b. Although _the children_ be, &c.
_If_, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no doubt whatever
implied: in other words it may be used instead of _since_.
In some languages this interchange goes farther than in others; in the
Greek, for instance, such is the case with [Greek: ei], to a very great
extent indeed.
Hence we must look to the meaning of the sentence in general, rather than
to the particular conjunction used.
It is a philological fact that _if_ may stand instead of _since_.
It is also a philological fact that when it does so it should be followed
by the indicative mood.
This is written in the way of illustration. What applies to _if_ applies to
other conjunctions as well.
§ 511. As a point of practice, the following method of determining the
amount of doubt expressed in a conditional proposition is useful:--
Insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the two following
phrases,--(1.) _as is the case_; (2.) _as may or may not be the case_. By
ascertaining which of these two supplements expresses the meaning of the
speaker, we ascertain the mood of the verb which follows.
When the first formula is the one required, there is no element of doubt,
and the verb should be in the indicative mood. _If_ (_as is the case_), _he
_is_ gone, I must follow him_.
When the second formula is the one required, there _is_ an element of
doubt, and the verb should be in the subjunctive mood. _If_ (_as may or may
not be the case_) _he _be_ gone, I must follow him_.
§ 512. The use of the word _that_ in expressions like _I eat that I may
live_, &c., is a modification of the subjunctive construction, that is
conveniently called _potential_. It denotes that one act is done for the
sake of supplying the _power_ or opportunity for the performance of
another.
The most important point connected with the powers of _that_ is the
so-called _succession of tenses_.
§ 513. _The succession of tenses._--Whenever the conjunction _that_
expresses intention, and consequently connects two verbs, the second of
which takes place _after_ the first, the verbs in question must be in the
same tense.
I _do_ this _that_ I _may_ gain by it
I _did_ this _that_ I _might_ gain by it.
In the Greek language this is expressed by a difference of mood; the
subjunctive being the construction equivalent to _may_, the optative to
_might_. The Latin idiom coincides with the English.
A little consideration will show that this rule is absolute. For a man _to
be doing_ one action (in present time) in order that some other action may
_follow_ it (in past time) is to reverse the order of cause and effect. To
do anything in A.D. 1851, that something may result from it in 1850 is a
contradiction; and so it is to say _I _do_ this_ that _I _might_ gain by
it_.
The reasons against the converse construction are nearly, if not equally
cogent. To have done anything at any _previous_ time in order that a
_present_ effect may follow, is, _ipso facto_, to convert a past act into a
present one, or, to speak in the language of the grammarian, to convert an
aorist into a perfect. To say _I _did_ this_ that _I may gain by it_, is to
make, by the very effect of the expression, either _may_ equivalent to
_might_, or _did_ equivalent to _have done_.
_I _did_ this_ that _I _might_ gain_.
_I _have done_ this_ that _I _may_ gain_.
§ 514. _Disjunctives._--Disjunctives (_or_, _nor_) are of two sorts, real
and nominal.
_A king or queen always rules in England_. Here the disjunction is real;
_king_ or _queen_ being different names for different objects. In all
_real_ disjunctions the inference is, that if one out of two (or more)
individuals (or classes) do not perform a certain action, the other does.
_A sovereign or supreme ruler always rules in England_. Here the
disjunction is nominal; _sovereign_ and _supreme governor_ being different
names for the same object. In all nominal disjunctives the inference is,
that if an agent (or agents) do not perform a certain action under one
name, he does (or they do) it under another.
Nominal disjunctives are called by Harris _sub_disjunctives.
In the English language there is no separate word to distinguish the
nominal from the real disjunctive. In Latin, _vel_ is considered by Harris
to be disjunctive, _sive_ subdisjunctive. As a periphrasis, the combination
_in other words_ is subdisjunctive.
Both nominal and real disjunctives agree in this,--whatever may be the
number of nouns which they connect, the construction of the verb is the
same as if there were but one--Henry, _or_ John, _or_ Thomas, _walks_ (not
_walk_); the sun, _or_ solar luminary, _shines_ (not _shine_). The
disjunctive _isolates_ the subject, however much it may be placed in
juxtaposition with other nouns.
* * * * *
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE.
§ 515. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, the negative precedes
it.--_Not to advance is to retreat_.
When the verb is not in the infinitive mood, the negative follows it.--_He
advanced not_. _I cannot_.
This rule is absolute. It only _seems_ to precede the verb in such
expressions as _I do not advance_, _I cannot advance_, _I have not
advanced_, &c. However, the words _do_, _can_, and _have_, are no
infinitives; and it consequently follows them. The word _advance_ is an
infinitive, and it consequently precedes it. Wallis's rule makes an
equivalent statement, although differently. "Adverbium negandi _not_ (non)
verbo postponitur (nempe auxiliari primo si adsit; aut si non adsit
auxiliare, verbo principali): aliis tamen orationis partibus præfigi
solet."--P. 113.
That the negative is rarely used, except with an auxiliary, in other words,
that the presence of a negative converts a simple form like _it burneth
not_ into the circumlocution it _does not burn_, is a fact in the practice
of the English language. The syntax is the same in either expression.
§ 516. What may be called the _distribution_ of the negative is pretty
regular in English. Thus, when the word _not_ comes between an indicative,
imperative, or subjunctive mood and an infinitive verb, it almost always is
taken with the word which it _follows_--_I can not eat_ may mean either _I
can--not eat_ (i.e., _I can abstain_), or _I can not--eat_ (i.e., _I am
unable to eat_); but, as stated above, it _almost_ always has the latter
signification.
But not _always_. In Byron's "Deformed Transformed" we find the following
lines:--
Clay! not dead but soulless,
Though no mortal man would choose thee,
An immortal no less
Deigns _not to refuse_ thee.
Here _not to refuse_ = _to accept;_ and is probably a Grecism. _To not
refuse_ would, perhaps, be better.
The next expression is still more foreign to the English idiom:--
For _not_ to have been dipped in Lethe's lake
_Could save_ the son of Thetis from to die.
Here _not_ is to be taken with _could_.
§ 517. In the present English, two negatives make an affirmative. _I have
not not seen him_ = _I have seen him_. In Greek this was not the case. _Duæ
aut plures negativæ apud Græcos vehementius negant_ is a well known rule.
The Anglo-Saxon idiom differed from the English and coincided with the
Greek. The French negative is only apparently double; words like _point_,
_pas_, mean not _not_, but _at all_. _Je ne parle pas_ = _I not speak at
all_, not _I not speak no_.
§ 518. _Questions of appeal._--All questions imply want of information;
want of information may then imply doubt; doubt, perplexity; and perplexity
the absence of an alternative. In this way, what are called, by Mr.
Arnold,[65] _questions of appeal_, are, practically speaking, negatives.
