Mussulmaun festivals.--Buckrah Eade.--Ishmael believed to have been
offered in sacrifice by Abraham and not Isaac.--Descent of the
Mussulmauns from Abraham.--The Eade-gaarh.--Presentation of
Nuzzas.--Elephants.--Description of the Khillaut (robe of
honour).--Customs on the day of Buckrah Eade.--Nou-Roze (New Year's
Day).--Manner of its celebration.--The Bussund (Spring-colour).--The
Sah-bund.--Observances during this month.--Festival of the New
Moon.--Superstition of the Natives respecting the influence of the
Moon.--Their practices during an eclipse.--Supposed effects of the
Moon on a wound.--Medicinal application of lime in
Hindoostaun.--Observance of Shubh-burraat.
An account of the Mussulmaun festivals, I imagine, deserves a Letter; for
in many of them I have been able to trace, not only the habits and manners
of the people with whom I was sojourning, but occasionally marks of their
particular faith have been strongly developed in these observances, to
most of which they attach considerable importance. Buckrah Eade, for
instance, is a festival about as interesting to the Natives, as
Christmas-day is to the good people of England; and the day is celebrated
amongst all classes and denominations of Mussulmauns with remarkable zeal
and energy.
The particular event which gives rise to Buckrah Eade[1] is the well-known
circumstance of Abraham offering his son in sacrifice to God. The
Mussulmauns, however, insist that the son so offered was Ishmael, and not
Isaac, as our Scriptures declare. I have before remarked that I had
frequent arguments with the learned men of that persuasion on this subject,
which provoked a minute investigation of their most esteemed authors, to
decide between our opinions. The author of 'The Hyaatool Kaaloob' advances
many authorities, which the Mussulmauns deem conclusive, all of whom
declare that Ishmael was the son demanded and offered in sacrifice; and
two only, I think, of the many names that author quotes, were disposed to
doubt whether it was Isaac or Ishmael. An evident proof, I think, that on
some former occasion there had existed a difference of opinion on this
subject among men of their persuasion. The result of the present inquiry,
however, is that they believe Ishmael was the offering and not Isaac;
whilst I remain equally convinced of the correctness of our sacred book.
The Mussulmauns, I should remark, as well as the Jews, trace their origin
to Abraham, the former through Ishmael, and the latter through Isaac; and
it is more than probable that to this circumstance may be attributed the
decided prejudice of opinion, in favour of Ishmael being the person
offered in sacrifice. Whether this be the case or not, these children of
Abraham annually testify their reverence for their progenitor, and respect
for his faith towards God, in the way most congenial to their particular
ideas of honouring the memory of their forefathers.
I have thus attempted to sketch the origin of the festival, it shall now
be my task to describe the way in which the Mussulmauns of Hindoostaun
celebrate Buckrah Eade.
On this day all classes of people, professing 'the faith' sacrifice
animals, according to their circumstances; some offer up camels, others
sheep and goats, lambs or kids. It is a day of religious veneration, and
therefore by the pious prayers are added to sacrifice;--it is also a day
of joyful remembrances, consequently one of festivity amongst all ranks of
the Mussulmaun population.
Kings, Princes, or Nuwaubs, with the whole strength of their
establishments, celebrate the event, by going in great state to an
appointed place, which is designated 'The Eade-Gaarh'[2] where the animals
designed for immediate sacrifice are previously conveyed. On the arrival
of the cavalcade at the Eade-gaarh, the head Moollah reads the form of
prayer appointed for the occasion, and then presents the knife to the
royal personage, who with his own hand sheds the blood of the camel he
offers in sacrifice, repeating an impressive prayer as he presents the
steel to the throat of the animal. The exact moment of the King's
sacrifice is announced by signal, when a grand salute from the artillery
and infantry commences the day's rejoicing.
An account of the procession on these occasions may be interesting to my
readers, though no description can give an adequate idea of its imposing
appearance. I have witnessed the Buckrah Eade celebrations at Lucknow,
where expense and good taste are neither wanted nor spared, to do honour
to the great occasion.
The several persons forming the King's suite, whether nobles or menials,
together with the military, both horse and foot, are all dressed in their
best apparel. The elephants have undergone a thorough cleansing in the
river, their hides have been well oiled, which gives a jetty hue to the
surface, and their heads painted with bright colours, according to the
fancy of their keepers; their housings and trappings are the most costly
and brilliant the possessors can procure, some with gold, others with
silver howdahs (seats), and draperies of velvet or fine cloth embroidered
and fringed with gold.
The horses of individuals, and those of the irregular troops, are, on this
occasion, caparisoned with embroidered horsecloths and silver ornaments,
necklaces of silver or gold; or in the absence of these costly adornings,
the less affluent substitute large coloured beads and tufts of variegated
silk on their horses' necks. Many of the horses have stars and crescents
painted upon the chest and haunches: the tail and mane are dyed red with
mayndhie.[3]
The procession is formed in the following order: Fifty camels, in pairs,
carrying swivels, and each attended by two gunners and a camel-driver; the
men dressed in clean white dresses, with turbans and sashes of red and
green: the trappings of the camel are composed of broadcloth of the same
colours. Next to these is a park of artillery, the men in new regimentals
of blue, faced with red and yellow lace. Two troops of horse soldiers, in
new regimentals, scarlet cloth unrurkas[4] (coats) and white trousers,
with high-crowned caps of lambskin, similar to the Persian caps: these
horsemen have black belts, and are armed with pistols in the holsters, a
sabre and lance.
