaufoy, pp. 25, 124.
[21] At the mouth of St. Peter's river, in winter, it is as much colder
than at Sacket's Harbour, as Sacket's Harbour is colder than Mobile,
although St. Peter's is west and Mobile south of Sacket's Harbour, at
nearly equal distances.
[22] Barrington and Beaufoy, p. 74.――Ross' Voyage, vol. 1, p. 52,
London, 1819.
[23] Darwin's Botanic Garden.
[24] Ross' Voyage, v. 1, p. 175.
[25] Ross' Voyage, v. 1, p. 110.
[26] Ross' Voyages, v. 1, pp. 71, 135, 199, 206.
[27] Mackenzie states, "that sometimes the land _looms_, so that there
may be a great deception in the distances."――Mackenzie's Voyage, p. 11,
New-York, 1802.
[28] Ross' Voyage, v. 2, p. 4, London, 1819.
[29] Ross' Voyage, v. 2, p. 119.
[30] Physical World, p. 72.