_What should I do?_ when asked in extreme perplexity, means that nothing
can well be done. In the following passage we have the presence of a
question instead of a negative:--
Or hear'st thou (_cluis_, Lat.) rather pure ethereal stream,
Whose fountain who (_no one_) shall tell?--_Paradise Lost._
* * * * *
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
§ 519. Broadly speaking, all adverbial constructions are absolute. The
term, however, is conveniently limited to a particular combination of the
noun, verb, and participle. When two actions are connected with each other,
either by the fact of their simultaneous occurrence, or as cause and
effect, they may be expressed within the limits of a single proposition, by
expressing the one by means of a verb, and the other by means of a noun and
participle agreeing with each other. _The door being open, the horse was
stolen._
Considering the nature of the connection between the two actions, we find
good grounds for expecting _à priori_ that the participle will be in the
instrumental case, when such exists in the language: and when not, in some
case allied to it, i.e., the ablative or dative.
In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolutely. _Sole orto,
claruit dies._
In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This is logical.
In the present English, however, the nominative is the absolute case. _He
made the best proverbs, him alone excepted_, is an expression of
Tillotson's. We should now write _he alone excepted_. The present mode of
expression is only to be justified by considering the nominative form to be
a dative one, just as in the expression _you are here_, the word _you_,
although an accusative, is considered as a nominative. A real nominative
absolute is as illogical as a real accusative case governing a verb.
* * * * *
PART VI.
PROSODY.
§ 520. The word _Prosody_ is derived from a Greek word (_prosodia_)
signifying _accent_. It is used by Latin and English grammarians in a wider
sense, and includes not only the doctrines of accent and quantity, but also
the laws of metre and versification.
§ 521. Observe the accents in the following lines:--
Then fáre thee wéll, mine ówn dear lóve,
The wórld hath nów for ús
No greáter griéf, no paín abóve
The paín of párting thús.--MOORE.
Here the syllables accented are the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th,
16th, 18th, 20th, 22nd, 24th, 26th, 28th; that is, every other
syllable.--Again,
At the clóse of the dáy, when the hámlet is stíll,
And the mórtals the sweéts of forgétfulness próve,
And when nóught but the tórrent is heárd on the híll,
And there's nóught but the níghtingale's sóng in the gróve.--BEATTIE.
Here the syllables accented are the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, 15th, 18th, 21st,
24th, 27th, 30th, 33rd, 36th, 39th, 42nd, 45th, 48th; that is, every third
syllable.
§ 522. _Metre is a general term for the recurrence within certain intervals
of syllables similarly affected._ The syllables that have just been
numbered are similarly affected, being similarly accented. Accent is not
the only quality of a syllable, which by returning at regular intervals can
constitute metre. It is the one, however, upon which English metre depends.
English metre essentially consists in the regular recurrence of syllables
similarly _accented_.
_Abbot._--And whý not líve and áct with óther mén?
_Manfred._--Becaúse my náture wás avérse from lífe;
And yét not crúel, fór I woúld not máke,
But fínd a désolátion:--líke the wínd,
The réd-hot breáth of thé most lóne simoóm,
Which dwélls but ín the désert, ánd sweeps o'ér
The bárren sánds which beár no shrúbs to blást,
And révels ó'er their wíld and árid wáves,
And seéketh nót so thát it ís not soúght,
But béing mét is deádly: súch hath beén
The páth of mý exístence.--BYRON.
§ 523. _Measures._--For every accented syllable in the following line,
write the letter a, and for every unaccented one, the letter x, so that a
may stand for an accent, x for the absence of one--
The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld.--SCOTT.
or expressed symbolically
x a x a x a x a,
where x coincides with _the_, a with _way_, &c.
§ 524. Determine the length of the line in question.--It is plain that this
may be done in two ways. We may either measure by the syllables, and say
that the line consists of eight syllables; or by the accents, and say that
it consists of four accents. In this latter case we take the accented
syllable with its corresponding unaccented one, and, grouping the two
together, deal with the pair at once. Now, a group of syllables thus taken
together is called a _measure_. In the line in question _the way_ (x a) is
one measure, _was long_ (x a) another, and so on throughout; the line
itself consisting of four measures.
§ 525. _Trisyllabic measures._--The number of measures consisting of two
syllables, or dissyllabic measures, is necessarily limited to two,
expressed a x and x a respectively. But beyond these there are in the
English language measures of three syllables, or trisyllabic measures. The
number of these is necessarily limited to three.
The first of these is exhibited in the word _mérrily_ (a x x).
Mérrily, mérrily sháll I live nów,
Únder the blóssom that hángs on the boúgh.--SHAKSPEARE.
The second is exhibited by the word _disáble_ (x a x).
But vaínly thou wárrest,
For thís is alóne in
Thy pówer to decláre,
That ín the dim fórest
Thou heárd'st a low moáning,
And sáw'st a bright lády surpássingly faír.--COLERIDGE.
§ 526. The third is exhibited by the word _cavaliér_ (x x a).
There's a beaúty for éver unfádingly bríght,
Like the lóng ruddy lápse of a súmmer-day's níght.--MOORE.
When grouped together according to certain rules, measures form lines and
verses; and lines and verses, regularly arranged, constitute couplets,
triplets, and stanzas, &c.
§ 527. The expression of measures, lines, &c., by such symbols as a x, x a,
&c., is _metrical notation_.
§ 528. _Rhyme._--We can have English verse without _rhyme_. We cannot have
English verse without _accent_. Hence accent is an _essential_; rhyme an
_accessory_ to metre.
§ 529. _Analysis of a pair of rhyming syllables._--Let the syllables _told_
and _bold_ be taken to pieces, and let the separate parts of each be
compared. Viewed in reference to metre, they consist of three parts or
elements: 1. the vowel (o); 2. the part _preceding_ the vowel (t and b
respectively); 3. the parts _following_ the vowel (ld). Now the vowel (o)
and the parts following the vowel (ld) are alike in both words (_old_); but
the part preceding the vowel is different in the different words (_told_,
_bold_). This difference between the parts preceding the vowels is
essential; since, if it were not for this, the two words would be
identical, or rather there would be but one word altogether. This is the
case with _I_ and _eye_. Sound for sound (although different in spelling)
the two words are identical, and, consequently, the rhyme is faulty.
Again--compared with the words _bold_ and _told_, the words _teeth_ and
_breeze_ have two of the elements necessary to constitute a rhyme. The
vowels are alike (ee), whilst the parts preceding the vowels are different
(br and t); and, as far as these two matters are concerned, the rhyme is a
good one, _tee_ and _bree_. Notwithstanding this, there is anything rather
than a rhyme; since the parts following the vowel (th and ze) instead of
agreeing, differ. _Breathe_ and _beneath_ are in the same predicament,
because the th is not sounded alike in the two words.