Then follows a regiment of nujeebs[5] (foot soldiers), their jackets red,
with small cap turban of black leather ornamented with the kirrich[6] or
dirk (part of the armorial bearings of the House of Oude): their trousers
reach no lower than the hams, where they are ornamented with black points
turning upwards on the white, leaving the thighs and legs perfectly bare.
The dunkah[7] (kettle drums) on a horse, richly ornamented with scarlet
cloth drapery, embroidered and fringed with gold, the rider dressed in
scarlet and gold, with a turban to correspond, both being ornamented with
the royal insignia,--a fish.[8]
The elephant carriages, containing first his Majesty and the Resident, the
others conveying the Prime Minister and the favoured nobles of his
Majesty's suite, form an impressive feature in the cortège, from their
splendour and novelty. The King's carriage is composed chiefly of silver,
open on every side, with a canopy of crimson velvet, embroidered and
fringed with gold, the curtains and lining to correspond; this carriage is
drawn by four elephants, exactly of one size (the rest have but two), each
very richly attired in velvet and gold coverings. The King and his suite
are very splendidly dressed in the Native costume. The chowries and
afthaadah are flourished before him, and on each side; the royal carriage
is guarded by the irregular horse in great numbers, and immediately
followed by led horses, very richly caparisoned, their grooms neatly
dressed in white, with turbans of red and green. To these succeed the
royal naalkie,[9] a species of conveyance supported by bearers,
constructed of beautifully wrought gold; the bearers in loose scarlet
coats, embroidered with gold, bearing the royal insignia on their coats
and turbans. A gold palkie, supported in the same style; an elegant state
carriage, with eight black horses in hand, the coachman (a European)
dressed in scarlet, with a cocked-hat and staff feather.
Hurkaarahs (running messengers), chobdhaahs with gold and silver staffs,
are seen on either side and in front of the King's carriage, reiterating
the King's titles and honours as they proceed. Then follow the English
gentlemen composing the King's suite, in their court dresses, on elephants.
To them succeed the Native nobility, great officers of state, &c., on many
elephants,--I should think more than fifty,--and the whole followed by
military, both horse and foot. The procession has an imposing effect,
particularly when viewed from an open space. The regiments have each their
colours unfurled, and their bands of music playing English pieces. I have
often thought if our theatrical managers could witness some of these
splendid processions, they might profit by representing on the stage the
grand exhibition of an Eastern monarch, which loses much of its splendour
by my indifferent powers of description.
After the ceremony at the Eade-gaarh has concluded, the King and his suite
return in the same well-arranged order, and arriving at his palace, enters
the throne-room, where being seated, he receives nuzzas in due form,
presented in turn by every person belonging to the court, whether
relations, nobles, courtiers, dependants, servants, or slaves; every
person observing a proper etiquette in their approach to the throne, the
inferiors keeping back until their superiors retire,--which each one does
immediately after presenting his nuzza; thus confusion is prevented in the
hall of audience.
As a description of the ceremony of presenting nuzzas, on such occasions,
may be acceptable to some of my friends, I will describe that which I
witnessed at the Court of Oude.
The King was seated on his throne of pure gold, dressed in a very costly
habit of Persian velvet, embroidered with gold; on his neck, valuable
haarhs (necklaces) of diamonds, pearls, rubies and emeralds, were
suspended in many rows, reaching from the neck nearly to the waist.
The throne is a flat surface, about two yards square, raised about two
feet from the floor, upon three sides of it is a railing; a square canopy,
supported by poles, is attached to the four corners of the throne, which,
together with the poles, are formed of wood, and cased over with pure gold,
into which are set precious stones of great value. The canopy and cushions,
on which the King takes his seat, are of crimson velvet, very richly
embroidered with gold and pearls; a deep fringe of pearls of a good size
finishes the border of the canopy. The chattah is of corresponding costly
materials (crimson velvet and gold), fringed also with red pearls.
The King's crown is elegantly formed, richly studded with diamonds, and
ornamented with handsome plumes of the birds of Paradise. Over his head
was supported the velvet chattah. On either side of the throne stood a
nobleman with chowries of peacock's-feathers in gold handles, which they
kept waving continually over the King's person.
To the right of the throne were gilt chairs with velvet seats placed for
the accommodation of the Resident and his lady, who were accompanied by
many English ladies and gentlemen standing, as also by the European
gentlemen attached to the King's suite: the latter, in their court dresses
of puce cloth, richly embroidered with gold, had a very good effect,
mingled with the well-dressed lady-visitors of the Resident.
To the left of the throne stood the Native gentlemen holding high offices
in the Court of Oude, each richly dressed in the Asiatic costume.
At the King's feet stood the Vizier (Prime Minister), whose business it is,
on such occasions, to deposit the nuzzas on the throne after they have
been accepted by his Majesty.
As the company advanced the head Chamberlain announced the name and rank
of each person in the presence of the King. The second Chamberlain
directed such persons, after presenting the nuzza, the way they must
retire from the hall.
The nuzzas of the first nobility consisted of twenty-one gold mohurs[10];
those of less exalted persons were proportioned to their rank and
circumstances; whilst servants and slaves, with inferior dependants of the
Court, tendered their humble tribute of respect in rupees of silver.
The person presenting has the offering placed on a clean white folded
kerchief; he advances with his head bowed low, until within ten paces of
the throne; he then stands erect for a few seconds, with his hands folded
and held forward, after which he bows his head very low three times, and
each time places his open hand to his forehead,--this is called
'salaaming'; this done, he advances to the foot of the throne, repeats the
three salaams, then presents with both hands the nuzza on the kerchief,
which the King touches with, his hand, and the Vizier receives and
deposits with the collected heap by the side of his Majesty.
