For above two hundred years, the unknown millions of Japan have been
shut up in their own islands, forbidden, under the severest penalties,
either to admit foreigners on their shores, or themselves to visit any
other realm in the world. The Dutch are permitted to send two ships in
a year to the port of Nangasaki, where they are received with the
greatest precaution, and subjected to a surveillance even more
degrading than was that formerly endured by the Europeans at Canton.
Any other foreigner whom misfortune or inadvertence may land on their
shores, is doomed to perpetual imprisonment; and even if one of their
own people should pass twelve months out of the country, he is, on his
return, kept for life at the capital, and suffered no more to join his
family, or mingle at large in the business or social intercourse of
life. In pursuance of this policy, it is believed that the Japanese
government now holds in captivity several subjects of the United
States, and it is expected that an armament will be sent to rescue
them by force.
Since this announcement has been made, and the general expectation has
been raised that Japan will soon have to submit, like China, to
surrender its isolation, and enter into relations with the rest of the
civilised world, there has seasonably appeared an English reprint of a
work hitherto little known among us--a personal narrative of a
Japanese captivity of two years and a half, by an officer in the
Russian navy.[1] If we may judge from its details, our transatlantic
friends had need to keep all their eyes wide open in dealing with this
people.
The leading circumstances connected with Captain Golownin's captivity
were the following:--In the year 1803, the Chamberlain Resanoff was
sent by the Emperor Alexander, to endeavour to open friendly relations
with Japan, and sailed from the eastern coasts in a merchant vessel
belonging to the American Company. But receiving a peremptory message
of dismissal, and refusal of all intercourse, he returned to Okhotsk,
and died on his way to St Petersburg. Lieutenant Chwostoff, however,
who had commanded the vessel, put to sea again on his own
responsibility, attacked and destroyed several Japanese villages on
the Kurile Islands, and carried off some of the inhabitants. In the
year 1811, Captain Golownin, commander of the imperial war-sloop
_Diana_, lying at Kamtschatka, received orders from head-quarters to
make a particular survey of the southern Kurile Islands, and the coast
of Tartary. In pursuance of his instructions, he was sailing without
any flag near the coast of Eetooroop (Staaten), when he was met by
some Russian Kuriles, who informed him that they had been seized, and
were still detained prisoners, on account of the Chwostoff outrage.
They persuaded the captain to take one of them on board as an
interpreter, and proceed to Kunashir, to make such explanations as
might exonerate the Russian government in this matter. The Japanese
chief of the island further assured the Russians, that they could
obtain a supply of wood, water, and fresh provisions at Kunashir; and
he furnished them with a letter to its governor. The reception of the
_Diana_ at Kunashir was, in the first instance, a vigorous but
ineffective discharge of guns from the fortress, the walls of which
were so completely hung with striped cloth, that it was impossible to
form any opinion of the size or strength of the place. After some
interchange, however, of allegorical messages, conveyed by means of
drawings floated in empty casks, Golownin was invited on shore by the
beckoning of white fans. Concealing three brace of pistols in his
bosom, and leaving a well-armed boat close to the shore, with orders
that the men should watch his movements, and act on his slightest
signal, he ventured on a landing, accompanied by the Kurile Alexei and
a common sailor. The lieutenant-governor soon appeared. He was in
complete armour, and attended by two soldiers, one of whom carried his
long spear, and the other his cap or helmet, which was adorned with a
figure of the moon. 'It is scarcely possible,' says the narrator, 'to
conceive anything more ludicrous than the manner in which the governor
walked. His eyes were cast down and fixed on the earth, and his hands
pressed closely against his sides, whilst he proceeded at so slow a
pace, that he scarcely moved one foot beyond the other, and kept his
feet wide apart. I saluted him after the European fashion, upon which
he raised his left hand to his forehead, and bowed his whole body
towards the ground.'
