_Textile Manufactures._
In the preceding volumes the progress of textile manufactures in
Scotland to the end of the seventeenth century was narrated so far as
they had then been introduced, for the manufacture of cotton was not
introduced into this country till well through the eighteenth century.
It will save repetition to present a short account of the inventions of
the eighteenth century in connection with the spinning and weaving of
textile fabrics.
Before the middle of the eighteenth century the improvement of spinning
and weaving machinery began in England, and long before its close
great progress had been made. In 1738, John Kay, a native of Bury,
in Lancaster, invented the fly-shuttle, which enabled the weaver to
make twice as much cloth as he made before; and his son, Robert Kay,
invented the drop-box, by which the weaver can use any one of three
shuttles, each with a different coloured weft, without the trouble of
taking them from and replacing them in the lathe. The great impediment
to the progress of textile manufactures was the impossibility of
obtaining an ample supply of yarn by the appliances then in use. The
one-thread wheel, although then worked from morning till night in many
thousands of cottages, could not keep up with the weaver’s shuttle
or the demand of the merchant. Genius, therefore, had to remove this
difficulty, and at length a contrivance was invented by which fifty,
a hundred, or a thousand threads could be spun at once by one pair
of hands. As to who was the real originator of this achievement has
been a subject of much controversy, to which I can only allude in the
briefest terms. It seems to be clearly ascertained that John Wyatt, of
Birmingham, was the inventor of the mode of spinning by rollers.¹ The
patent for the invention was taken out in 1738, in the name of one Paul,
with whom Wyatt was in partnership; the name of the latter only appears
as a witness, although there is evidence to show that Wyatt was really
the inventor of the machine. It was tried and produced yarn, but it
does not seem to have been successful for some time, and it yielded no
fruit to Wyatt. Regarding Wyatt’s machine, Mr. Baines says:――“So far
is the one from being a copy of the other, that of Arkwright indicates
great inventive talent even if we suppose he had seen the former
machine; but the mechanical details of the two have so little in common
that I am inclined to think ... that Arkwright had not seen the machine
of Wyatt. It must, however, be admitted that to contrive and adjust the
details of such a machine, though of the greatest practical importance,
is a merit very subordinate to that of him who conceived the great
principle. The latter is the glory of Wyatt. How much Arkwright owed to
his predecessors can only be matter of conjecture; that he thus learned
the principle of spinning by rollers I am convinced.... The latter
unquestionably knew of the attempts to spin cotton by machinery at
Birmingham and Northampton, and of the patent of 1738, which describes
the two pairs of rollers, as he himself declares as much in the case
which he drew up to be presented to Parliament in 1782.”
¹ “Having thus proved that the principle of Wyatt’s invention
was the same as that of the spinning frame brought into
use by Arkwright, I must add that the details of the
Birmingham machine were far from being perfect, and that the
machine differed greatly from Arkwright’s in its form and
construction.”――Baines’ _History of the Cotton Manufacture_,
pages 121‒138.
But whatever may have been the claims or the merits of Arkwright’s
predecessors, it was he who rose from a very humble position and
perfected and successfully introduced the invention of spinning by
rollers. He was for many years engaged in perfecting his method of
spinning cotton, and his sagacity and perseverance were at length
rewarded, for he became exceedingly rich. “Wealth flowed in upon him
with a full stream from his skilfully managed concerns. For several
years he fixed the price of cotton twist, all other spinners conforming
to his prices.... It has been shown that the splendid inventions, which
even to the present day are ascribed to Arkwright by some of the ablest
and best-informed persons in the kingdom, belong in a great part to
other and much less fortunate men....
“The most marked traits in the character of Arkwright were his
wonderful ardour, energy, and perseverance. He commonly laboured from
five o’clock in the morning at his multifarious concerns till nine
at night.... Arkwright was a severe economist of time; and that he
might not waste a moment, he generally travelled with four horses
and at a very rapid speed. His concerns in Derbyshire, in Lancaster,
and in Scotland were so extensive and numerous as to show at once his
astonishing power of transacting business and his all-grasping spirit.
In many of these he had partners, but he generally managed in such
a way that whoever lost he himself was a gainer. So unbounded was
his confidence in the success of his machinery and in the national
wealth to be produced by it that he would make light of discussions on
taxation, and say that he would pay the national debt. His speculative
schemes were vast and daring; he contemplated entering into the most
extensive mercantile transactions and buying up all the cotton in the
world in order to make an enormous profit by the monopoly.”¹
¹ Baines’ _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, pages 140,
193‒196. Arkwright made a considerable sum of money by his
patents. He offered his patented machines for sale by public
advertisement, and gave many permission to use them, on
receiving a certain sum for each spindle; in several cases
he took shares in the mills erected; while he had several
large mills chiefly in his own hands, and from these various
sources he drew a large annual income.