Again--the words _feel_ and _mill_ constitute only a false and imperfect
rhyme. Sound for sound, the letters f and m (the parts preceding the vowel)
are different. This is as it should be. Also, sound for sound, l and ll
(the parts following the vowel) are identical; and this is as it should be
also: but ee and i (the vowels) are different, and this difference spoils
the rhyme. _None_ and _own_ are in the same predicament; since one o is
sounded as o in _note_, and the other as the u in _but_.
From what has gone before we get the notion of true and perfect rhymes as
opposed to false and imperfect ones. For two (or more) words to rhyme to
each other, it is necessary
a. That the vowel be the same in both.
b. That the parts following the vowel be the same.
c. That the parts preceding the vowel be different.
Beyond this it is necessary that the syllables, to form a full and perfect
rhyme, should be accented syllables. _Sky_ and _lie_ form good rhymes, but
_sky_ and merri_ly_ bad ones, and _merrily_ and _silly_ worse. Lines like
the second and fourth of the following stanza are slightly exceptionable on
this score: indeed, many readers sacrifice the accent in the word _mérrily_
to the rhyme, and pronounce it _merrilý_.
The wítch she héld the haír in her hánd,
The réd flame blázed hígh;
And roúnd aboút the cáldron stoút,
They dánced right mérri_lý_.--KIRKE WHITE.
§ 530. In matters of rhyme the letter h counts as nothing. _High_ and _I_,
_hair_ and _air_, are imperfect rhymes, because h (being no articulate
sound) counts as nothing, and so the parts before the vowel i and a are not
different (as they ought to be) but identical.
Whose generous children narrow'd not their hearts
With commerce, giv'n alone to arms and arts.--BYRON.
§ 531. Words where the letters coincide, but the sounds differ, are only
rhymes to the eye. _Breathe_ and _beneath_ are both in this predicament; so
also are _cease_ and _ease_ (_eaze_).
In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease,
Sprang the rank weed, and thrived with large increase.--POPE.
§ 532. If the sounds coincide, the difference of the letters is
unimportant.
Bold in the practice of mistaken rules,
Prescribe, apply, and call their masters fools.
They talk of principles, but notions prize,
And all to one loved folly sacrifice.--POPE.
§ 533. _Single rhymes._--An accented syllable standing by itself, and
coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a single rhyme.
'Tis hard to say if greater want of _skill_
Appear in writing or in judging _ill_;
But of the two, less dangerous is the of_fence_
To tire the patience than mislead the _sense_.
Some few in that, but thousands err in _this_;
Ten censure wrong, for one that writes a_miss_.--POPE.
§ 534. _Double rhymes._--An accented syllable followed by an unaccented
one, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a double
rhyme.
The meeting points the sacred hair dis_sever_
From her fair head for ever and for _ever_.--POPE.
Prove and explain a thing till all men _doubt it_,
And write about it, Goddess, and _about it_.--POPE.
§ 535. An accented syllable followed by two unaccented ones, and coming
under the conditions given above, constitutes a treble rhyme.
Beware that its fatal a_scéndancy_
Do not tempt thee to mope and repine;
With a humble and hopeful de_péndency_
Still await the good pleasure divine.
Success in a higher be_átitude_,
Is the end of what's under the Pole;
A philosopher takes it with _grátitude_,
And believes it the best on the whole.--BYRON.
§ 536. Metres where there is no rhyme are called blank metres.
Of man's first disobedience and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing, Heavenly Muse!--MILTON.
The quality of mercy is not strained.
It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven
Upon the place beneath; it is twice bless'd,
It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes
'Tis mightiest of the mighty, it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown.
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,
The attribute of awe and majesty,
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings:
But mercy is above this sceptred sway;
It is enthroned in the hearts of kings:
It is an attribute to God himself;
And earthly power doth then show likest God's,
When mercy seasons justice.--SHAKSPEARE.
§ 537. _The last measure in a line or verse is indifferent as to its
length._--By referring to the section upon single rhymes, we shall find
that the number of syllables is just double the number of accents; that is,
to each accented there is one unaccented syllable, and no more. Hence, with
five accents, there are to each line ten syllables. This is not the case
with all verses. Some rhymes are double, and the last accented syllable has
two unaccented ones to follow it. Hence, with five accents there are to
each line eleven syllables. Now it is in the last measure that this
supernumerary unaccented syllable appears; and it is a general rule, that,
in the last measure of any verse, supernumerary unaccented syllables can be
admitted without destroying the original character of the measure.
§ 538. See the verses in the section on double rhymes. Here the original
character of the measure is x a throughout, until we get to the words
_disséver_ and _for éver_, and afterwards to _men doúbt it_, and _aboút
it_. At the first view it seems proper to say that in these last-mentioned
cases x a is converted into x a x. A different view, however, is the more
correct one. _Disséver_ and _for éver_, are rather x a with a syllable
over. This extra syllable may be expressed by the sign _plus_ ( + ), so
that the words in point may be expressed by x a +, rather than by x a x. It
is very clear that a measure whereof the last syllable is accented (that
is, measures like x a, _presúme_, or x x a, _cavalíer_), can only vary from
their original character on the side of excess; that is, they can only be
altered by the addition of fresh syllables. To subtract a syllable from
such feet is impossible; since it is only the last syllable that is capable
of being subtracted. If that last syllable, however, be the accented
syllable of the measure, the whole measure is annihilated. Nothing remains
but the unaccented syllable preceding; and this, as no measure can subsist
without an accent, must be counted as a supernumerary part of the preceding
measure.
§ 539. With the measures a x, a x x, x a x, the case is different. Here
there is room for syllable or syllables to be subtracted.
Queén and húntress, cháste and faír,
Nów the sún is laíd to sléep,
Seated ín thy sílver chaír,
Státe in wónted spléndour keép.
Hésperús invókes thy líght,
Góddess, éxquisítely bríght.--BEN JONSON.
In all these lines the last measure is deficient in a syllable, yet the
deficiency is allowable, because each measure is the last one of the line.
The formula for expressing _faír_, _sléep_, _chaír_, &c. is not a, but
rather a x followed by the _minus_ sign (-), or a x-.
A little consideration will show that amongst the English measures, x a and
x x a naturally form single, a x and x a x double, and a x x treble rhymes.
§ 540. The chief metres in English are of the formula x a. It is only a few
that are known by fixed names. These are as follows:--
1. _Gay's stanza._--Lines of three measures, x a, with alternate rhymes.
The odd (i.e. the 1st and 3rd) rhymes double.
'Twas when the seas were roaring
With hollow blasts of wind,
A damsel lay deploring,
All on a rock reclined.
2. _Common octosyllabics._--Four measures, x a, with rhyme, and (unless the
rhymes be double) eight syllables (_octo syllabæ_).--Butler's Hudibras,
Scott's poems, The Giaour, and other poems of Lord Byron.