When the ceremony of presenting nuzzas has concluded, the King rises and
advances with the Resident to the centre of the audience hall, where the
person in charge of the haarhs[11] is in attendance with several of these
marks of distinction, one of which the King selects and places with his
own hands over the head of the Resident; the Resident then takes one and
places it on the King in a similar way. Should the Vizier be in favour at
this time, he is invested with the haarh, both by his Majesty and the
Resident; but if, unfortunately for him, he does not enjoy his royal
master's confidence, he takes this opportunity of testifying his
dissatisfaction by omitting the favour to his Vizier. The haarh is
actually of very little value but as a badge of distinction peculiar to
Native courts, to which the Natives attach so much importance, that I
wonder not at their anxiety to be honoured with this distinguishing mark
of the King's satisfaction.
European visitors, both male and female, are generally adorned with haarhs
on these occasions. The King then conducts the Resident to the
entrance,--when taking leave, he pours otta[12] on his hands, with the
'Khodah Afiz!'[13] (God be with you!) and sometimes out of compliment to
the Resident, his Majesty offers otta also to each of the English visitors,
as they pass him at the door.
On these great court days, the Vizier's nuzza is usually of great
value,--sometimes a lac of rupees has been presented, when the Vizier is
much in favour, who is sure to receive ten times the value of his nuzza
ere the day is passed. When this large sum is presented, the Minister has
his one hundred bags (each containing a thousand rupees), covered with
crimson silk, and tied with silver ribands, placed on each side the throne
prior to the King's arrival; who, on seeing this proof of his faithful
servant's attachment, condescends to embrace him in the presence of the
assembled court--an honour of vast magnitude in the estimation of Natives.
The King confers favour on, as well as receives homage from, his subjects,
on the day of Buckrah Eade. On some, titles or other distinctions are
conferred; to others presents, according to his good will and pleasure:
many receive khillauts; and should there be an unfortunate omission, in
the distribution of princely munificence, that person understands to his
sorrow, that he is out of favour, without needing to be told so by word of
mouth.
The title of Khaun, Nuwaub, Rajah, or any other distinction conferred by
the King, is accompanied by the dress of honour, and often by elephants,
horses, or the particular kind of Native palkie which are alone used by
princes and the nobility. The elephant is always given ready furnished
with the several necessary appendages, as silver howdah, embroidered
jhewls[14] (draperies), &c.; and the horse richly caparisoned for riding.
The naalkie and palkie are vehicles conferred on Native gentlemen with
their titles, which cannot be used by any persons than those who have
received the grant from their Sovereign; and there is quite as much
ambition to be thus distinguished in a Native Court, as may be traced
amongst the aspirants for 'the orders' in the several European states.
Though the naalkie and palkie are restricted to the use of privileged
persons, all are allowed the services of the elephant. I knew a professed
beggar, who made his diurnal tour through the city of Lucknow on one. A
beggar, however, in Native estimation, is not the despicable creature he
is in European opinion; a degree of veneration is always evinced towards
men, who live on the casual bounty of their fellow mortals, and profess
not to have either a worldly calling or other means of support. The beggar,
I allude to, was called Shaah Jhee[15]; he had originally been a
travelling mendicant, and made a visit to Lucknow, when the late King was
a young man, whom he met by accident outside the town; and, I believe,
without knowing to whom he was speaking, predicted some favourable
circumstances which should attend him eventually; the young prince then
disclosed himself to the beggar, and promised him if his predictions were
verified, he would reward him in the way he wished. Shaah Jhee left the
Oude district, and travelled over most parts of Hindoostaun. Returning
after many years' absence to Lucknow, he found the prince seated on the
throne of his ancestors, and watching for a favourable opportunity to
present himself, made his claims to the sovereign, who, remembering the
circumstance and his promise, conferred the required reward--to be allowed
to demand five cowries daily from every shopkeeper in the city of Lucknow.
The King added to this humble demand a house to reside in, and the
elephant on which he went to collect his revenue. Eighty-five cowries
(shells) are valued at one pice, or a halfpenny; yet so vast is this
capital of Oude, that Shaah Jhee was in the receipt of a handsome daily
allowance, by this apparently trifling collection.
Most of the respectable gentlemen in Lucknow maintain an elephant for
their own use, where it is almost as common to meet them as horses. Though
most persons, I observe, avoid falling in with, the royal cortège, (which
is always announced by the sound of the dunkah), unless they are disposed
to court the King's observation; then they draw up their elephant, and
oblige the animal to kneel down whilst the King passes on, the owner
standing in his howdah to make salaams; others, I have seen, dismount in
time, and stand in a humble posture, with the hands folded and the head
bowed low, doing reverence and attracting his Majesty's notice as he
passes on. These little acts of ceremonious respect are gratifying to the
King, and are frequently the means of advancing the views of the subject
to his favour.
The khillauts, presented by the King, vary in the number of the articles
composing the gift, as well as in the quality. The personal rank, and
sometimes the degree of estimation in which the receiver is held, is
defined by the value and number of an individual's khillaut. I have known
some gentlemen tenacious to a foible, about the nature of the khillaut
that could consistently be accepted; I have heard it even expressed, 'I
shall be disgraced in the eyes of the world, if my khillaut has not the
full complement usually conferred on men of my rank'. It is the honour
they value, not the intrinsic worth of the articles, for it is no uncommon
thing to find them distributing the dress of honour amongst their
dependants, on the same day they have received it.