Thus the fly shuttle was invented by Mr. John Kay in 1738; the same
year Mr. John Wyatt invented a machine for spinning by rollers,
and showed its practicability; Mr. James Hargreaves¹ invented the
spinning-jenny about 1767, which he patented in 1770; and Arkwright,
about the year 1769, invented the spinning-frame, sometimes called
the water-frame, which he patented; and in 1779, Mr. Samuel Crompton
completed his invention of the mule-jenny, which combined the action
of both the preceding machines. But Arkwright introduced other
improvements in carding, drawing, and roving machines. In 1785, the
Rev. Dr. Cartwright invented a power-loom which has been usually
regarded as the forerunner of those subsequently introduced. The
mechanical inventions just enumerated indicate the commencement of a
revolution in the modes of producing textile manufactures; although
most of them were originally intended for the cotton manufacture, the
application of machinery was extended to the whole circle of textile
fabrics. It is needless to say that in the present century, the
machines, the apparatus, and the appliances brought into use in this
department of manufactures have reached an astonishing degree of
perfection.
¹ James Hargreaves was a native of Standhill, near Blackburn;
and, shortly after 1770, he entered into partnership with
Mr. Thomas James, a joiner, and they erected a small mill
at Hockley, in which they spun yarn for the hosiers with
the jenny. This spinning business was carried on with fair
success, until the death of Hargreaves in 1778. Although
he did not amass wealth like Arkwright, he was enabled to
live comfortably in the latter years of his life; but many
afterwards made fortunes by means of his invention.
The stocking-frame was invented by William Lee in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth; but a prejudice against it long
prevailed, and it was not used in Scotland till 1771, when
a stocking frame was set up in the town of Hawick.
I. I now proceed to indicate the development of the woollen
manufactures in Scotland. The woollen manufacture for many centuries
has been carried on to a greater or less extent in all the counties
of the kingdom; though, of course, in early times, the greater part
of the produce was for home consumption. In the second quarter of the
eighteenth century the manufacture of woollen goods consisted of the
cheaper and coarser kinds, such as cheap serges made at Kilmarnock,
Stirling, Aberdeen, and other places; Galashiels produced kerseys, and
in Hawick and other Border towns blankets were made. At this period
only a small quantity of woollen goods was exported.
The woollen and hosiery manufactures continued to extend. In 1776,
it was recorded that in Stirling 160 looms, 38 stocking-frames, and
17 carpet-frames were employed; Kilmarnock had 66 looms engaged on
carpets, and 80 on other branches of manufacture; in Montrose there was
a woollen factory in which 70 hands were employed; in Alloa there were
twenty manufacturers, who employed 150 looms and upwards of 400 workers;
in Ayr there were 100 looms and 15 stocking-frames. In Edinburgh and
Leith blanket-making, carpet-weaving, and stocking-knitting on frames
were carried on; and Edinburgh and Leith had wool markets. There were
140 looms in Melrose, chiefly engaged in making woollen cloth; in
Hawick there were 65 looms; in Kelso 40 looms were employed in making
blankets and flannels; and in Peebles 40 looms were engaged in making
coarse woollen goods; in Galashiels, then only a village, there were 30
looms and three waulk mills. In Haddington a considerable manufacture
of woollen goods was carried on; in Glasgow there was then only one
woollen factory. In Perth, Linlithgow, and other places, woollen
cloth, carpets, and stockings were manufactured. In Aberdeenshire a
considerable trade was carried on in cloth and stocking manufactures;
Peterhead had two woollen factories which turned out goods to the value
of £110 a-week; and the people of Ellon knitted stockings by the hand
to the value of £100 a-month. In Aberdeen there were about 200 looms
engaged on woollen manufactures; and the value of the hosiery goods
produced in the city amounted to £120,000 per annum: this was then the
staple trade of the town. The woollen manufacture was carried on to
some extent in Inverness and Elgin; the latter city produced yarn to
the value of £15,000 annually, which was chiefly sent to the London and
Glasgow markets.
During the last ten years of the eighteenth century and the first
quarter of this one, a marked progress took place in the woollen
manufacture of Scotland. New machinery and improved carding and
spinning appliances were introduced; and a few years later the
power-loom was successfully brought into operation in this department
of textile manufacture. In Aberdeen machinery was introduced into the
woollen manufactures in 1790, by Mr. Charles Baird, who brought from
England two carding-engines and four spinning-jennies; and he erected
a mill on the river Don, about two miles from Aberdeen. At Galashiels
carding-machines and spinning-jennies were introduced in 1791; and
twelve years after, six new woollen factories had been erected in this
♦enterprising town. In 1814, spinning “mules” were introduced there,
by which one man was enabled to work 500 spindles; and the shearing
also was simplified and perfected in 1819. This manufacturing town has
been long famous for its coloured tweeds and tartans, and other woollen
fabrics. In 1828, the number of looms employed was 175, and in 1838,
265. The population of the town at the latter date was about 2500, ♠and
it has since continued to increase. But hand labour has been superseded
by machines in every department. It has now a population of upwards
of 17,000; and, in 1871, it had 76 sets of carding-engines, and about
70,000 spindles. Carding-engines were introduced into the woollen
manufactures in Hawick about the end of the last century.