In the conversation that ensued, the governor expressed his regret
that the ignorance of the Japanese respecting the object of this visit
should have occasioned them to fire upon the _Diana_. He then closely
interrogated the captain as to the course and objects of his voyage,
his name, the name of his emperor, and whether he knew anything of
Resanoff. On the first of these heads, Golownin deemed it prudent to
use some deception, and he stated that he was proceeding to St
Petersburg, from the eastern extremity of the Russian Empire; that
contrary winds had considerably lengthened his voyage; and that, being
greatly in want of wood and fresh water, he had been looking on the
coasts for a safe harbour where these might be procured, and had been
directed by an officer at Eetooroop to Kunashir. To all the other
questions, he returned suitable answers, which were carefully written
down. The conference ended most amicably, and the captain was invited
to smoke tobacco, and partake of some tea, sagi,[2] and caviar.
Everything was served on a separate dish, and presented by a different
individual, armed with a poniard and sabre; and these attendants,
instead of going away after handing anything to the guests, remained
standing near, till at length they were surrounded by a formidable
circle of armed men. Golownin would not stoop to betray alarm or
distrust, but having brought some French brandy as a present to the
governor, he desired his sailors to draw a bottle, and took this
opportunity of repeating his order, that they should hold themselves
in readiness. There appeared, however, no intention of resorting to
violence. When he prepared to depart, the governor presented a flask
of sagi, and some fresh fish, pointing out to him at the same time a
net which had been cast to procure a larger supply. He also gave him a
white fan, with which he was to beckon, as a sign of amity, when he
came on shore again. The whole draught of fish was sent on board in
the evening.
On the following day, the captain, according to appointment, paid
another visit on shore, accompanied by two officers, Alexei, and four
seamen carrying the presents intended for the Japanese. On this
occasion, the former precautions were dispensed with; the boat was
hauled up to the shore, and left with one seaman, while the rest of
the party proceeded to the castle. The result was, that after a
renewal of the friendly explanations and entertainments of the
preceding day, the treacherous Japanese threw off the mask, and made
prisoners of the whole party.
'The first thing done, was to tie our hands behind our backs, and
conduct us into an extensive but low building, which resembled a
barrack, and which was situated opposite to the tent in the direction
of the shore. Here we were placed on our knees, and bound in the
cruelest manner with cords about the thickness of a finger; and as
though this were not enough, another binding of smaller cords
followed, which was still more painful. The Japanese are exceedingly
expert at this work; and it would appear that they conform to some
precise regulation in binding their prisoners, for we were all tied
exactly in the same manner. There was the same number of knots and
nooses, and all at equal distances, on the cords with which each of us
was bound. There were loops round our breasts and necks; our elbows
almost touched each other, and our hands were firmly bound together.
From these fastenings proceeded a long cord, the end of which was held
by a Japanese, and which, on the slightest attempt to escape, required
only to be drawn to make the elbows come in contact with the greatest
pain, and to tighten the noose about the neck to such a degree as
almost to produce strangulation. Besides all this, they tied our legs
in two places--above the knees and above the ankles; they then passed
ropes from our necks over the cross-beams of the building, and drew
them so tight, that we found it impossible to move. Their next
operation was searching our pockets, out of which they took
everything, and then proceeded very quietly to smoke tobacco. While
they were binding us, the lieutenant-governor shewed himself twice,
and pointed to his mouth, to intimate, perhaps, that it was intended
to feed, not to kill us.'