The splendid articles composing khillauts are as follows: swords with
embroidered belts, the handle and scabbard either enamelled or embossed
silver, often set with precious stones; the most inferior have silver
mountings and velvet scabbards; shields studded with silver; kirrich
(dirk), the handle and sheath equally as rich as the swords; embroidered
or gold cloth chupkunds[16] (coats); shawl-stuff labaadahs[17] (pelisses),
trimmed with sable; turbans of shawl or muslin; ornaments for the turban
of diamonds and emeralds, the inferior of paste; strings of pearls and
emeralds for the neck; shawls, always in pairs, of more or less value;
shawl-kerchiefs; shawl cummerbunds[18] (girdles); shawl lahaafs[19]
(counterpanes); gold cloth, gold and silver muslins, and shawl stuff, in
pieces, each being sufficient to form a dress; Benares silks, or rich
satin for trousers; pieces of fine embroidered muslin for shirts. These
are the usual articles of value given in khillauts to the most exalted
favourites. In some instances the King confers one hundred and one pieces
in a khillaut; in others seventy-five, and down to five articles, which is
the lowest number given in this much-prized dress of honour. In a khillaut
of five pieces, I have observed, generally, a coarser kind of gold cloth
dress, a coloured muslin turban, a pair of coarse shawls, a coarse shawl
romall[20] (kerchief), and a girdle. I have also observed, that the higher
the numbers rise, the quality of the articles increased in value;
consequently, when we hear of any one being invested with the highest
number, we calculate that each piece is of the very best quality and
fabric.
When khillauts are conferred, the investiture usually takes place in the
King's presence, who sometimes condescends to place one of the articles on
the receiver with his own hands; at other times he merely touches the
turban with his hand, and the individuals are clothed by the Prime
Minister. After receiving the khillaut, each person approaches the throne
and does homage to the King, presenting a nuzza in accordance with his
rank, and the value of the khillaut.
The Revenue Collectors and Zemindhaars[21] (landlords of farms) crowd to
the Court on these days, to testify their respect and share in the honours
distributed with a liberal hand. These persons may well be solicitous to
receive this badge of distinction, which they find increases their
influence over the Ryotts[22] (cultivators).
On the morning of Buckrah Eade, the King gives a public breakfast at
Lucknow, to the Resident and his suite, and to such of the Native nobility
as are privileged to 'the chair'[23] at the royal banquets. The breakfast
concluded, many varieties of sports commence, as elephant-fighting, tiger
sports, &c.[24] The entertainment is got up with great magnificence,
neither expense nor trouble being spared to render the festivities of the
day conspicuous.
After the Resident and his party have retired, the King returns to his
private apartments, where the forms of state are thrown aside with the
splendid robes; and the ease and comfort of real Asiatic life is again
indulged in, without the parade so studiously observed in public, as being
essential to the sovereign's dignity. The trammels of state must indeed be
irksome to those who indulge in that sort of luxurious ease which forms
the chief comfort of Native life.
The evening at Court is passed by the King and his favourite courtiers,
with music and the performances of dancing-girls; a variety of fire-work
exhibitions; the witticisms of the Court-jesters, and such other
amusements as are suited to Asiatic taste.
The magnificent style of celebrating Buckrah Eade at Lucknow is perhaps
unequalled by any other Native Court now existing in Hindoostaun. The
rejoicings on this festival are not confined to the higher classes alone;
but it is a period of equal interest to every individual of the Mussulmaun
community. The custom of the Court is imitated by the subjects in their
several grades, each striving to do honour to the day according to their
ability. The religious classes add, to their usual Namaaz, the appointed
prayer for the occasion of Buckrah Eade.
The rich send presents of goats and sheep to their neighbours and to the
poor, so that the meanest of the people are enabled to offer sacrifice and
rejoice in the good things of which they partake: new suits of clothes are
also distributed to the dependants of the family and to the poor. In short,
on this day, there seems a spirit of benevolence abroad, that is even
remarkable beyond the general generosity of their natural character, as
all who have any thing to share will assuredly, on this occasion, impart a
blessing to the needy, and gratify their friends and acquaintances.
The bride and bridegroom elect exchange presents of goats, &c.; the tutor
writes a copy of verses on the day, and presents it to his pupil; the
pupil in return sends his tutor a dress and money to enable him to keep
Eade with his family.
The ladies dress in their most costly jewels and apparel to receive or pay
visits. The children have their sports and amusements. Whenever I have
entered a Native house on these days, all seemed cheerful and happy, and
enjoying themselves in whatever way was most congenial to their particular
tastes; 'every one must be cheerful (they say) on Buckrah Eade'.
On this day, millions of animals are sacrificed in remembrance of
Abraham's faith. I have often thought how striking is the similarity
between the Mosaic and Mussulmaun institutes,--indeed my recollections of
Scripture history have frequently been realized in the views I have had of
the domestic habits of the Mussulmauns. They are forbidden the use of
unclean animals; the swine is equally abominable to Mussulmauns as to the
Jews; neither are they less scrupulous in discarding from their kitchen
any kind of animal food prohibited by their laws, or which has not been
killed by one of their faith. In this process the person, who is to slay,
turns the animal's head towards Mecca, repeats the short appointed prayer,
and with one plunge the animal has ceased to feel: they are expert in the
art of despatching life, so that the animal's sufferings may not be
protracted unnecessarily;--an amiable trait of character and worthy of
imitation.
* * * * *
'Nou-Roze'[25] (New Year's Day) is a Festival of Eade of no mean
importance in the estimation of Mussulmaun society.