♦ “enterpising” replaced with “enterprising”
♠ “aud” replaced with “and”
In 1825, the number of persons employed in the various branches of the
woollen manufacture in Scotland was 24,000. In 1831, the power-loom
was introduced into the woollen manufacture, and the rate of
production was much increased. The superfine broadcloths manufactured
in Aberdeenshire began to compete successfully in the London markets
with the productions of the English looms; while the rapidly advancing
prosperity of the nation created an increasing demand for narrow cloths,
tartans, tweeds, flannels, and other kinds of woollen goods. The tweed
and cloth branches continued to advance, new machinery and improved
appliances were from time to time brought into operation; and, step
by step, competition in the markets of the world became keener and
keener, and every nerve was strained to the utmost to produce cheap and
marketable goods. The tweed manufacturers have devoted great attention
to colours and dyeing, and the resources of chemical science have been
called into requisition in this art.
In 1812, the hosiery manufacture of Scotland had attained a
considerable development, as there were then 1449 stocking-frames in
operation, which were spread over thirty-eight different towns and
villages; and this branch of industry still continued to expand. In
1844, a census of the trade was taken, and it was found that there
were 2605 frames, distributed thus:――In Hawick and its vicinity, 1200;
Dumfries and vicinity, 500; Edinburgh and vicinity, 150; Glasgow and
Kilmarnock, 280; Selkirk and vicinity, 128; Perth, 108; Langholm, 92;
Denholm and vicinity, 87; and Jedburgh and vicinity, 60. In 1871, the
number of stocking-frames in Scotland was about 1650, of which 900
were in Hawick and 400 in Dumfries, and in both places power-frames
were at work. The goods in the Scotch hosiery branch of trade consist
of stockings of every description, drawers, under-shirts, and other
articles of common use, and what is called fancy goods, such as tweed
hose, shooting-socks, and a variety of goods in bright and variegated
colours. Hawick and Dumfries have been long well-known centres of this
department of the woollen manufacture.
Carpet-making as a branch of manufacture was begun in Scotland in the
second quarter of the eighteenth century, and in 1735, it had attained
to some success in Kidderminster. The first kind of Scotch carpet was
the two-ply fabric, into which two colours only can be woven, which
renders the range of pattern very limited. It was known under the name
of Kidderminster carpet, and it became popular.
The manufacture of carpets was established in Kilmarnock in 1777, when
eighty looms were employed. In this enterprising town the manufacture
of carpets continued to extend, and it has long enjoyed a wide
reputation for its products in this branch of industry. In 1825, there
were 800 carpet-weavers in Kilmarnock, each producing about six yards
of carpet a-day, and were paid at the rate of 3½ pence to 4¾ pence
per yard. At this time there were 1200 carpet-weavers in Scotland.
New appliances were devised, and the quality and patterns were greatly
improved. Carpet-manufacture is now carried on in Glasgow, Aberdeen,
Ayr, and Paisley. Various kinds and qualities of carpets have been
produced for many years in Scotland, such as Brussels carpets, Turkish,
Wilton, patent tapestry, and other varieties. In 1891 there were 6000
hands employed in this branch.
An extensive manufacture of bonnets has been carried on in Kilmarnock
for upwards of two centuries. The manufacture of this class of goods in
Kilmarnock, Kilmaurs, and Stewarton, which are all near each other, in
1869, was estimated at the gross yearly value of £150, 000, and £48,000
a year was paid in wages.
In 1875, the number of woollen factories in Scotland was upwards of
250, and of these 102 were engaged in spinning only, while 40 were
employed in weaving only, and 105 were employed both in spinning and
weaving.
In 1871, the number of people employed in the woollen and worsted
manufactures in Scotland was 42,217. Of this number 18,403 were males,
of whom 4230 were under twenty years of age; while the large number of
23,815 were females, of whom 9115 were under twenty. In 1891 there were
upwards of 43,000 hands employed in this department of manufacture.
In Orkney and Shetland, in 1891, 5,370 persons were employed in the
woollen and worsted manufactures, chiefly in making knitted goods,
which have long been well known.
Touching the several branches of the woollen manufacture, there were
6226 employed in making knitted goods; in making worsted 1448 were
engaged. In the wincey manufacture there were 916 hands employed.
In the carpet and rug branch there were 6684 persons employed; in
the woollen bonnet manufacture there were 3070 persons engaged; but
only 100 persons were returned as engaged in the blanket and flannel
manufacture.