After some hours, the legs and ankles of the prisoners were partially
loosed, and preparations were made for removing them to Matsmai, which
seems to be the head-quarters of government for the Kurile
dependencies of Japan. The journey, which occupied above a month, was
performed partly in boats, which were dragged along the shore, and
even for miles over the land; and partly on foot, the captives being
marched in file, each led with a cord by a particular conductor, and
having an armed soldier abreast of him. It was evident, however, that
whatever was rigorous in their treatment, was not prompted by personal
feelings of barbarity, but by the stringency of the law, which would
have made the guards answerable for their prisoners with their own
lives. They were always addressed with the greatest respect; and, as
soon as it was deemed safe, their hands, which were in a dreadfully
lacerated state, were unbound, and surgically treated; but not till
their persons had been again most carefully searched, that no piece of
metal might remain about them, lest they might contrive to destroy
themselves. Suicide is, in Japan, the fashionable mode of terminating
a life which cannot be prolonged but in circumstances of dishonour: to
rip up one's own bowels in such a case, wipes away every stain on the
character. The guards of the Russian captives not only used every
precaution against this, but carefully watched over their health and
comfort, carrying them over the shallowest pools and streamlets, lest
their feet should be wet, and assiduously beating off the gnats and
flies, which would have been annoying. At every village, crowds of
both sexes, young and old, turned out to see these unfortunate men;
but there was nothing like insult or mockery in the demeanour of
any--pity appeared to be the universal feeling: many begged permission
from the guards to offer sagi, comfits, fruits, and other delicacies;
and these were presented often with tears of compassion, as well as
gestures of respect.
The prison to which Golownin and his companions were finally committed
had been constructed expressly for their habitation in the town of
Matsmai. It was a quadrangular wooden building, 25 paces long, 15
broad, and 12 feet high. Three sides of it were dead-wall, the fourth
was formed of strong spars. Within this structure were two apartments,
formed likewise of wooden spars, so as to resemble cages: one was
appropriated to the officers, the other to the sailors and Alexei. The
building was surrounded by a high wall or paling, outside of which
were the kitchen, guard-house, &c., enclosed by another paling. This
outer enclosure was patrolled by common soldiers; but no one was
allowed within, except the physician, who visited daily, and the
orderly officers, who looked through the spars every half-hour. Of
course, it was rather a cold lodging; but, as winter advanced, a hole
was dug a few feet from each cage, built round with freestone, and
filled with sand, upon which charcoal was afterwards kept burning.
Benches were provided for them to sleep on, and two of the orderlies
presented them with bear-skins; but the native fashion is to lie on a
thick, wadded quilt, folded together, and laid on the floor, which,
even in the poorest dwellings, is covered with soft straw-mats. A
large wadded dress, made of silk or cotton, according to the
circumstances of the wearer, serves for bed-clothes--which seem to be
quite unknown; and while the poorer classes have only a piece of wood
for a pillow, the richer fasten a cushion on the neat boxes which
contain their razors, scissors, pomatum, tooth-brushes, and other
toilet requisites.
But while the comfort of the captives was attended to in many minor
matters, there was no relaxation of the vigilance used to preclude the
possibility of self-destruction. They were not allowed scissors or
knife to cut their nails, but were obliged to thrust their hands
through the palisades, to get this office performed for them. When
they were indulged with smoking, it was with a very long pipe held
between the spars, and furnished with a wooden ball fixed about the
middle, to prevent its being drawn wholly within the cage.
For weeks together they were brought daily before the bunyo (governor
of the town, and probably lord-lieutenant of all the Japanese Kurile
Islands), bound and harnessed like horses as before. The ostensible
object of these examinations, which frequently lasted the whole day,
was to ascertain for what purpose they had come near Japan, and what
they knew of Resanoff and Chwostoff--for a singularly unfortunate
combination of circumstances had arisen to give colour to the
suspicion, that some of their party had been connected with that
expedition. But for one inquiry connected with the case, there were
fifty that were wholly irrelevant, and prompted by mere curiosity. The
most trivial questions were put several times and in different forms,
and every answer was carefully written down. Golownin was often
puzzled, irritated, and quite at the end of his stock of patience; but
that of the interrogators appeared interminable. They said, that by
writing down everything they were told, whether true or false, and
comparing the various statements they received, they were enabled
through time to separate truth from fiction, and the practice was very
improving. At the close of almost every examination, the bunyo
exhorted them not to despair, but to offer up prayers to Heaven, and
patiently await the emperor's decision.