The exact period of commencing the Mussulmaun new year is the very moment
of the sun's entering the sign Aries. This is calculated by those
practical astronomers, who are in the service of most great men in Native
cities;--I should tell you they have not the benefit of published
almanacks as in England,--and according to the hour of the day or night
when the sun passes into that particular sign, so are they directed in the
choice of a colour to be worn in their garments on this Eade: if at
midnight, the colour would be dark puce, almost a black; if at mid-day,
the colour would be the brightest crimson. Thus to the intermediate hours
are given a shade of either colour applicable to the time of the night or
the day when the sun enters the sign Aries; and whatever be the colour to
suit the hour of Nou-Roze, all classes wear the day's livery, from the
King to the meanest subject in the city. The King, on his throne, sits in
state to receive congratulations and nuzzas from his nobles, courtiers and
dependants. 'Mabaarukh Nou-Roze!'[26] (May the New Year be fortunate!) are
the terms of salutation exchanged by all classes of society, the King
himself setting the example. The day is devoted to amusements, a public
breakfast at the palace, sending presents, exchanging visits, &c.
The trays of presents prepared by the ladies for their friends are
tastefully set out, and the work of many days' previous arrangement. Eggs
are boiled hard, some of these are stained in colours resembling our
mottled papers; others are neatly painted in figures and devices; many are
ornamented with gilding; every lady evincing her own peculiar taste in the
prepared eggs for 'Nou-Roze'. All kinds of dried fruits and nuts,
confectionary and cakes, are numbered amongst the necessary articles for
this day's offering: they are set out in small earthen plates, lacquered
over to resemble silver, on which is placed coloured paper, cut out in
curious devices (an excellent substitute for vine leaves) laid on the
plate to receive the several articles forming 'Nou-Roze' presents.
Amongst the young people these trays are looked forward to with child-like
anxiety. The ladies rival each other in their display of novelty and good
taste, both in the eatables and the manner of setting them off with effect.
The religious community have prayers read in their family, and by them it
is considered both a necessary duty and a propitious commencement to bring
in the new year by 'prayer and praises'.
When it is known that the Nou-Roze will occur by daylight, the ladies have
a custom of watching for the moment the year shall commence by a fresh
rose, which being plucked from the stalk is thrown into a basin of water,
the eye downwards. They say, this rose turns over of itself towards the
sun at the very moment of that luminary passing into the sign Aries. I
have often found them thus engaged; but I never could say I witnessed the
actual accomplishment of their prediction.
The Nou-Roze teems with friendly tokens between the two families of a
bride and bridegroom elect, whose interchange of presents are also
strictly observed. The children receive gifts from their elders; their
nurses reap a harvest from the day; the tutor writes an ode in praise of
his pupil, and receives gifts from the child's parents; the servants and
slaves are regaled with dainties and with presents from the superiors of
the establishment; the poor are remembered with clothes, money and food;
the ladies make and receive visits; and the domenie attend to play and
sing in the zeenahnah. In short, the whole day is passed in cheerful
amusements, suited to the retirement of a zeenahnah and the habits of the
people.
* * * * *
There is a festival observed at Lucknow called Bussund[27] (spring-colour).
I should remark here, that almost all the trees of India have perpetual
foliage; as the season approaches for the new leaves to sprout, the young
buds force off the old leaves; and when the trees are thus clothed in
their first delicate foliage, there is a yellow tinge in the colour which
is denominated Bussund (Spring). A day is appointed to be kept under this
title, and then every one wears the Bussund colour: no one would be
admitted at Court without this badge of the day. The elephants, horses and
camels of the King, or of his nobles, are all ornamented with the same
colour on their trappings.
The King holds a Court, gives a public breakfast, and exhibits sports with
ferocious animals. The amusements of this day are chiefly confined to the
Court: I have not observed much notice taken of it in private life.
The last month of the periodical rains is called Sahbaund.[28] There is a
custom observed by the Mussulmaun population, the origin of which has
never been clearly explained to me; some say it is in remembrance of the
Prophet Elisha or Elijah, and commences the first Friday of Sahbaund, and
is followed up every succeeding Friday through this concluding month of
the rainy season.[29]
This ceremony may have had its origin with devout persons willing to
honour or to invoke the Prophet Elijah, who, as our Scripture informs us,
'prayed, and the clouds gave no rain for the space of three years; and
again he prayed and the heavens were opened to his prayer'. Or in that of
Elisha parting the waters with the mantle of Elijah, after succeeding him
in the Prophetic office, 2 Kings ii. 14; or a still more probable event,
calculated to excite the pious to some such annual notice as is observed
with these people, in the same chapter, the twentieth and following verses,
where we find it said of Elisha, 'And he said, Bring me a new cruse, and
put salt therein. And they brought it to him. And he went forth unto the
spring of the waters, and cast the salt in there, and said, Thus saith the
Lord, I have healed these waters; there shall not be from thence any more
dearth or barren land. So the waters were healed unto this day, according
to the saying of Elisha which he spake.'
The learned men call it a zeenahnah, or children's custom; but it is
common to see children of all ages amongst the males, partake of, and
enjoy the festival with as much glee as the females or their juniors.
A bamboo frame is formed to the shape of a Chinese boat: this frame-work
is hidden by a covering of gold and silver tissue, silk, or coloured
muslin, bordered and neatly ornamented with silver paper. In this light
bark many lamps are secreted, of common earthenware. A procession is
formed to convey the tribute, called 'Elias ky Kishtee[30]', to the river.