II. The state of the linen trade in Scotland has been narrated in the
preceding volumes, down to the end of the seventeenth century; and I
quoted the Stamp Act of 1693, which, among other provisions touching
the qualities and the breadth of linen made in Scotland, enacted that
all linen cloth offered for sale should be regularly stamped. Linen
was the staple manufacture of Scotland in the eighteenth century, and
the Union was favourable to its progress. The Board of Manufactures,
established in 1727, endeavoured to promote the manufacture of linen;
and the British Linen Company, incorporated at Edinburgh in 1746,
contributed to extend the linen trade by advancing money to the
manufacturers. This company is now known under the name of the British
Linen Company Bank.
In 1710, the quantity of linen produced was 1,500,000 yards, and,
in 1720, Scotland exported to England alone £200,000 worth of Scotch
linen. In 1727, the manufacture of linen was carried on more or less
in twenty-five counties; and the quantity produced in each varied from
65 yards in Wigtonshire to 595,821 yards in Forfarshire; Perth, Fife,
and Lanark came next in order. Afterwards linen was made in all the
counties except Peebles, but Forfarshire has kept the lead throughout;
in some of the counties and small towns in the country a considerable
trade was done in linen-making in the eighteenth century, in which it
has long ago been dropped.
In 1772, there were 252 lint-mills in Scotland, distributed through
the country thus:――In Ross, 3; Caithness, 1; Elgin, 3; Banff, 8;
Aberdeen, 7; Kincardine, 2; Forfar, 31; Lanark, 31; Perth, 73; Renfrew,
3; Linlithgow, 4; Dumbarton, 16; Stirling, 28; Fife, 11; Edinburgh, 1;
Dumfries, 1; and Haddington, 1. About the same time, it was reported
that new kinds of manufactures had been introduced in Paisley, and that
the spinning of silk and the woollen and cotton manufactures had been
extending.
In Orkney the making of linen yarn from home-grown flax was introduced
in 1747, and the trade gradually spread over most of the islands.
The yarn gained a reputation in southern markets, and from 1750 till
1785 a considerable quantity of yarn was annually exported; but after
that time the trade declined, and it was dropped about the end of the
century. Weaving was introduced at the same time as spinning, but the
greatest quantity produced in any one year did not reach 30,000 yards.
A large hemp factory was established at Inverness in 1765, and for a
time nearly 1000 persons were employed. A company began the manufacture
of linen thread at Inverness in 1780, which carried on a successful
business for a number of years, and gave employment to 10,000 persons
throughout the county, most of whom worked at their own homes. The flax
was imported from the Baltic ports, and the thread was sent to London,
and thence spread over the world. In 1822, the quantity of linen
stamped for sale in Inverness was 318,465 yards; but from that date the
trade declined till it became extinct in the county. In Aberdeenshire
a large number of hands were engaged in the manufacture of linen yarn
and cloth in the eighteenth century. In 1794 a considerable manufacture
of thread was carried on in Peterhead; there were 52 twist mills in
the town. Thread and linen cloth were also manufactured in Huntly, in
Kincardineshire, and at Bervie, where a mill was erected for spinning
linen yarn in 1787.¹
¹ _Statistical Account of Scotland._
There was a marked improvement in the quality of linen goods produced
in Scotland, as well as a large increase in the quantity annually
manufactured before the end of the eighteenth century, as the following
table indicates, which is taken from the record formed under the Stamp
Laws:
Years. Number of Yards. Estimated Value.
1728 2,183,978 £103,312 9 3
1738 4,666,011 185,026 11 9
1748 7,353,098 293,864 12 11
1758 10,624,435 424,141 10 7
1768 11,795,437 599,699 4 2
1778 13,264,410¾ 592,023 5 4½
1788 20,506,310½ 854,900 16 0¾
1798 21,207,059 850,403 9 9
1808 19,390,496 1,014,629 18 4
1818 31,238,100¼ 1,253,528 8 0½
1819 29,334,428¼ 1,157,923 4 11
1820 26,259,011¼ 1,038,708 18 5
1821 30,473,461¼ 1,232,038 15 4¾
1822 36,268,530¼ 1,396,295 19 11½
These figures show that the linen manufacture had advanced pretty
steadily for about a century. It has, of course, had to compete with
its rival, cotton, which attacked it in many localities, and especially
in the west of Scotland. The result has been to concentrate the linen
manufacture in a few localities which, from various causes, were
well suited and advantageously placed for the successful prosecution
of this branch of industry, while the introduction of machinery,
the power-loom, and highly improved appliances set into operation in
the large factories, soon rendered it impossible for the small mills
throughout the country to compete in the markets of the world with
them. Hence the disappearance of the linen manufacture in many of the
counties where it was once carried on, and a similar result has taken
place in shipbuilding.
Dunfermline has long had a wide reputation for linen manufactures. It
is the chief seat of table linen manufacture in Britain. For upwards
of a century the linen manufacturers of Dunfermline have devoted great
attention to this branch, and exerted their utmost skill to perfect it,
and the result was that they attained, and have long held, a leading
position in their special industry.