Presently new work was found for them. An intelligent young man was
brought to their prison, to be taught the Russian language. To this
the captain consented, having no confidence in the Kurile Alexei as an
interpreter, and being desirous himself to gain some knowledge of
Japanese. Teske made rapid progress, and soon became a most useful and
kindly companion to the captives. Books, pens, and paper were now
allowed them in abundance; and their mode of treatment was every way
improved. But by and by, they were threatened with more pupils; a
geometrician and astronomer from the capital was introduced to them,
and would gladly have been instructed in their mode of taking
observations. Other learned men were preparing to follow, and it was
now evident that the intention of the Japanese government was to
reconcile them to their lot, and retain them for the instruction of
the nation. Indeed, this appears to be the great secret of the policy
of detaining for life instead of destroying the hapless foreigners
that light on these shores; as the avowed motive for tolerating the
commercial visits of the Dutch is, that they furnish the only news of
public events that ever reach Japan. Fearful of becoming known to
other nations for fear of invasion, they are yet greedy of information
respecting them, and many were the foolish questions they asked
Golownin about the emperor of Russia, his dress, habitation, forces,
and territories.
Golownin, on his part, endeavoured to elicit all the information he
could gain with respect to the numbers, resources, government, and
religion of this singular people. He found it impossible to ascertain
the amount of the population; indeed, it seems it would be very
difficult for the government itself to obtain a census, for millions
of the poor live abroad in the streets, fields, or woods, having no
spot which they can call a home. Teske shewed a map of the empire,
having every town and village marked on it; and though on a very large
scale, it was thickly covered. He pointed out on it a desert, which is
considered immense, because litters take a whole day to traverse it,
and meet with only one village during the journey. It is perhaps
fifteen miles across. The city of Yedo was usually set down by
Europeans as containing 1,000,000 inhabitants; but Golownin was
informed, that it had in its principal streets 280,000 houses, each
containing from 30 to 40 persons; besides all the small houses and
huts. This would give in the whole a population of above 10,000,000
souls--about a fourth part of the estimated population of this
country! The incorporated society of the blind alone is affirmed to
include 36,000.
The country, though lying under the same latitudes as Spain and Italy,
is yet very different from them in climate. At Matsmai, for instance,
which is on the same parallel as Leghorn, snow falls as abundantly as
at St Petersburg, and lies in the valleys from November till April.
Severe frost is uncommon, but cold fogs are exceedingly prevalent. The
climate, however, is uncommonly diversified, and consequently so are
the productions, exhibiting in some places the vegetation of the
frigid zone, and in others that of the tropics.
Rice is the staple production of the soil. It is nearly the only
article used instead of bread, and the only one from which strong
liquor is distilled, while its straw serves for many domestic
purposes. Besides the radishes already mentioned, there is an
extensive cultivation of various other esculent roots and vegetables.
There is no coast without fisheries, and there is no marine animal
that is not used for food, save those which are absolutely poisonous.
But an uncommonly small quantity suffices for each individual. If a
Japanese has a handful of rice and a single mouthful of fish, he makes
a savoury dish with roots, herbs, or mollusca, and it suffices for a
day's support.
Japan produces both black and green tea; the former is very inferior,
and used only for quenching thirst; whereas the latter is esteemed a
luxury, and is presented to company. The best grows in the
principality of Kioto, where it is carefully cultivated for the use
both of the temporal and spiritual courts. Tobacco, which was first
introduced by the European missionaries, has spread astonishingly,
and is so well manufactured, that our author smoked it with a relish
he had never felt for a Havana cigar. The Japanese smokes continually,
and sips tea with his pipe, even rising for it during the night.
All articles of clothing are made of silk or cotton. The former
appears to be very abundant, as rich dresses of it are worn even by
the common soldiers on festive days; and it may be seen on people of
all ranks even in poor towns. The fabrics are at least equal to those
of China. The cotton of Japan seems to be of the same kind as that of
our West Indian colonies. It furnishes the ordinary dress of the great
mass of the people, and also serves all the other purposes for which
we employ wool, flax, furs, and feathers. The culture of it is, of
course, very extensive; but the fabrics are all coarse: Golownin could
hardly make himself believe that his muslin cravat was of this
material. There is some hemp, which is manufactured into cloth for
sails, &c.; but cables and ropes, very inferior to ours, are made from
the bark of a tree called kadyz. This bark likewise supplies materials
for thread, lamp-wicks, writing-paper, and the coarse paper used for
pocket-handkerchiefs.