The servants of the family, soldiers, and a band of Native music attend in
due order of march: the crowd attracted by this childish play is immense,
increasing as they advance through the several streets on the way to the
river, by all the idlers of the place.
The kishtee (boat) is launched amidst a flourish of trumpets and drums,
and the shouts of the populace; the small vessel, being first well lighted,
by means of the secreted lamps, moves down gently with the stream. When at
a little distance, on a broad river, in the stillness of evening, any
one--who did not previously know how these little moving bodies of light
were produced--might fancy such fairy scenes as are to be met with in the
well-told fables of children's books in happy England.
This custom, though strongly partaking of the superstitious, is not so
blameable as that which I have known practised by some men of esteemed
good understanding, who having a particular object in view, which they
cannot attain by any human stratagem or contrivance, write petitions to
the Emaum Mhidhie on Fridays, and by their own hands commit the paper to
the river, with as much reverence as if they thought him present in the
water to receive it. The petition is always written in the same respectful
terms, as inferiors here well know how to address their superiors; and
every succeeding Friday the petition is repeated until the object is
accomplished, or the petitioner has no further inducement to offer one.
I have made particular inquiries whether such sensible people (as I have
seen thus engaged) placed any dependence on this mode of petitioning. The
only answer I have received, is, 'Those who think proper thus to petition,
certainly believe that it will be effectual, if they persevere in it.'
The New Moon is a festival in the family of every good Mussulmaun.[31]
They date the new moon from the evening it first become visible, and not
as we do--from the moment it changes. The event is announced in Native
cities by firing salutes from the field-pieces of Kings, Nuwaubs, &c.
Amongst the religious people there is much preparation in bathing and
changing the dress against the evening the moon is expected to be visible,
and when the guns have announced that it is visible, they have the Khoraun
brought, which they open at the passage where Mahumud praises God for this
particular blessing. A small looking glass is then brought, on which
passage it is placed, and the book held in such a position that the moon
may be first seen by the person reflected in the glass. They then repeat
the prayer, expressly appointed for this occasion, and that done, the
whole family rise and embrace each other, making salaams and reverence to
their superiors and elders. The servants and slaves advance for the same
purpose, and nothing is heard for some minutes, but 'May the new moon be
fortunate!' reiterated from every mouth of the assembled family.
I cannot answer for the motives which actuate the ignorant people to bow
when they first see the new moon; but the pious Mussulmaun, I am assured,
bows to the Creator for the visible blessing, and not to the object.
The first eatables handed round to secure good luck and health throughout
the month are sugar-candy and cheese. I fancy this is a mere zeenahnah
custom, for I do not find the males so particular about eating this most
extraordinary mixture as the females.
The servants' wages are paid by the month, and in well-regulated families
the first day of the moon is hailed by dependants and domestics with no
small share of anxiety. Indeed, these people make the moon of much more
importance in the regulation of domestic affairs than the inhabitants of
more polished countries, for they attribute the influence of that planet
over the inhabitants of the earth in many extraordinary ways. It may be
deemed superstitious, but as my business is to relate the most material
ceremonies among this people, I cannot well omit noticing some of their
observances at this time.
If any person is ill, and bleeding is the only good remedy to be pursued,
the age of the moon is first discussed, and if it happens to be near the
full, they are inflexibly resolute that the patient shall not lose blood
until her influence is lessened. And should it happen at the commencement
of the second quarter, or a few days after the full, the difficulty is to
be overcome by deprecating the evil influence of the moon over the patient,
by burning a brand of straw which is flourished about the sick person's
head, who is brought out into the moon's presence for this important
operation.[32] Many equally extraordinary things of this sort I have been
obliged to witness in the zeenahnah.
The full moon is deemed propitious for celebrating the marriage festivals.
If this be not possible, care is always to be taken that the ceremony does
not fall at the period when she is in the unfavourable sign; they say the
happiness of the young couple depends on this being carefully avoided, as
in the opinion of every Mussulmaun 'the moon in Scorpio' is unpropitious
for any business of moment.[33]
When a journey is contemplated the moon's age is the first consideration;
indeed, the favourable signs of Madam Luna's movements are not only
selected for commencing a journey, but for all undertakings of like
importance;--whether to build, to write, to plant, to take medicine, &c.
What will be said of the singular custom, 'drinking the moon at a
draught'? A silver basin being filled with water is held in such a
situation that the full moon may be reflected in it; the person to be
benefited by this draught is required to look steadfastly at the moon in
the basin, then shut his eyes and quaff the liquid at one draught.[34]
This remedy is advised by medical professors in nervous cases, and also
for palpitations of the heart. I have seen this practised, but I am not
aware of any real benefit derived by the patient from the prescription.
When the planet Venus is in conjunction with the moon, they say the time
is most favourable to offer prayers to God for any particular object they
may have in view. At this time they write charms or talismans to be worn
by children. I remember having witnessed a gentleman thus occupied, who
wrote little scraps in the Arabic character to distribute amongst the
children of his friends, who wore them enclosed in silver cases on their
arms.
An eclipse of the moon is an event of great interest, both with the
Mussulmaun and the Hindoo population, although they have very opposite
ideas of the causes of an eclipse.
Many of the notions entertained by the lower classes of Mussulmauns upon
the nature of an eclipse are borrowed from the Hindoos.[34] Some think
that it is caused by the anger of God towards the people of the earth;
others say the moon is in debt, and many other equally odd conceits exist
amongst the ignorant people, and among them only. Yet a sensation of awe
is felt by most; and where is the intelligent creature who can view an
eclipse or any other phenomenon of Nature without the same feeling of awe,
although all are not equally ready to express the sensation?