The largest work in Dunfermline is the St. Leonard’s Power-Loom Factory,
which is placed on the south side of the town, and is reported to be a
model establishment. In 1869, it had 900 power-looms and 180 hand-looms,
and the firm to which it belonged――Messrs. Beveridge & Company――gave
employment to 1500 persons, the greater portion of whom were females.
The quantity of linen produced by the firm per week averaged 200,000
square yards, and its value per annum was £360,000.
At the above date it was calculated that there were in Dunfermline 2670
power-looms and upwards of 1000 hand-looms, all in operation. There
were over 2100 hands employed, and the total quantity of linen cloth
annually produced was over 30,000,000 square yards――“which, formed
into a web of the uniform width of one yard, would measure the distance
between Great Britain and New Zealand, with a thousand miles or so
to spare.” The value of the linen goods then produced in Dunfermline
nearly reached £2, 000,000 per annum.¹ In 1891 there were 2,375 persons
employed in the linen manufacture, and 229 in the cotton manufacture in
Dunfermline.
¹ _Industries of Scotland_, by D. Bremner, pages 242‒246.
During the present century the linen manufacture has been extensively
carried on in Arbroath, Forfar, Kirkcaldy, Montrose, and Aberdeen; but
Dundee became a centre of the linen trade, and for about twenty years
it had a monopoly of the manufacture of jute.
The jute trade is quite a recent development. The jute manufacture only
began in 1835, and for some years so little progress was made that, in
1838, only 1136 tons of it were imported into Dundee. From this time
onward the quantity of jute annually imported into Dundee increased
at an enormous rate, in 1853 it rose to 15,400 tons; in 1858, it was
over 30,000 tons, and, by the year 1868, the annual consumption of jute
in Dundee had reached the figure of 60,000 tons. There are many large
flax and jute factories in Dundee, and the jute manufacture has proved
a source of wealth to the city.
When the jute was first introduced, it was only used for making goods
of a coarse description; but, by improvements in the machinery and
experience in working it, sheetings and many other kinds of goods were
manufactured solely from it. A variety of goods are manufactured from
jute and cotton mixed. In 1867, at some of the large jute works in
Dundee over 4000 hands were employed. At the same date it was recorded
that “the capital invested in the factories in Dundee is stated to be
£2,500,000; in the district of which that town is centre, £2,200,000;
in other parts of Scotland, £1,000,000――total, £5,700,000, to which
has to be added the value of the bleaching-works, calendars, etc., in
the trade, which cannot be put down at less than £1,300,000. It takes
about six months from the purchase of the raw material before the goods
can be manufactured or the proceeds drawn, so the stock-in-trade of
manufacturers and merchants will amount to £5,000,000. It would thus
appear that a capital of £12,000,000 is required for carrying on the
linen trade of Scotland.”¹
¹ _Industries of Scotland_, by D. Bremner, page 269.
In 1871, there were upwards of 200 flax, linen, and jute factories
in Scotland, and the total number of persons employed in all the
branches of those manufactures was about 91,000. Of this number
upwards of 61,000 were females. The chief centres of the linen and
jute manufactures are the three counties of Forfar, Fife, and Perth;
the manufactures are carried on in the chief towns of these counties,
with Dundee as the metropolis. The manufacture of linen and jute is
carried on in some of the other towns; in Glasgow there were 2000 hands
employed on flax and jute, and in Aberdeen 1800.
Touching the different branches of the linen and jute manufactures,
in 1862 there were 27 jute factories in Scotland, which had 30,538
spindles, 554 power-looms, and 5418 hands employed; the greater part
of these were in Dundee. But, in 1875, there were 84 jute factories,
classified thus:――(1) Fifteen were engaged in spinning, and these had
115 carding machines, 18 combing machines, 33,527 spinning spindles,
1080 doubling spindles; (2) nineteen were employed in weaving, and
these had 1384 power-looms; (3) fifty were employed in spinning and
weaving, and these had 747 carding machines, 42 combing machines,
151,892 spinning spindles, 6578 doubling spindles, and 6941 power-looms.
In these jute factories there were then 37,943 persons employed, and
of this number 21,350 were females.
In making linen thread there were 240 persons engaged, of whom 143 were
females. There were 184 hands employed in the linen lace manufacture;
in making sheeting, ticking, and tape, there were 168 hands employed,
of whom 71 were females. In the jute carpet manufacture 91 persons were
employed.
III. The manufacture of cotton was not introduced into Scotland till
past the middle of last century. Cotton is not grown in this country,
a circumstance of great moment, as was shown during the late American
War; while wool and flax have been produced at home in smaller or
greater quantities from very early times, although large quantities of
both are annually imported.¹ But the cotton manufacture has attained
a remarkable development in Scotland. An account has already been
given of the mechanical inventions which were made in England; and the
introduction of machinery which followed thereupon was at first almost
entirely applied to the cotton manufacture, and from it transferred
and gradually made suitable to the other departments of textile
manufactures. Although there are many appliances specially suited for
each of the great branches of textile manufacture, the application of
steam-power to the processes of preparing the raw materials, and the
use of the power-loom in spinning and weaving, has greatly increased
production.