3. _Elegiac octosyllabics_.--Same as the last, except that the rhymes are
regularly alternate, and the verses arranged in stanzas.
And on her lover's arm she leant,
And round her waist she felt it fold,
And far across the hills they went,
In that new world which now is old:
Across the hills and far away,
Beyond their utmost purple rim,
And deep into the dying day
The happy princess follow'd him.--TENNYSON.
4. _Octosyllabic triplets._--Three rhymes in succession. Generally arranged
as stanzas.
I blest them, and they wander'd on;
I spoke, but answer came there none;
The dull and bitter voice was gone.--TENNYSON.
5. _Blank verse._--Five measures, x a, without rhyme, Paradise Lost,
Young's Night Thoughts, Cowper's Task.
6. _Heroic couplets._--Five measures, x a, with pairs of rhymes. Chaucer,
Denham, Dryden, Waller, Pope, Goldsmith, Cowper, Byron, Moore, Shelley, &c.
This is the common metre for narrative, didactic, and descriptive poetry.
7. _Heroic triplets._--Five measures, x a. Three rhymes in succession.
Arranged in stanzas. This metre is sometimes interposed among heroic
couplets.
8. _Elegiacs._--Five measures, x a; with regularly alternate rhymes, and
arranged in stanzas.
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homewards plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.--GRAY.
9. _Rhymes royal._--Seven lines of heroics, with the last two rhymes in
succession, and the first five recurring at intervals.
This Troilus, in gift of curtesie,
With hauk on hond, and with a huge rout
Of knightes, rode, and did her company,
Passing all through the valley far about;
And further would have ridden out of doubt.
Full faine and woe was him to gone so sone;
But turn he must, and it was eke to doen.--CHAUCER.
This metre was common with the writers of the earlier part of Queen
Elizabeth's reign. It admits of varieties according to the distribution of
the first five rhymes.
10. _Ottava rima._--A metre with an Italian name, and borrowed from Italy,
where it is used generally for narrative poetry. The Morgante Maggiore of
Pulci, the Orlando Innamorato of Bojardo, the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto,
the Gierusalemme Liberata of Tasso, are all written in this metre. Besides
this, the two chief epics of Spain and Portugal respectively (the Auraucana
and the Lusiados) are thus composed. Hence it is a form of poetry which is
Continental rather than English, and naturalized rather than indigenous.
The stanza consists of eight lines of heroics, the six first rhyming
alternately, the last two in succession.
Arrived there, a prodigious noise he hears,
Which suddenly along the forest spread;
Whereat from out his quiver he prepares
An arrow for his bow, and lifts his head;
And, lo! a monstrous herd of swine appears,
And onward rushes with tempestuous tread,
And to the fountain's brink precisely pours,
So that the giant's join'd by all the boars.
_Morgante Maggiore_ (LD. BYRON'S _Translation_.)
11. _Terza rima._--Like the last, borrowed both in name and nature from the
Italian, and scarcely yet naturalized in England.
The Spirit of the fervent days of old,
When words were things that came to pass, and Thought
Flash'd o'er the future, bidding men behold
Their children's children's doom already brought
Forth from the abyss of Time which is to be,
The chaos of events where lie half-wrought
Shapes that must undergo mortality:
What the great seers of Israel wore within,
That Spirit was on them and is on me:
And if, Cassandra-like, amidst the din
Of conflicts, none will hear, or hearing heed
This voice from out the wilderness, the sin
Be theirs, and my own feelings be my meed,
The only guerdon I have ever known.
12. _Alexandrines._--Six measures, x a, generally (perhaps always) with
rhyme. The name is said to be taken from the fact that early romances upon
the deeds of Alexander of Macedon, of great popularity, were written in
this metre. One of the longest poems in the English language is in the
Alexandrines, viz. Drayton's Poly-olbion, quoted above.
13. _Spenserian stanza._--A stanza consisting of nine lines, the first
eight heroics, the last an Alexandrine.
It hath been through all ages ever seen,
That with the prize of arms and chivalrie
The prize of beauty still hath joined been,
And that for reason's special privitie;
For either doth on other much rely.
For he meseems most fit the fair to serve
That can her best defend from villanie;
And she most fit his service doth deserve,
That fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve.--SPENSER.
Childe Harold and other important poems are composed in the Spenserian
stanza.
14. _Service metre._--Couplets of seven measures, x a. This is the common
metre of the Psalm versions. It is also called common measure, or long
measure. In this metre there is always a pause after the fourth measure,
and many grammarians consider that with that pause the line ends. According
to this view, the service metre does not consist of two long lines with
seven measures each; but of four short ones, with four and three measures
each alternately. The Psalm versions are printed so as to exhibit this
pause or break.
The Lord descended from above, | and bow'd the heavens most high,
And underneath his feet He cast | the darkness of the sky.
On Cherubs and on Seraphim | full royally He rode,
And on the wings of mighty winds | came flying all abroad.
STERNHOLD AND HOPKINS.
In this matter the following distinction is convenient. When the last
syllable of the fourth measure (i.e. the eighth syllable in the line) in
the one verse _rhymes_ with the corresponding syllable in the other, the
long verse should be looked upon as broken up into two short ones; in other
words, the couplets should be dealt with as a stanza. Where there is no
rhyme except at the seventh measure, the verse should remain undivided.
Thus:
Turn, gentle hermit of the glen, | and guide thy lonely way
To where yon taper cheers the vale | with hospitable ray--
constitute a single couplet of two lines, the number of rhymes being two.
But,
Turn, gentle hermit of the dale,
And guide thy lonely way
To where yon taper cheers the vale
With hospitable ray--(GOLDSMITH)
constitute a stanza of four lines, the number of rhymes being four.
15. _Ballad stanza._--Service metre broken up in the way just indicated.
Goldsmith's Edwin and Angelina, &c.
16. _Poulterer's measure._--Alexandrines and service metre alternately.
Found in the poetry of Henry the Eighth's time.
* * * * *
PART VII.
THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 541. Certain parts of England are named as if their population were
preeminently _Saxon_ rather than _Angle_; viz., Wes-sex ( = West _Saxons_),
Es-sex ( = East _Saxons_), Sus-sex ( = South _Saxons_), and Middle-sex, ( =
Middle _Saxons_).
Others are named as if their population were preeminently _Angle_ rather
than _Saxon_; thus, the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk once constituted
the kingdom of the East Angles, and even at the present moment, are often
spoken of as _East Anglia_.
§ 542. It is safe to say that the dialects of the English language do _not_
coincide with the distribution of these terms. That parts of the Angle
differ from parts of the Saxon districts in respect to the character of
their provincialisms is true; but it is by no means evident that they
differ on that account.