Loud cries from the mixed population, Mussulmauns and Hindoos, announce
the commencement of an eclipse, whether it be of the sun or the moon. The
voice of the Mussulmaun is distinguished by the Namaazies'[35] call to
prayers--'Allah wo uckbaar![36] (God alone is great!) To this summons the
faithful attend diligently, and they are generally occupied in the form of
prayer appointed by Mahumud until the shadow has passed over the sun or
moon eclipsed.
The ladies prepare offerings of corn, oil, and money to be distributed
amongst the poor. The gentlemen give presents to the needy. The astronomer
who predicts to his royal or noble master the exact period of an eclipse,
is rewarded, when it is over, with money, a dress, and a crescent of pure
gold in some instances. A bride elect sends sutkah[38] to her intended
husband, accompanied by a goat or kid, which must be tied to the leg of
his bedstead during the continuance of an eclipse: these offerings are
afterwards distributed in charity. Women expecting to become mothers are
carefully kept awake during an eclipse, as they declare the infant's
security depends on the mother being kept from sleep; they are not allowed
to use a needle, scissors, knife, or any other instrument during an
eclipse, for fear of drawing blood, which would be injurious at that
period, both to the mother and child; neither are the animals in a similar
state neglected; a mixture of cow-dung and drugs is rubbed over the belly
of such animals, whether cows, sheep, goats, &c., and all these are
securely housed until the planet is again resplendent: they fancy that
both the animal and its young would be endangered by exposure during the
time of the eclipse.
The power of the moon on wounded persons is believed universally to be of
dangerous tendency. I have heard many extraordinary relations by people
who, as they tell me, have suffered from exposure to the moon whilst a
wound was fresh. One person had received a severe sabre-cut on his arm;
the place was sewed up by the barber (the only surgeon amongst the
Natives), and being much exhausted he laid down to sleep in the open air.
The moon was near the full, and after some hours' exposure to her
influence he awoke in great agony; the barber examined the arm early in
the morning and found the cut in a state of corruption, the sewing having
burst; the wound was cleansed, and dressed with pounded camphor; the place
eventually healed, and the man lived many years to tell his story, always
declaring his belief that the moon had been the cause of his sufferings;
he was the more certain of this as he dreamed whilst exposed to her
influence, that a large black woman (an inhabitant of the moon) had
wrestled with him, and hurt his wound.
The usual application in India to a fresh wound is that of slacked lime. A
man in our employ was breaking wood, the head of the hatchet came off, and
the sharp edge fell with considerable force on the poor creature's foot;
he bled profusely and fainted, lime was unsparingly applied, to the wound,
the foot carefully wrapped up, and the man conveyed to his hut on a
charpoy (bedstead), where he was kept quiet without disturbing the wound;
at the end of a fortnight he walked about, and in another week returned to
his labour.[39]
Lime is an article of great service in the domestic economy of the Natives.
I have experienced the good effects of this simple remedy for burns or
scalds: equal proportions of lime, water, and any kind of oil, made into a
thin paste, and immediately applied and repeatedly moistened, will
speedily remove the effects of a burn; and if applied later, even when a
blister has risen, the remedy never fails: I cannot say how it might act
on a wound, the consequence of a neglected burn.
The lime used with pawn by the natives of India is considered very
beneficial to health; and they use it in great quantities, considering
that they never eat pawn without lime, and the most moderate pawn eaters
indulge in the luxury at least eight times in the course of the day. The
benefit of lime is worth the consideration of the medical world--as a
preventive in some climates, as a renovater in others.
Shubh-burraat,[40] is the designation of one of the months of the
Mussulmauns (you are aware their month is the duration of the moon). The
night of the full moon Shubh-burraat is a period of great and interesting
importance to the Mussulmaun people of every degree; for on this night
they are persuaded the fate of every human being is fixed in heaven; and
that whatever is to be their doom is then registered in the Book of Life.
Those who are to retain health, life, prosperity, or any other blessing,
and those who are to be visited by sickness, sorrows, adversity or death;
in short, whatever is to occur throughout the year is on this night
assuredly noted in heaven for each individual on earth.
On this night they are instructed also to remember their friends and
relatives who have been separated from them by death, and the injunction
is followed up with much pious respect and marked veneration. Food is
cooked and portioned out in the name of each departed object of their
regard, over which the elder of the family,--if a Maulvee is not
available,--reads a certain form of prayer called Fahteeah[41]; this done,
each portion (if convenient) is conveyed to the several tombs wherein
those friends are deposited; or if not convenient to send the food to the
burying ground, it is distributed amongst the poor of the city and the
suburbs; the beggars congregating in those places to indulge in the
luxuries prepared to the memory of the dead. The food prepared on this
occasion must not contain any animal food. Bread of various kinds, sweet
rice, and meetah[42] (a mixture of sugar, ghee, and flour), are the usual
dainties I have observed in these offerings. Fireworks are in universal
request on the night of Shubh-burraat, which is required to be passed in
wakefulness; and to this may be ascribed the never-varying custom of
letting them off: it is an amusement these people take delight in at all
times, and on this occasion most usefully, to keep them awake. The younger
branches, at all events, derive this benefit from the pastime.
The religious community make it a night of strict devotion; they offer
prayers and intercessions for the souls of their departed friends, since
they imagine that this period, of all others, is most favourable to prayer,
as they believe the heart is more open to the throne of mercy, the prayer
more effectual, and that the real penitent suing for pardon on the night
of Shubh-burraat, is certainly heard and his sins forgiven.