¹ The cultivation of flax was one of the objects which Lord
Kames endeavoured to promote and extend in Scotland. In
the year 1765, he published a pamphlet on the progress of
“Flax Husbandry in Scotland,” with the patriotic aim of
stimulating his countrymen to continue and redouble their
efforts in this valuable branch of national industry. He
showed that the linen manufacture had made great progress
between 1727 and 1765; and he insists on the expediency of
encouraging and prosecuting the culture of flax at home. At
the date of Kames’ pamphlet the annual value of the foreign
flax imported into Scotland was £110,000 sterling; but the
yearly saving of this large sum is not the only or the chief
benefit to be reaped from raising the commodity on our own
fields. “Experience has shown that the commodity itself,
when of home growth, is of a superior quality to the foreign:
and experience shows also that no crop is more valuable to
the farmer or yields a quicker return for the labour and
cost of cultivation.” Lord Kames’ pamphlet was reprinted in
the _Scots’ Magazine_ for January, 1766.――Tytler’s _Memoirs
of the Life of Lord Kames_, Volume II., pages 60‒62.
The first cotton mills in Scotland were one erected at Rothesay in 1778,
and another at Penicuik about the same time, which were soon followed
by others. In 1787, there were 19 cotton mills in Scotland, all driven
by water; and they were distributed thus:――4 in Lanarkshire, 4 in
Renfrewshire, 3 in Perthshire, 2 in Midlothian, and 6 in other places.
At that time labour was cheap and hands were easily obtained. The
few simple operations which required to be performed in the factory
were soon learned, while the wages in the factories were higher than
those of agricultural labourers. In a short time, however, when a
superabundance of hands had entered the trade, wages were reduced, and
throughout the history of the factory system in Scotland the wages of
the workers has never been high.
Before the end of the century the Scotch cotton manufacturers were
producing a variety of goods. The production of muslin began in 1780,
and in Paisley, shortly after, the manufacture of fancy cotton fabrics
began. After the plain muslins came the mulls, nainsooks, ginghams,
pullicates, and other varieties were rapidly turned out.
The first steam-engine for spinning cotton in Scotland was erected at
Springfield, Glasgow, in January, 1792, by Messrs. Scott, Stevenson
& Company Mr. Robert Miller, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for a
power-loom in 1796; and Mr. John Monteith, of Glasgow, adopted it, and
erected a factory at Pollokshaws with 200 looms; and as the apparatus
was improved in efficiency, its working power soon became great.
In 1820, there were 2000 power-looms in Scotland; in 1829, there were
10,000; and in 1833, there were upwards of 14,000. At the latter date
there were 134 cotton mills in Scotland, and at this time the cotton
manufacture was centred in Glasgow and the district around it. Out of
the total number of mills in Scotland nearly 100 belonged to Glasgow.
In 1838, there were upwards of 37, 000 hand-loom weavers in the west of
Scotland directly connected with cotton weaving.
According to a parliamentary return, there were 168 cotton factories in
Scotland in 1850, and of these 94 were in Lanarkshire; in Renfrewshire,
51; in Ayrshire, 4; Dumbartonshire, 4; in Stirlingshire, 4; in
Buteshire, 4; in Perthshire, 3; in Aberdeenshire, 2; and a few in other
places. Thus Lanark and Renfrew had 145 cotton factories, leaving only
23 in all the other cotton manufacturing districts of the kingdom.
These two counties had 1,385,238 spindles and 20,788 power-looms. The
total number of persons in Scotland then employed in this branch of
manufacture was 36,322.
In 1861, the number of cotton factories had decreased to 163, but the
number of hands had increased and also the quantity of steam-power.
In that year there were 1,915,398 spindles and 30,110 power-looms in
operation, and 41,237 persons were employed. The American War, however,
between 1861 and 1866 seriously disturbed the cotton trade, and many of
those employed in it suffered severely both in England and Scotland, as
this country was largely dependent for the supply of raw material upon
the Southern States. Some of the cotton factories are very large, and
in Glasgow several of them employ from 1500 to nearly 2000 hands.
In 1871, the number of persons employed in the cotton manufacture was
about 50,000, and of this number over 30,000 were females. In 1891
the number of hands was about 47,000. The several branches of this
manufacture are the following:――1. Plain cotton goods, of which great
quantities are produced. 2. Lace manufacture, in which 1,621 persons
were employed, of whom 795 were females. 3. In embroidering muslin,
487 hands were engaged. 4. In the branches of calico printing, dyeing,
and bleaching, 10,599 persons were employed, of whom 4,858 were females.