There is no lack of fruit-trees, as the orange, lemon, peach, plum,
fig, chestnut, and apple; but the vine yields only a small, sour
grape, perhaps for want of culture. Timber-trees grow only in the
mountainous districts, which are unfit for cultivation. Camphor is
produced abundantly in the south, and large quantities of it are
exported by the Dutch and Chinese. The celebrated varnish of Japan,
drawn from a tree called silz, is so plentiful, that it is used for
lacquering the most ordinary utensils. Its natural colour is white,
but it assumes any that is given to it by mixture. The best varnished
vessels reflect the face as in a mirror, and hot water may be poured
into them without occasioning the least smell.
The chief domestic animals are horses and oxen for draught; cats and
dogs are kept for the same uses as with us; and swine furnish food to
the few sects who eat flesh. Sheep and goats seem to be quite unknown:
the Russian captives had to make drawings of the former, to convey
some idea of the origin of wool.
There are considerable mines of gold and silver in several parts of
the empire, but the government does not permit them to be all worked,
for fear of depreciating the value of these metals. They supply, with
copper, the material of the currency, and are also liberally used in
the decoration of public buildings, and in the domestic utensils of
the wealthy. There is a sufficiency of quicksilver, lead, and tin, for
the wants of the country; and one island is entirely covered with
sulphur. Copper is very abundant, and of remarkably fine quality. All
kitchen utensils, tobacco-pipes, and fire-shovels, are made of it; and
so well made, that our author mentions his tea-kettle as having stood
on the fire, like all other Japanese kettles, day and night for
months, without burning into holes. This metal is likewise employed
for sheathing ships, and covering the joists and flat roofs of houses.
Iron is less abundant, and much that is used is obtained from the
Dutch. Nails alone, of which immense numbers are used in all
carpentry-work, consume a large quantity. Diamonds, cornelians,
jaspers, some very fine agates, and other precious stones, are found;
but the natives seem not well to understand polishing them. Pearls are
abundant; but not being considered ornamental, they are reserved for
the Chinese market.
Steel and porcelain are the manufactures in which the Japanese chiefly
excel, besides those in silk-stuffs and lacquered ware already
mentioned. Their porcelain is far superior to the Chinese, but it is
scarce and dear. With respect to steel manufactures, the sabres and
daggers of Japan yield only perhaps to those of Damascus; and Golownin
says their cabinet-makers' tools might almost be compared with the
English. In painting, engraving, and printing, they are far behind;
and they seem to have no knowledge of ship-building or navigation
beyond what suffices for coasting voyages, though they have
intelligent and enterprising sailors. There is an immense internal
traffic, for facilitating which there are good roads and bridges where
water-carriage is impracticable. These distant Orientals have likewise
bills of exchange and commercial gazettes. The emperor enjoys a
monopoly of the foreign commerce.
It is popularly said, that Japan has two emperors--one spiritual, and
the other temporal. The former, however, having no share in the
administration of the empire, and seldom even hearing of state
affairs, is no sovereign according to the ideas we attach to that
term. He seems to stand much in the same relation to the emperor that
the popes once did to the sovereigns of Europe. He governs Kioto as a
small independent state; receives the emperor to an interview once in
seven years; is consulted by him on extraordinary emergencies;
receives occasional embassies and presents from him, and bestows his
blessing in return. His dignity, unlike that of the Roman pontiffs, is
hereditary, and he is allowed twelve wives, that his race may not
become extinct. According to Japanese records, the present dynasty,
including about 130 Kin-reys, has been maintained in a direct line for
above twenty-four centuries. The person of the Kin-rey is so sacred,
that no ordinary mortal may see any part of him but his feet, and that
only once a year; every vessel which he uses must be broken
immediately; for if another should even by accident eat or drink out
of it, he must be put to death. Every garment which he wears must be
manufactured by virgin hands, from the earliest process in the
preparation of the silk.
