ADVERBS.
§ 374. _Adverbs._--The adverbs are capable of being classified after a
variety of principles.
Firstly, they may be divided according to their meaning. In this case we
speak of the adverbs of _time_, _place_, _number_, _manner_.
§ 375. _Well_, _better_, _ill_, _worse_.--Here we have a class of adverbs
expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs of this kind are capable of
taking an inflection, viz., that of the comparative and superlative
degrees.
_Now_, _then_, _here_, _there_.--In the idea expressed by these words there
are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs of this kind are incapable of taking
any inflection.
Adverbs differ from nouns and verbs in being susceptible of one sort of
inflection only, viz., that of degree.
§ 376. Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to their form and origin.
_Better_, _worse_.--Here the words are sometimes adverbs; sometimes
adjectives.--_This book is better than that_--here _better_ agrees with
_book_, and is, therefore, adjectival. _This looks better than that_--here
_better_ qualifies _looks_, and is therefore adverbial. Again; _to do a
thing with violence_ is equivalent _to do a thing violently_. This shows
how adverbs may arise out of cases. In words like the English _better_, the
Latin _vi_ = _violenter_, the Greek [Greek: kalon] = [Greek: kalôs], we
have adjectives in their degrees, and substantives in their cases, with
adverbial powers. In other words, nouns are deflected from their natural
sense to an adverbial one. Adverbs of this kind are adverbs of
_deflection_.
_Brightly_, _bravely_.--Here an adjective is rendered adverbial by the
addition of the derivative syllable -ly. Adverbs like _brightly_, &c., may
be called adverbs of _derivation_.
_Now_.--This word has not satisfactorily been shown to have originated as
any other part of speech but as an adverb. Words of this sort are adverbs
_absolute_.
§ 377. _When_, _now_, _well_, _worse_, _better_--here the adverbial
expression consists in a single word, and is _simple_. _To-day_,
_yesterday_, _not at all_, _somewhat_--here the adverbial expression
consists of a compound word, or a phrase. This indicates the division of
adverbs into _simple_ and _complex_.
§ 378. Adverbs of deflection may originally have been--
a. _Substantive_; as _needs_ in such expressions as _I needs must go_.
b. _Adjectives_; as the _sun shines bright_.
c. _Prepositions_; as _I go in_, _we go out_; though, it should be added,
that in this case we may as reasonably derive the preposition from the
adverb as the adverb from the preposition.
§ 379. Adjectives of deflection derived from substantives may originally
have been--
a. _Substantives in the _genitive_ case_; as _needs_.
b. _Substantives in the _dative_ case_; as _whil-om_, an antiquated word
meaning _at times_, and often improperly spelt _whilome_. In such an
expression as _wait a while_, the word still exists; and _while_ = _time_,
or rather _pause_; since, in Danish, _hvile_ = _rest_.
_El-se_ (for _ell-es_); _unawar-es_; _eftsoon-s_ are _adjectives_ in the
genitive case. _By rights_ is a word of the same sort; the -s being the
sign of the genitive singular like the -s in _father's_, and not of the
accusative plural like the -s in _fathers_.
_Once_ (_on-es_); _twice_ (_twi-es_); _thrice_ (_thri-es_) are _numerals_
in the genitive case.
§ 380. _Darkling_.--This is no participle of a verb _darkle_, but an adverb
of derivation, like _unwaringûn_ = _unawares_, Old High German; _stillinge_
= _secretly_, Middle High German; _blindlings_ = _blindly_, New High
German; _darnungo_ = _secretly_, Old Saxon; _nichtinge_ = _by night_,
Middle Dutch; _blindeling_ = _blindly_, New Dutch; _bæclinga_ =
_backwards_, _handlunga_ = _hand to hand_, Anglo-Saxon; and, finally,
_blindlins_, _backlins_, _darklins_, _middlins_, _scantlins_, _stridelins_,
_stowlins_, in Lowland Scotch.
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