The Sheah sect attach still greater importance to this night, as the
anniversary of the birth of Emaum Mhidhie.[43] They also remember Hasan
and Hosein as martyrs; and in memory of their sufferings the zeearut[44]
(circuit as at Mahurrum), is performed by walking round the ground in front
of their apartments, repeating the burial service, with some trifling
alterations; likewise the salaams to the Prophets and Emaums are duly
performed during this night of fate.
There is a singular opinion current amongst the Mussulmauns, that the
trees hold converse at this momentous period.[45] The really pious
characters amongst the Mussulmauns declare that they discountenance
superstition in every way; but they strictly adhere to every habit or
custom on record which was the practice of Mahumud and his family, the
Emaums. Of course, they do not think the observances of Shubh-burraat are
at all bordering on superstition, whatever may be thought of the practice
by others.
[1] See p. 78.
[2] 'Idgah, the place where the rites of the 'Id festival are
conducted. It generally consists of a pavement, with a wall to the
west, facing east.
[3] See p. 42.
[4] _Angarkha_.
[5] _Najib_, 'noble'; the half-disciplined militia of Native States.
[6] _Kirch_, a straight thrusting sword.
[7] See p. 48.
[8] See p. 43.
[9] _Nalki_, a kind of litter, the use of which was regarded as a
mark of dignity: see Sleeman, _Rambles_, p. 135.
[10] A coin worth, about Rs. 16.
[11] Haarh is a name given to any sort of ornament which we should
designate a necklace. The haarhs presented on these occasions at the
Oude court are composed of silver ribands very prettily platted and
confined at each division of plats by knobs covered with silver riband.
The prices of these haarhs are from five to twenty-five rupees each,
depending on the size. [_Author_.] See p. 62.
[12] _'Itr_, essence of roses.
[13]_Khuda hafiz_.
[14] _Jhul_.
[15] _Shahji_, 'my lord'.
[16] _Chapkan_, the cassock-like frock, which is the usual dress of
respectable natives.
[17] _Labada_, a sort of overcoat.
[18] _Kamarband_, 'loin-band'.
[19] _Lahaf_, a corruption of _ghilaf_, 'a wrapper'.
[20] _Rumal_, 'face-wiper'.
[21] _Zamindar_, 'a landowner'.
[22] _Ra'iyat_.
[23] Many native gentlemen are allowed to be seated in the king's presence
at court daily, but not at the banquet, which is a distinction
reserved only for the nobility and favourites. [_Author_.]
[24] For an account of the animal fights before Lord W. Bentinck in 1831
see Mrs. F. Parks, _Wanderings of a Pilgrim_, i. 176 ff.; W. Knighton,
_Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 147 ff.
[25] _Nauroz_. Specially a Persian feast: see Sir J. Malcolm, _History of
Persia_,[2] ii. 341 _n_., 404; S.G.W. Benjamin, _Persia and the
Persians_, p. 198; O.J. Wills, _The Land of the Lion and the Sun_, ed.
1891, p. 48.
[26] _Nauroz mubarak_.
[27] Basant or spring feast, held at the vernal equinox.
[28] Sawan, the fourth month of the Hindu year, July-August.
[29] The feast is held in honour of the mythical Khwaja Khizr, 'the
green one', a water spirit identified with the Prophet Elisha (see
Sale on _Koran_, xviii. 63). The launching of the little boats is,
in essence, a form of magic intended to carry away the evils which
menace the community, and to secure abundant rainfall.
[30] _Ilyas ki kishti_.
[31] This is known as Hilal.
[32] The Semites, like other races, believed in the influence of the moon.
'The sun shall not strike thee by day, nor the moon by night' (Ps.
cxxi. 6). It was believed to cause blindness and epilepsy. Sir J.G.
Frazer has exhaustively discussed the question of the influence of the
moon. The harvest moon, in particular, brings fertility, and hears the
prayers of women in travail: the moon causes growth and decay, and she
is dangerous to children. Many practical rules are based on her
influence at the various phases (_The Golden Bough_[3] Part I, vol. ii,
p. 128; Part IV, vol. ii, p. 132 ff.).
[33] 'The sixth house is Scorpio, which is that of slaves and servants,
and of diseases' (Abul Fazl, _Akbarnama_, tr. H. Beveridge, ii. 12).
[34] Here the moon is supposed to exert a curative influence.
[35] Hindus believe that during an eclipse the moon is being strangled by
a demon, Rahu. Cries are raised, drums and brazen pans are beaten
to scare him.
[36] Properly the Mu'azzin or official summoner to prayer.
[37] _Allahu akbar_.
[38] All offerings of intercession or thanksgivings are denominated sutkah
[_Author_] (_sadaqah_, see p. 136).
[39] Lime liniment, composed of equal parts of lime-water and a bland oil,
is recognized in surgical practice.
[40] _Shab-i-bara'at_, 'the night of record', is a feast held on the
15th of the month Sha'ban, when a vigil is kept, with prayers and
illuminations. On this occasion service in memory of the deceased
ancestors of the family is performed. On this night the fortunes of
mortals during the coming year are said to be recorded in Heaven. See
p. 51.
[41] Al-Fatihah, 'the opening one', the first chapter of the Koran.
[42] _Mitha, mithai_, 'sweetmeats'.
[43] Imam Mahdi, see pp. 72, 76.
[44] _Ziyarat_, see p. 15.
[45] Compare the oracular trees of the Greeks (Sir J.G. Frazer,
_Pausanias_, ii. 160). For legends of speaking trees in India,
W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India_,[2] ii. 89.