The adherents of the aboriginal Japanese religion, of which the
Kin-rey is the head, adore numerous divinities called Kami, or
immortal spirits, to whom they offer prayers, flowers, and sometimes
more substantial gifts. They also worship Kadotski, or saints--mortals
canonised by the Kin-rey--and build temples in their honour. The laws
concerning personal and ceremonial purity, which form the principal
feature of this religion, are exceedingly strict, not unlike those
imposed on the ancient Jews. There are several orders of priests,
monks, and nuns, whose austerity, like that of Europe, is maintained
in theory more than in practice.
Three other creeds, the Brahminical, the Confucian, and that which
deifies the heavenly bodies, have many adherents; but their priests
all acknowledge a certain religious supremacy to exist in the Kin-rey.
There is universal toleration in these matters; every citizen may
profess what faith he chooses, and change it as often as he chooses,
without any one inquiring into his reasons; only it must be a
spontaneous choice, for proselyting is forbidden by law. Christianity
alone is proscribed, and that on account of the political mischief
said to have been effected through its adherents in the seventeenth
century. There is a law, by which no one may hire a servant without
receiving a certificate of his not being a Christian; and on
New-Year's Day, which is a great national festival, all the
inhabitants of Nangasaki are obliged to ascend a staircase, and
trample on the crucifix, and other insignia of the Romish faith, which
are laid on the steps as a test. It is said that many perform the act
in violation of their feelings. So much of the religious state of the
empire Golownin elicited in conversation with Teske and others; but
everything on this subject was communicated with evident reluctance;
and though in the course of the walks which they were permitted to
take in harness, the Russian captives sometimes saw the interior of
the temples, they were never permitted to enter while any religious
rites were celebrated.
With respect to the civil administration of Japan, our author seems to
have gathered little that was absolutely new to us. The empire
comprises above 200 states, which are governed as independent
sovereignties by princes called Damyos, who frame and enforce their
own laws. Though most of these principalities are very small, some of
them are powerful: the damyo of Sindai, for instance, visits the
imperial court with a retinue of 60,000. Their dependence on the
emperor appears chiefly in their being obliged to maintain a certain
number of troops, which are at his disposal. Those provinces which
belong directly to the emperor, are placed under governors called
Bunyos, whose families reside at the capital as hostages. Every
province has two bunyos, each of whom spends six months in the
government and six at Yedo.
The supreme council of the emperor consists of five sovereign princes,
who decide on all ordinary measures without referring to him. An
inferior council of fifteen princes or nobles presides over important
civil and criminal cases. The general laws are few and well known.
They are very severe; but the judges generally find means of evading
them where their enforcement would involve a violation of those of
humanity. In some cases, as in conjugal infidelity or filial impiety,
individuals are permitted to avenge their own wrong, even to the
taking of life. Civil cases are generally decided by arbitrators, and
only when they fail to settle a matter is there recourse to the public
courts of justice. Taxes are generally paid to the reigning prince or
emperor, in tithes of the agricultural, manufactured, or other
productions of the country.
Such were some of the leading particulars ascertained by Golownin
concerning the social and civil condition of this singular people. He
says, they always appeared very happy, and their demeanour was
characterised by lively and polite manners, with the most
imperturbable good temper. It seems at length to have been through
fear of a Russian invasion, rather than from any sense of justice,
that his Japanese majesty, in reply to the importunities of the
officers of the _Diana_, consented to release the captives, on
condition of receiving from the Russian government a solemn disavowal
of having sanctioned the proceedings of Chwostoff. Having obtained
this, the officers repaired for the fourth time to these unfriendly
shores, and enjoyed the happiness of embracing their companions, and
taking them on board.