interesting collection of facts relative to Italian rural conditions.
The extent to which the phenomena of antiquity reappear in the details
of this careful treatise is most striking. Italy being the central land
of my inquiry, and convinced as I am that the great variety of local
conditions is even now not sufficiently recognized in Roman Histories,
this excellent book is of peculiar value. In the course of (say) fifteen
centuries Italy and her people have passed through strange vicissitudes,
not merely political: a great change has taken place in the range of
agricultural products: yet old phenomena of rural life meet the inquirer
at every turn. Surely this cannot be dismissed lightly as a casual
coincidence. I cannot find room to set out the resemblances in detail,
so I append a short table of reference to passages in the book that have
impressed me most. Supplementary to this, as a vivid illustration of
conditions in a mountain district, the first three chapters of _In the
Abruzzi_, by =Anne Macdonell=, are decidedly helpful. For instance, it
appears that the old migratory pasturage still existed in full force down
to quite recent times, but the late conversion of much Apulian lowland
from pasture to tillage has seriously affected the position of the
highland shepherds by reducing the area available for winter grazing. The
chapter on brigandage has also some instructive passages.
REFERENCES TO _Italy today_.
Peasant contrasted with wage-earner, pp 64-6, 72, 74, 126, 166-8,
171-2, 175-6, 200, 312, and Index under _mezzaiuoli_ and _peasants_.
Agricultural classes, pp 164-6. Partiaries, pp 168, 173. Emphyteusis, p
173. Improvements, p 173. Farming through steward, pp 174-5. Tenancies,
pp 168-74, and Index under _peasants_. Rents in kind, p 171. Debt of
various classes, pp 182-4, 366, 376. Taxes, p 140. Gangs of labourers, pp
166, 376. Wages, pp 126, 128, 168, 174, 366, 369-71. Food in wage, p 370.
Emigration, pp 371, 396. Self-help in rural districts, pp 184-6, 376.
Charities, pp 220 foll, 379 foll. Socialists and Peasantry, pp 64-6, 170,
172, cf 71-2.
(3) =R E Prothero=, _The pleasant land of France_. London 1908.
Chapters (essays) II and III, _French farming_ and _Tenant-right and
agrarian outrage in France_, contain much of interest.
pp 91-2 Social advantages of the system of peasant proprietors. A
training[1829] to the rural population. Element of stability. The answer
to agitators ‘Cela est bien, mais il faut cultiver notre jardin.’
Difficulties which beset its artificial creation. _Métayage_ (under
present conditions) has proved the best shelter for tenant-farmers
against the agricultural storm. Need of implicit confidence between
landlord and working partner.
pp 98-9 Tenant-right in Santerre (Picardy). Tenant considers himself
a co-proprietor of the land. Former payment of rent in kind taken to
be a sign of joint ownership. Now in money, but calculated upon market
price of corn. Landlord’s loss of control. High money value of _droit de
marché_.
p 104 Traces of Roman occupation. Roman soldier followed by farmer.
‘Under the empire the _colonus_ was not a slave, but the owner of
slaves: he held his land in perpetuity; he could not leave it. He paid
a fixed rent in kind, which could not be raised. Tenant-right therefore
is explained as the recognition by the Frankish conquerors of this
hereditary claim to the perpetual occupation of the soil.’ [One of the
various explanations offered.]
p 119 Severe legislation failed to get rid of tenant-right, but since
1791 it has been recognized, and so its importance decreased. Under the
_ancien régime_ leases were short—9 years—and precarious. They were
governed by the Roman law maxim _emptori fundi necesse non est stare
colonum_. That is, if property changed hands during the continuance
of the lease, the new owner might evict the tenant. The _Code Civil_
confirms law of 1791—dispossession only if provision has been made (in
lease) for it.
In general, land-tenures vary very greatly in the various provinces.
(4) =G G Coulton=, _Social life in Britain from the Conquest to the
Reformation_. Cambridge 1918.
In Section VI _Manor and Cottage_ are a number of extracts throwing light
on the rustic conditions of their times.
1. _A model Manor_ pp 301-6, describing the organization
of an estate, with the duties of the several officials and
departmental servants. Watchful diligence and economy, strict
accountability and honesty are insisted on, that the rights of
the Lord may not be impaired.
2. _The Manorial court_, pp 306-8.
3. _The peasant’s fare_, p 308.
4. _Incidents of the countryside_, p 309.
7. _Decay of yeomanry_, pp 310-12. (Latimer.)