Thus, that the dialect of Hampshire, which was part of Wes-sex, should
differ from that of Norfolk, which was part of East _Anglia_, is but
natural. There is a great space of country between them--a fact sufficient
to account for their respective characteristics, without assuming an
original difference of population. Between the _Saxons_ of Es-sex and the
_Anglians_ of Suffolk, no one has professed to find any notable difference.
Hence, no division of the English dialects into those of _Saxon_ or those
of _Angle_ origin, has been successful.
Neither have any peculiarities in the dialect of Kent, or the Isle of
Wight, verified the notion of the population for those parts having been
originally _Jute_.
Nor yet has any portion of England been shown by the evidence of its
dialects, to have been _Frisian_.
§ 543. Yet the solution of such problems is one of the great objects of the
study of provincial modes of speech.
§ 544. That _Jute_ characteristics will be sought in vain is the inference
from §§ 7-13.
That differential points between the _Angles_ and _Saxons_ will be sought
in vain is also probable.
On the other hand, differential points between the _Frisians_ and _Angles_
are likely to be discovered.
§ 545. The traces of the Danes, or Northmen, are distinct; the following
forms of local names being _primâ facie_ evidence (at least) of Danish or
Norse occupancy.
a. The combination Sk-, rather than the sound of Sh-, in such names as
Skip-ton, rather than Ship-ton.
b. The combination Ca-, rather than Ch-, in such names as Carl-ton rather
than Charl-ton.
c. The termination -by ( = _town_, _habitation_, _occupancy_,) rather than
-ton, as Ash-by, Demble-by, Spills-by, Grims-by, &c.
d. The form _Kirk_ rather than _Church_.
e. The form _Orm_ rather than _Worm_, as in _Orms-head_.
In _Orms-kirk_ and _Kir-by_ we have a combination of Danish
characteristics.
§ 546. In respect to their distribution, the Danish forms are--
At their _maximum_ on the sea-coast of Lincolnshire; i.e., in the parts
about Spills-by.
Common, but less frequent, in Yorkshire, the Northern counties of England,
the South-eastern parts of Scotland, Lancashire, (_Ormskirk_, _Horn-by_),
and parts of South Wales (_Orms-head_, _Ten-by_).
In Orkney, and the northern parts of Scotland, the Norse had originally the
same influence that the Anglo-Saxon had in the south.--See the chapter of
the Lowland Scotch.
This explains the peculiar distribution of the Norse forms. Rare, or
non-existent, in central and southern England, they appear on the opposite
sides of the island, and on its northern extremity; showing that the stream
of the Norse population went _round the island rather than across it_.
§ 547. Next to the search after traces of the original differences in the
speech of the Continental invaders of Great Britain, the question as to the
origin of the _written_ language of England is the most important.
Mr. Guest has given good reasons for believing it to have arisen out of a
Mercian, rather than a West-Saxon dialect--although of the _Anglo-Saxon_
the West-Saxon was the most cultivated form.
This is confirmed by the present state of the Mercian dialects.
The country about Huntingdon and Stamford is, in the mind of the present
writer, that part of England where provincial peculiarities are at the
_minimum_. This may be explained in various ways, of which none is
preferable to the doctrine, that the dialect for those parts represents the
dialect out of which the literary language of England became developed.
Such are the chief problems connected with the study of the provincial
dialects of England; the exhibition of the methods applicable to their
investigation not being considered necessary in a work like the present.
NOTE.
That _Saxon_ was the _British_ name of the Germanic invaders of Great
Britain is certain.--See § 45.
The reasons which induce me to consider it as _exclusively_ British,
i.e., as foreign to the Angles, are as follows,--
a. No clear distinction has ever been drawn between, e.g., an _Angle_
of Suffolk, and a _Saxon_ of Essex.
b. The Romans who knew, for some parts at least, every inch of the land
occupied by the Saxons of Germany, as long as there is reason for
believing that they took their names from German sources, never use the
word. It is strange to Cæsar, Strabo, Pliny, and Tacitus. Ptolemy is
the first who uses it.
c. Ecbert, who is said to have attached the name of _Engl_and, or Land
of _Angles_, to South Britain, was, himself, no _Angle_, but a
West-Saxon.[66]
* * * * *
QUESTIONS ON PARTS IV. V. VI. and VII.
PART IV.
1. What is Johnson's explanation of the word _Etymology_? Into what
varieties does the study fall? What is the difference between
_Etymology_ and _Syntax_?
2. How far are the following words instances of gender--_boy_,
_he-goat_, _actress_, _which_? Analyze the forms _what_, _her_, _its_,
_vixen_, _spinster_, _gander_, _drake_.
3. How far is there a dual number in the Gothic tongues? What is the
rule for forming such a plural as _stags_ from _stag_? What are the
peculiarities in _monarchs_, _cargoes_, _keys_, _pence_, _geese_,
_children_, _women_, _houses_, _paths_, _leaves_? Of what number are
the words _alms_, _physics_, _news_, _riches_?
4. To what extent have we in English a dative, an accusative, and
instrumental case? Disprove the doctrine that the genitive in -s (_the
father's son_) is formed out of the combination _father his_.
5. Decline _me_, _thee_, and _ye_.
6. How far is there a true reflective pronoun in English?
7. What were the original powers and forms of _she_, _her_, _it_? What
case is _him_? What is the power and origin of _the_ in such
expressions as _all the more_? Decline _he_ in Anglo-Saxon. Investigate
the forms _these_ and _those_, _whose_, _what_, _whom_, _which_,
_myself_, _himself_, _herself_, _such_, _every_.
8. What is the power (real or supposed) of the -er in _over_, and in
_either_?
9. What words in the present English are explained by the following
forms--_sutiza_ in Moeso-Gothic, and _scearpor_, _neah_, _yldre_, in
Anglo-Saxon? Explain the forms, _better_, _worse_, _more_, _less_.
10. Analyze the words _former_, _next_, _upmost_, _thirty_,
_streamlet_, _sweetheart_, _duckling_.
11. Translate _Ida wæs Eopping_. Analyze the word _Wales_.
12. Exhibit the extent to which the noun partakes of the character of
the verb, and _vice versâ_. What were the Anglo-Saxon forms of, _I can
call_, _I begin to call_?
13. Investigate the forms, _drench_, _raise_, _use_ (the verb),
_clothe_.
14. _Thou speakest_. What is the peculiarity of the form? _We loven_,
_we love_, account for this.
15. _Thou rannest_ = (_tu cucurristi_). Is this an unexceptionable
form? if not, why?
16. What are the _moods_ in English? What the _tenses_? How far is the
division of verbs into weak and strong tenses natural? Account for the
double forms _swam_ and _swum_. Enumerate the other verbs in the same
class. Explain the forms _taught_, _wrought_, _ought_, _did_, (from
_do_ = _facio_), _did_ (from _do_ = _valeo_), _minded_.