5. The manufacture of thread, which has been greatly developed.
In 1722 the manufacture of thread was introduced into Paisley; but
it was on a small scale till the early part of this century, when
cotton thread began to be largely manufactured, especially since about
the middle of the century. Paisley is the chief centre of the thread
manufacture. The thread works of Messrs. J. & P. Coats, Limited,
occupy 40 acres of ground, and have been developed with remarkable
skill, energy, and enterprise. All the appliances and machinery used in
manufacturing the thread are of the most efficient description. There
are six large boilers in a row at a short distance from each other, and
the furnaces of these are fed with coal by a self-acting contrivance.
The engine room is grand, with its powerful and beautiful engines, and
the great motive wheel revolving at a surprising velocity. In a large
one storey building the wood for making the spools or pirns is stored.
The spools are manufactured thus:――The wood is sawn into suitable
pieces of about four feet in length, each of these is put through a
number of machines, the first of which rounds the piece of wood, the
second advances it another stage, and so on through the other machines
till the spools are finished and ready for the thread. The raw cotton
requires various preparatory processes, such as cleaning, combing,
etc., then the prepared material is taken to a large mill of five
or six storeys in height. When the steam is turned on, the material
is worked through an elaborate combination of mechanism, the process
of manufacture being advanced successively in each storey till the
finished thread is turned out――wound on the pirns and ready for use.
A vast quantity of thread is produced in the works. The Company gives
employment to over 5,000 hands,――the greater number of whom are girls.
There is a very complete set of fire brigade appliances which can be
instantly put into operation in the event of a fire occurring in the
works.
Messrs. Clark & Company’s thread works in Paisley are also most
extensive, and occupy 50 acres of ground on the banks of the Cart.
There are several large mills, and ten engines which represent a total
of 6,000 horse power. They employ 500 men and 3,500 girls. In Glasgow
1,100 are employed in the thread manufacture. The total number of hands
engaged in this branch of industry in Scotland exceeds 12,000.
IV. The manufacture of silk gauze was commenced at Paisley in 1760,
and from that date till about 1785 the silk gauze weaving trade was
exceedingly prosperous in Scotland. At the latter date, in Paisley
and the surrounding villages, 5000 looms were engaged on silk fabrics,
and they produced goods of the annual value of £350,000. Although
this branch has passed through many fluctuations, the manufacture of
silk goods is still carried on in Paisley and Glasgow. In 1871, the
number of persons employed in this industry was 2440, of whom 1256
were females. In 1875, there were four silk factories in Scotland. In
1891 there were nearly 4000 hands employed in it, mostly females.
V. There are many mixed textile fabrics produced, such as cotton and
silk, wool and silk, cotton mixed with flax, and cotton with jute, and
so on through all the varieties of fancy and coloured goods, down to
the varied kinds and qualities of the cheap shoddy and mungo.
VI. Floorcloth is manufactured on a large scale at Kirkcaldy. The
manufacture of this class of goods has recently attained a high degree
of elaboration in Scotland. Thirty years ago, the firm of Messrs. Nairn
had gained a high reputation for their floorcloth. In 1871 about 250
persons were engaged in this manufacture, while in 1891 the number of
persons employed was 1266.
In 1871, the entire number of persons employed in textile manufactures
was nearly 200,000; and if we add those dependent upon them, the
total number of persons directly dependent for their support on this
department of factory labour would be about 350,000. In 1891 the number
of hands was 205,550, of whom 133,217 were females.
The introduction of machinery and the power-loom, it is well known,
entailed great and widespread suffering on the hand-loom weavers and
those dependent upon them; and without dwelling upon this sad side of
the subject, I may notice a few facts and circumstances connected with
it. About the end of the eighteenth century and the early years of this
century, the weavers in the west and south of Scotland were the best
paid class of workers in the country. They had in general the character
of being men of intelligence, and exercised considerable influence
upon the public opinion of the country; many of them were keen and able
politicians, notwithstanding the sneers of some of the Scotch judges
of the period touching their intellectual capacities. They probably
did more to advance political reform than has yet been recognised. But
owing to the introduction of the power-loom, and various circumstances,
from about the year 1816, their wages began and continued to fall; and
before the second quarter of the century had run far they had fallen
very low. When engaged in weaving certain qualities of cloth they could
earn from 30 shillings to 32 shillings a week in 1806; in 1810 they
were making 26 shillings a week; but in 1820 they had fallen to 10
shillings a week; and in 1830 to 5 shillings 6 pence a week. To relieve
their distress and suffering emigration on a large scale was applied,
and many of them were forced to leave the home of their fathers.
“At the present day it can only be said that a remnant of the great
wreck continues to ply the ancient calling in the scattered villages
of the west, where in early days the sound of the shuttle was heard
all day long in almost every cottage. According to a rough census, made
in 1872, of the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, and Ayr, there were then
about 10,000 hand-loom weavers either at work in their own houses or
in shops belonging to manufacturers; but they were a steadily declining
remnant. In 1875, working upon Paisley shawls, they could earn from
4 shillings to 5 shillings per day, but at shirting and the common
descriptions of work, which, however, are mostly left to women and
boys, not more than 8 shillings a week could be earned, and that
with the labour of twelve, fourteen, and sometimes even more, hours.
Working practically beyond the range of factory inspectors’ supervision,
the hand-loom weavers not only labour long and irregular hours, but
children of tender years, taken in as apprentices, have to ply the
shuttle for equally hurtful and unconscionable periods.”¹
¹ _Notices of some of the Principal Manufactures of the West
of Scotland_, page 190. The above statement was written in
1875.
Thus the industrial revolution was not accomplished without
incidentally causing much suffering; but there are a few other points
which must be noticed before passing from this class of manufactories.
Prior to the year 1834 children of all ages were employed in factories.
But in the beginning of that year an act of parliament came into
operation, which enacted that no person under eighteen years of age
should be permitted to work in the night between half-past eight P.M.
and half-past five A.M. in any factory in which steam or water power
was used, except in lace factories. That no person under eighteen years
of age should be employed more than twelve hours a day, nor more that
sixty-nine in one week. That no child under nine years of age should be
employed in factories, except in silk mills; and after the 1st of March,
1835, none should be employed under twelve years of age; and after the
1st of March, 1836, none under thirteen years of age. There are other
important provisions in the interest of children in this act, such
as those requiring that the younger children should be educated. The
act, however, seems to have been unsatisfactory. Mr. Baines in his
_History of the Cotton Manufacture_ says: “All the inspectors declare
that the clauses requiring the education of the younger children, and
prohibiting those children from being worked more than 48 hours in the
week――eight hours a-day――have only the effect of compelling the masters
to discharge the children between nine and eleven years of age. If this
act should continue in force, all children under twelve years of age
would be discharged in March, 1835, and this would make it impossible
in many cases to carry on the mills, as children above that age could
not be had in sufficient numbers. The inspectors, therefore, state
that the act must be amended in these respects, and there can be no
doubt that this amendment will take place next session. It is found
impossible to compel the education of the children, and the attempt to
do it has only produced hardship to them and their parents, from the
number who have lost their employment. The Commissioners had hoped that
the manufacturers might obtain relays of children, each set working not
more than eight hours a-day, whilst those above thirteen years of age
worked twelve hours. But neither can the children be obtained, nor will
the masters submit to the inconvenience caused by the change of hands.”¹
¹ _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, pages 479‒480.
By subsequent acts of Parliament the employment of children in
factories has been entirely prohibited, and the hours of labour for
adults has been shortened more than two hours per day in factories.
Concerning the employment of children, the change which the factory
acts have introduced was greatly needed, both on the grounds of
humanity and considerations of physical vigour and health, as well
as moral and mental education; for seventy-eight hours’ labour a-week
for a child under ten years of age is nothing short of actual cruelty.
The operatives in textile factories were not highly paid for their
labour in Scotland; and, although this is true generally, in the early
stages of the cotton manufacture, and in certain branches, there were
some exceptions. Glasgow may be taken as representing an average of the
highest wages paid to workers in cotton factories. In 1833 the weekly
wages of this class were as follows:――1. Boys under eleven years of age,
1 shillings 11¾ pence; girls under this age, 1 shilling 10½ pence. 2.
Boys from eleven years of age to sixteen, 4 shillings 7 pence; girls of
the same age, 3 shillings 8¾ pence. 3. The wages of men ranged from 18
shillings to 19 shillings; and those of women about 6 shillings 8 pence,
but some of those who worked on piece-work made high wages. Men at
wheels, containing from 252 to 300 spindles, earned 4 shillings 6 pence
a-day; women engaged as reelers and winders, from 1 shilling 4 pence to
1 shilling 2 pence a-day. Youths and girls from fourteen to seventeen
years of age, employed in the preparing room, or as piercers to the
spinners, earned 1 shilling 4 pence a-day; boys and girls from ten to
fourteen years of age, employed in the same kind of work, made from 10
pence to 8 pence a-day; children under ten years of age earned from 5
pence to 4 pence a-day. Youths and girls at wheels of from 120 to 180
spindles made from 3 shillings to 2 shillings a-day.
In 1867 the weekly wages of the cotton operatives in Glasgow were
these:――Men, overlookers, 45 shillings; warpers, 22 shillings;
drawers and twisters, 20 shillings; dressers, 33 shillings; sizers,
35 shillings Women, reelers and winders, 9 shillings to 10 shillings
6 pence; warpers, 14 shillings; weavers, taking charge of two or three
looms, 11 shillings; of four looms, 15 shillings 6 pence. Girls, taking
charge of one loom, 6 shillings. So much for textile manufactures.