17. Define the term _irregular_, so as to raise the number of irregular
verbs, in English, to more than a hundred. Define the same term, so as
to reduce them to none. Explain the form _could_.
18. What is the construction of _meseems_ and _methinks_? Illustrate
the _future_ power of be. _Werden_ in German means _become_--in what
form does the word appear in English?
19. _To err is human_,--_the rising_ in the North. Explain these
constructions. Account for the second -r in _forlorn_; and for the y in
y_cleped_.
20. Explain the difference between _composite_ and _de-composite_
words, _true_ and _improper compounds_. Analyze the word _nightingale_.
21. How far are adverbs inflected? Distinguish between a _preposition_
and a _conjunction_.
22. Explain the forms _there_, _thence_, _yonder_, and _anon_.
23. What part of speech is _mine_?
24. What is the probable origin of the -d in such preterites as
call-ed.
PART V.
1. Explain the terms _Syntax_, _Ellipsis_, _Pleonasm_, _Zeugma_, _Pros
to semainomenon_, _Apposition_, and _Convertibility_, giving
illustrations of each.
2. What is the government of adjectives?
3. What is the construction in--
a. Rob _me_ the Exchequer.--SHAKSPEARE.
b. Mount _ye_ on horseback.
c. _His_ mother.
d. If the salt have lost _his_ savour.
e. Myself _is_ weak.
f. This is _mine_.
4. What are the concords between the relative and antecedent? How far
is, _whom_ do they say that I am, an exceptionable expression?
5. _Eteocles and Polynices killed each other._ What is the construction
here? _Ils se battaient, l'un l'autre_--_Ils se battaient, les uns les
autres._ Translate these two sentences into English. _My wife and
little ones are well._ What is the origin of the word _ones_ here? _It
_was_ those who spoke_. _These _was_ those who spoke_. Why is one of
those expressions correct, and the other incorrect?
6. What is the difference between--
_The_ secretary and treasurer,
and
_The_ secretary and _the_ treasurer?
What is that between--
The first two--
and
The two first?
7. What is the construction of--
He sleeps the sleep of the righteous?
8. Whether do you say--It is I your master who command you, or It is I
your master who commands you!
9. Barbican it _hight_. Translate this into Latin.
10. Explain in full the following constructions--
a. I have ridden a horse.
b. I am to blame.
c. I am beaten.
d. A part of the body.
e. All fled but John.
11. What is meant by the _Succession of Tenses_? Show the logical
necessity of it.
12. Or _hear'st_ thou rather pure ethereal stream,
Whose fountain _who can_ tell?--MILTON.
Give the meaning of this passage, and explain the figure of speech
exhibited in the words in Italics.
13. The _door_ being open the steed was stolen.--In what case is
_door_?
PART VI.
1. The way was long, the wind was cold. Express the metre of this
symbolically.
2. Define _rhyme_.
3. Give instances of _Service metre_, _Blank heroics_, _Alexandrines_.
PART VII.
1. How far do the present dialects of England coincide with the parts,
that took their names from the _Angles_ and the _Saxons_ respectively.
2. What traces of Danish or Norse occupancy do we find in local names?
* * * * *
NOTES.
* * * * *
[1] The immediate authority for these descents, dates, and localities is
Sharon Turner. They are nearly the same as those which are noticed in Mr.
Kemble's _Saxons in England_. In the former writer, however, they are given
as historical facts; in the latter they are subjected to criticism, and
considered as exceptionable.
[2] It is from Beda that the current opinions as to the details of the
Anglo-Saxon invasion are taken; especially the threefold division into
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These migrations were so large and numerous that
the original country of the Angles was left a desert. The distribution of
the three divisions over the different parts of England was also Beda's.
The work of this important writer--the great luminary of early England--is
the _Historia Ecclesiastica_, a title which prepares us for a great
preponderance of the ecclesiastical over the secular history.
Now Beda's date was the middle of the eighth century.
And his locality was the monastery of Wearmouth, in the county of Durham.
Both of these facts must be borne in mind when we consider the value of his
authority, i.e., his means of knowing, as determined by the conditions of
time and place.
Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons of Kent A.D. 597. For
the times between them and A.D. 740, we have in Mr. Kemble's _Codex
Diplomaticus_ eighty-five charters, all in Latin, and most of them of
uncertain authenticity. They are chiefly grants of different kings of Kent,
Wessex, the Hwiccas, Mercia, and Northumberland, a few being of Bishops.
[3] Gildas was a _British_ ecclesiastic, as Beda was an _English_ one. His
locality was North Wales: his time earlier than Beda's by perhaps one
hundred years.
He states that he was born the year of the _pugna Badonica_, currently
called the _Battle of Bath_.
Now a chronological table called _Annales Cambrenses_, places that event
within one hundred years of the supposed landing of Hengist.
But there is no reason for believing this to be a cotemporary entry. Hence,
all that can be safely said of Gildas is that he was about as far removed
from the seat of the Germanic invasions, in locality, as Beda, whilst in
point of time he was nearer.
As a writer he is far inferior, being pre-eminently verbose, vague, and
indefinite.
_Gildas_, as far as he states facts at all, gives the _British_ account of
the conquest.
No other documents have come down to our time.
Beda's own authorities--as we learn from his introduction--were certain of
the most learned bishops and abbots of his cotemporaries, of whom he sought
special information as to the antiquities of their own establishments. Of
cotemporary writers, in the way of authority, there is no mention.
For the times between the "accredited date of Hengist and Horsa's landing
(A.D. 449) and A.D. 597 (a period of about one hundred and fifty years) the
only authorities are a few quotations from Solinus, Gildas, and a Legendary
Life of St. Germanus."--_Saxons in Engl._ i. 27.
[4] This account is from Jornandes, who is generally considered as the
chief repertory of the traditions respecting the Gothic populations. He
lived about A.D. 530. The Gepidæ were said to be the _laggards_ of the
migration, and the vessel which carried them to have been left behind: and
as _gepanta_ in their language meant _slow_, their name is taken therefrom.
[5] Widukind was a monk of Corvey in Flanders, who wrote the
Ecclesiastical History of his monastery.
[6] Geoffry of Monmouth, like Gildas, is a _British_ authority. His date
was the reign of Henry II. The _Welsh_ traditions form the staple of
Geoffry's work, for which it is the great repertory.
[7] The _date_ of this was the reign of Marcus Antoninus. Its _place_, the
Danubian provinces of Rhætia, and Pannonia. It was carried on by the
Germans of the _frontier_ or _march_--from whence the name--in alliance
with the Jazyges, who were undoubtedly Slavonic, and the Quadi, who were
probably so. Its details are obscure--the chief authority being Dio
Cassius.
[8] The reign of Valentinian was from A.D. 365 to A.D. 375.
[9] The date of this has been variously placed in A.D. 438, and between
A.D. 395 and A.D. 407. Either is earlier than A.D. 449.
[10] The Saxon Chronicle consists of a series of entries from the earliest
times to the reign of King Stephen, each under its year: the year of the
Anglo-Saxon invasion being the usual one, i.e., A.D. 449. The value of such
a work depends upon the extent to which the chronological entries are
cotemporaneous with the events noticed. Where this is the case, the
statement is of the highest historical value; where, however, it is merely
taken from some earlier authority, or from a tradition, it loses the
character of a _register_, and becomes merely a series of dates--correct or
incorrect as the case may be. Where the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle really begins
to be a cotemporaneous register is uncertain--all that is certain being
that it _is_ so for the _latest_, and is _not_ so for _earliest_ entries.
The notices in question come under the former class. The Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle had been edited by the Master of Trinity College, Oxford (Dr.
Ingram), and analyzed by Miss Gurney.
[11] Asserius was a learned Welsh ecclesiastic who was invited by King
Alfred into Wessex, and employed by that king as one of his associates and
assistants in civilizing and instructing his subjects. Several works are
mentioned as having been written by Asserius, but the only one extant is
his history of King Alfred, which is a chronicle of various events between
the year of Alfred's birth, A.D. 849, to A.D. 889.
Asserius is supposed to have died Bishop of Sherborne, A.D. 910.
[12] The compounds of the Anglo-Saxon word _ware_ = _occupants_,
_inhabitants_, are too numerous to leave any doubt as to this, and several
other, derivations. _Cant-ware_ = _Cant-icolæ_ = _people of Kent_:
_Hwic-ware_ = _Hviccas_ = _the people_ of parts of Worcestershire,[67]
Glostershire, and (to judge from the name) of _War-wick_shire also.
[13] The Annales Saxonici, or Saxon Chronicles, embrace the history of
Britain, between the landing of Cæsar and the accession of Henry II. They
are evidently the work of various and successive writers, who were Saxon
ecclesiastics. But nothing certain can be affirmed of the authors of their
respective portions.--See Note 10.
[14] See Note 2.
[15] Adam of Bremen was a Minor Canon of the Cathedral of Bremen, about
the years 1067-1077. He travelled in Denmark, and was in great favour with
King Sweyn of that country. He wrote an Ecclesiastical History of the
spread of Christianity in the North, to which he appended a description of
the geography, population, and archæology of Denmark and the neighbouring
countries.
[16] Ethelward was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman, who wrote a chronicle of
events from the creation of the world to the death of King Edgar, A.D. 875.
[17] The following is a specimen of the Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, in
metre. It is part of a rustic song, supposed to be sung by a peasant on his
return from a wedding feast. Date about A.D. 1650.
"Swíet, ja swíet, is't oer 'e míete,
'T boáskiere fóar é jonge lie,
Kreftich swíet is't, sizz ik jiette,
As it giet mei alders ríe.
Mai óars tiget 'et to 'n pléach,
As ik óan myn geafeunt seach."
Translation of the same from Bosworth's _Anglo-Saxon Dictionary_, p.
lxxiii.
"Sweet, yes, sweet is over (_beyond_) measure,
The marrying for the young lede (_people_);
Most sweet is it, I say yet (_once more_),
When (_as_) it goes with the rede (_counsel_) of the elders.
But otherwise it tends to a plague,
As I saw on (_by the example of_) my village fellow."
[18] Of the early constitution of states of East Friesland, we have a
remarkable illustration in the old Frisian Laws. These are in the native
Frisian tongue, and, except that they represent republican rather than
monarchical institutions, are similar in form, in spirit, to the Saxon.
[19] The great blow against the sovereignty of Rome, and the one which
probably prevented Germany from becoming a Roman province, was struck by
the Cheruscan Arminius against Quintilius Varus, in the reign of Augustus.
The date of the organized insurrection of Arminius was A.D. 9; the place,
the neighbourhood of Herford, or Engern, in Westphalia. Drawn into an
inpracticable part of the country, the troops of Varus were suddenly
attacked and cut to pieces--consisting of more than three legions. "Never
was victory more decisive, never was the liberation of an oppressed people
more instantaneous and complete. Throughout Germany the Roman garrisons
were assailed and cut off; and, within a few weeks after Varus had fallen,
the German soil was freed from the foot of an invader.
"Had Arminius been supine or unsuccessful, our Germanic ancestors would
have been enslaved or exterminated in their original seats along the Eyder
and the Elbe. This island would never have borne the name of England, and
we, this great English nation, whose race and language are now overrunning
the earth, from one end of it to the other, would have been utterly cut off
from existence."[68]
[20] _Heliand_ is the gerund from _helian_ = _heal_, and means _the
Healer_ or _Saviour_. It is the name of an old Saxon poem, in alliterative
metre, of the tenth or eleventh century, in the dialect supposed to have
belonged to the parts about Essen, Cleves, and Munster in Westphalia. It is
a sort of Gospel Harmony, or Life of Christ, taken from the Gospels. It has
been edited by Schmeller.
[21] Hildubrand and Hathubrant, father and son, are two legendary heroes
belonging to that cycle of German fiction of which Theodoric of Verona is
the centre. A fragment containing an account of their hostile meeting,
being mutually unknown, in alliterative metre, represents the _fictional_
poetry of the old Saxons in the same way (though not to the same extent)
that the Heliand represents their sacred poetry. The "Hildubrand and
Hathubrant" have been edited by Grimm.
[22] In a language which for a long time was considered to be the Dutch of
Holland in its oldest known form, there is an imperfect translation of the
Psalms; referred by the best writers on the subject to the reign of
Charlemagne, and thence called the Carolinian Psalms. The best text of this
is to be found in a Dutch periodical, the _Taalkundig Magazijn_.
[23] _Beowulf_ is by far the most considerable poem, not only in
Anglo-Saxon, but in any old Gothic tongue. It has been admirably edited and
translated by Mr. Kemble. The subject is the account of Beowulf, an Angle
hero--Angle but not English, as the scene of the poem is on the Continent.
In its present form it shows traces of the revision of some Christian
writer: the basis, however, of its subject, and the manners it describes,
are essentially Pagan. The most remarkable feature in the poem is the fact
that no allusion is made to England--so that, _Anglo_-Saxon as the work
is--it belongs to the Anglo-Saxons of Germany before they became English.
[24] A Gospel Harmony translated from the one of Tatian, exists in a
dialect too little purely High German, to pass absolutely as such, yet less
_Low_ German than the Dutch of Holland. This belongs to the _Middle_ Rhine,
and is called _Frank_.
[25] The Alemannic is the German of the _Upper_ Rhine; the dialect out of
which the Bavarian and Swiss grew. Its chief specimens occur in--
a. _The Glosses of Kero_--
b. _The Psalms_ by a monk named _Notker_.
c. A life of _Anno_ of Cologne.
d. The Song of Solomon, by Willeram.
e. _Musrpilli_, an alliterative poem.
f. _Krist_, a life of Christ, by Otford, and others less important.
Most of these (along with Tatian), are to be found in Schilter's
_Thesaurus_.
(Original footnotes)
[26] In Hampshire.
[27] In Northern Germany.
[28] The Eyder.
[29] See §§ 21-29.
[30] Saxons _North of the Elbe_ (_Albis_).
[31] See Notes 17 and 18.
[32] De Mor. Germ. 40.
[33] Meaning _ditch_
[34] This list is taken from Smart's valuable and logical English Grammar.
[35] As in _Shotover Hill_, near Oxford.
[36] As in _Jerusalem artichoke_.
[37] A sort of silk.
[38] _Ancient Cassio_--"Othello."
[39]
Be she constant, be she fickle,
Be she flame, or be she _ickle_.--SIR C. SEDLEY.
[40] Or _periphrastic_.
[41] That of the verb substantive, _if I were_, subjunctive, as opposed to
_I was_, indicative.
[42] This by no means implies that such was the power of [sigma], [zeta],
[gamma], [kappa], in Greek. They are merely convenient symbols.
[43] As a _name_, _Sigma = Samech_.
[44] Of the Hebrew and Greek tables.
[45] In _thin_.
[46] In _thine_.
[47] Write one letter twice.
[48] This explains the words, "Whatever they may have been originally," and
"to a certain extent," in § 212.
[49] Used as adverbs.
[50] Used as the plurals of _he_, _she_, and _it_.
[51] Different from _ilk_.
[52] Or _call-s_.
[53] _Thou sangest_, _thou drankest_, &c.--For a reason given in the
sequel, these forms are less exceptionable than _sungest_, _drunkest_, &c.
[54] The forms marked thus * are either obsolete or provincial.
[55] Obsolete.
[56] Sounded _wun_.
[57] Pronounced _ment_.
[58] Pronounced _herd_.
[59] Pronounced _sed_.
[60] So pronounced.
[61] Pronounced _leevd_, _cleevd_, _bereevd_, _deeld_, _feeld_, _dreemd_,
_lernd_.
[62] Pronounced _delt_.
[63] Found rarely; _bist_ being the current form.--"Deutsche Grammatik," i.
894.
[64] Notwithstanding the extent to which a relative may take the appearance
of a conjunction, there is always one unequivocal method of deciding its
true nature. The relative is always a _part_ of the second proposition. A
conjunction is _no part_ of either.
[65] "Latin Prose Composition," p. 123.
[66] This is worked out more fully in the "Germany of Tacitus, with
Ethnological Notes," by the present author.
[67] Preserved in the name of the town Wick-war.
[68] "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World," by Professor Creasy.
* * * * *
Elements of Moral Philosophy:
ANALYTICAL, SYNTHETICAL, AND PRACTICAL.
BY HUBBARD WINSLOW.
12mo. 480 pages. Price $1 50.
This work is an original and thorough examination of the fundamental laws
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_From the _REV. THOMAS H. SKINNER, D.D._, of the Union Theol. Sem.,
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* * * * *
A History of Philosophy:
AN EPITOME.
BY DR. ALBERT SCHWEGLER.
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN, BY JULIUS H. SEELYE.
12mo. 365 pages. Price $1 50.
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Class-Book of Physiology.
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* * * * *
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Webster's Quarto Dictionary.
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[Illustration]
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[Illustration]
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[Illustration]
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* * * * *
Corrections made to printed original.
Contents 83--90. "Miscellaneous elements": 'Miscellaneons' in original.
Contents 366. "Peacock, peahen": 'peahern' in original.
Contents 416. "Zeugma": 'Leugma' in original.
§ 29. "rather than the Anglo-Saxon itself": 'than' missing in original.
§ 40. Sing. Gen. "Túngunnar": 'Túngunnor' in original (this doesn't match
the previous table, also checked in Cleasby & Vigfusson's Icelandic-English
Dictionary).
§ 74. "They relate chiefly": 'The relate' in original.
§ 87. "The history of the language of the United States is the history of a
Germanic language.": 'languages of the United States' in original, but the
sense seems to need the singular, viz. American English.
§ 87. "gadus lota, or eel-pout": 'ell-pout' in original.
§ 100. 1. "Of the dative singular the e is retained": 'sing-gular' in
original across line break.
§ 135. "or thus, riv-er, feve-r": 'fe-ver' in original (cannot be right as
it is being contrasted to the previous 'fe-ver').
§ 136. "Let, however, the n and the t of note": 'not' in original but is
being contrasted to the 'not' in the previous sentence.
§ 155. "it may be replaced by k": 'is may be ...' in original.
§ 159. "The letters x and q": 'The letter ...' in original.
§ 161. (Table of names) "17. Pe ... Pi": '17. Pi ... Phi' in original, but
compare the preceding table and § 175.
§ 163. 16. (Hebrew) "Pe": 'Phi' in original, but compare § 175.
"§ 176." '§ 175' in original.
§ 199 c. "as if written peace": 'as is ...' in original.
§ 222. "it is me = it is I": 'it is me it = is I' in original.
§ 235. Compound pronouns. 3. "some such word as ei": 'some such wore ...'
in original.
"§ 259." '§ 250' in original.
§ 267. "the words lambkin, ...": 'the works ...' in original.
§ 272. "the termination -ing": 'terminations ...' in original.
§ 290. Anglo-Saxon. "Swang ... swungon": 'Swang ... swangon' in original.
§ 308. "Þencan, þóhte.": 'Þeecan, þóhte.' in original.
§ 316. "the Latin word audeo": 'auedo' in original.
§ 322. 4. "As early as A.D. 1085": 'nearly' in original.
§ 324. "The current rule of the common grammarians is ...": 'is' missing in
original.
§ 354. "by the word rose prefixed.": 'the word tree' in original.
§ 383. "The full amount of change in this respect": 'repect' in original.
§ 397. a. "Anglo-Saxon mec and þec": 'mec and pec' in original.
§ 408. "sôk-idêdun, from sôk-ja": 'sôk-iddêun' in original.
§ 418. "the words Roman emperor": 'word' in original.
§ 421. "the word speak is an infinitive": 'in an infinitive' in original.
§ 433. "villainouser": 'villanouser' in original.
§ 455. "4.": '3.' in original.
§ 508. 2. "lest he fall upon us with pestilence.": 'us' missing in original
(KJV Exod. v. 3.)
§ 540. 5. "Blank verse.--Five measures": 'Pive measures' in original.
§ 540. 8. "leaves the world to darkness and to me": 'leaves the word ...'
in original.