8. _Decay of husbandry_, pp 312-14. (Sir T More.)
All these passages are of great interest as shewing how a number of
phenomena observable in the case of ancient estates are repeated under
medieval conditions. The typical Manor with its elaborate hierarchy
and rules, the struggles of the small yeoman, the encroachments of big
landlords, the special difficulties of small-scale tillage caused by
growth of large-scale pasturage, the increase of wastrels and sturdy
beggars, are all notable points, worthy the attention of a student of
ancient farm life and labour.
THE BIG MAN AND THE SMALL FARMER.
(5) =Clifton Johnson=, _From the St Lawrence to Virginia_. New York 1913,
p 21. Chapter on the Adirondack winter.
(_Conversation in an up-country store._)
‘I worked for Rockefeller most of that season. You know he has a big
estate down below here a ways. There used to be farmhouses—yes and
villages on it, but he bought the owners all out, or froze ’em out. One
feller was determined not to sell, and as a sample of how things was made
uncomfortable for him I heard tell that two men came to his house once
and made him a present of some venison. They had hardly gone when the
game warden dropped in and arrested him for havin’ venison in his house.
All such tricks was worked on him, and he spent every cent he was worth
fighting lawsuits. People wa’n’t allowed to fish on the property, and the
women wa’n’t allowed to pick berries on it. A good deal of hard feeling
was stirred up, and Rockefeller would scoot from the train to his house,
and pull the curtains down, ’fraid they’d shoot him. Oh! he was awful
scairt.’
EASTERN EUROPE.
(6) =Marion L Newbigin DSc=, _Geographical aspects of Balkan problems_.
London 1915.
_Turks_—‘not all their virtues, not all their military strength, have
saved them from the slow sapping of vitality due to their divorce alike
from the actual tilling of the land and from trade and commerce.... He
has been within the (Balkan) peninsula a parasite, chiefly upon the
ploughing peasant, and the effect has been to implant in the mind of that
peasant a passion for agriculture, for the undisturbed possession of a
patch of freehold, which is probably as strong here as it has ever been
in the world.’ p 137.
_Thessaly_—‘the landowners are almost always absentees, appearing only
at the time of harvest’ (originally Turks, now mostly Greeks) ‘who have
taken little personal interest in the land’ (no great improvement in
condition of cultivator). (So in Bosnia—better in Serbia and Bulgaria)
‘lands mostly worked by the peasants on the half-shares system.’ p 175.
_Albania_—(poverty extreme—temporary emigration of the males, frequent in
poor regions) ‘young Albˢ often leave their country during the winter,
going to work in Greece or elsewhere as field labourers, and returning to
their mountains in the spring.’ pp 183-4.
Generally—small holdings mostly in the Balkan states.
D. LIST OF SOME BOOKS USED.
This list does not pretend to be complete. Many other works are referred
to here and there in the notes on the text. But I feel bound to mention
the names of some, particularly those dealing with conditions that did
or still do exist in the modern world. Miscellaneous reading of this
kind has been to me a great help in the endeavour to understand the full
bearing of ancient evidence, and (I hope) to judge it fairly. It is on
the presentation and criticism of that evidence that I depend: for the
great handbooks of Antiquities do not help me much. The practice of
making a statement and giving in support of it a reference or references
is on the face of it sound. But, when the witnesses cited are authors
writing under widely various conditions of time and place and personal
circumstances, it is necessary whenever possible to appraise each one
separately. And when the aim is, not to write a technical treatise on
‘scientific’ lines, but to describe what is a highly important background
of a great civilization, a separate treatment of witnesses needs no
apology. I cannot cite in detail the references to conditions in a number
of countries, for instance India and China, but I have given them by page
or chapter so as to be consulted with ease.
(1) AGRICULTURE AND RUSTIC LIFE AND LABOUR.
M Weber, _Die Römische Agrargeschichte_, Stuttgart 1891.
C Daubeny, _Lectures on Roman husbandry_, Oxford 1857.
Ll Storr-Best, _Varro on farming_, translated with Introduction
commentary and excursus, London 1912.
E de Laveleye, _Primitive Property_, English translation 1878.
H Blümner, article ‘Landwirtschaft’ in I Müller’s _Handbuch_ VI
ii 2, ed 3 pp 533 foll.
A E Zimmern, _The Greek Commonwealth_, Oxford 1911.
Büchsenschütz, _Besitz und Erwerb_, Halle 1869.
_Columella of Husbandry_, translation (anonymous), London 1745.
(2) ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MATTERS.
Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, _passim_.
H Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, Berlin 1883-1902.
K W Nitzsch, _Geschichte der Römischen Republik_, vol II,
Leipzig 1885.
L Bloch, _Soziale Kämpfe im alten Röm_, ed III Berlin 1913.
David Hume, _Essays_, ed 1760 (Essay XI of the populousness of
antient nations).
J Beloch, _Die Bevölkerung der Griechisch-Römischen Welt_,
Leipzig 1886.
H Francotte, _L’Industrie dans la Grèce ancienne_, Bruxelles
1900-1.
O Seeck, _Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt_, Berlin
1897-1913.
O Seeck, ‘Die Schatzungsordnung Diocletians,’ in _Zeitschrift
für Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte_, Weimar 1896.
H Schiller, _Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit_, Gotha 1883-7.
S Dill, _Roman society in the last century of the Western
Empire_, London 1898.
G Gilbert, _Handbuch der Griechischen Staatsalterthümer_, vol
II, Leipzig 1885.
(3) LAW AND THE LATER COLONATE.
Several of the books named under other heads deal with legal points, for
instance Beauchet, Lipsius, Meier and Schömann, Calderini, M Clerc.
The Digest and Codex Justinianus have been used in the text of Mommsen
and P Krüger.
_The Codex Theodosianus_ in text of Mommsen and P M Meyer,
Berlin 1905 and in Ritter’s edition of Godefroi, Leipzig
1736-45.
P Girard, _Textes de droit Romain_, ed 4 Paris 1913.
F Zulueta, ‘De Patrociniis vicorum,’ in Vinogradoff’s _Oxford
Studies_, Oxford 1909.
M Rostowzew, _Studien zur Geschichte des Römischen Colonates_,
Leipzig and Berlin 1910.
B Heisterbergk, _Die Entstehung des Colonats_, Leipzig 1876.
A Esmein, _Mélanges d’histoire du Droit_, Paris 1886.
Fustel de Coulanges, ‘Le Colonat Romain,’ in his _Recherches
sur quelques problèmes d’histoire_, Paris 1885.
H F Pelham, _Essays_ (No XIII), Oxford 1911.
I am sorry that inability to procure copies has prevented me from
consulting the following works:
Beaudouin, _Les grands domaines dans l’empire Romain_, Paris
1899.
Bolkestein, _de colonatu Romano eiusque origine_, Amsterdam
1906.
(4) MANUMISSION AND KINDRED TOPICS.
A Calderini, _La manomissione e la condizione dei liberti in
Grecia_, Milan 1908.
M Clerc, _Les métèques Athéniens_, Paris 1893.
L Beauchet, _Droit privé de la République Athénienne_, Paris
1897.
J H Lipsius, _Das Attische Recht etc._, Leipzig 1905.
Meier und Schömann, _Der Attische Process_, Berlin 1883-7.
Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_.
G Haenel, _Corpus legum_, Leipzig 1857.
C G Bruns, _Fontes Iuris Romani antiqui_.
Dareste, Haussoullier, Th Reinach, _Recueil des inscriptions
juridiques Grecques_, Paris 1904. (Laws of Gortyn.)
Wescher et Foucart, _Inscriptions de Delphes_, Paris 1863.
Wilamowitz-Möllendorf, ‘Demotika der Metöken,’ in _Hermes_ 1887.
(5) SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE.
H Wallon, _Histoire de l’esclavage dans l’antiquité_, ed 2
Paris 1879.
J K Ingram, _A history of slavery and serfdom_, London 1895.
E H Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_, Cambridge 1913 (pages 438,
440, 461, 465, 471, 567).
V A Smith, _The early history of India_, Oxford 1914 (pages
100-1, 177-8, 441).
M S Evans, _Black and White in the Southern States_, London
1915.
” _Black and White in South-east Africa_, ed 2 London 1916.
J E Cairnes, _The Slave Power_, ed 2 London and Cambridge 1863.
W W Buckland, _The Roman Law of Slavery_, Cambridge 1908.
W E Hardenburg, _The Putumayo, the Devil’s Paradise_, with
extracts from Sir R Casement’s report, London and Leipzig 1912.
H W Nevinson, _A modern Slavery_, London and New York 1906.
Sidney Low, _Egypt in transition_ (see under _Medieval and
Modern conditions_).
Mrs M A Handley, _Roughing it in Southern India_, London 1911
(pages 193-4).
(6) MEDIEVAL AND MODERN CONDITIONS.
_Books illustrating matters of rustic life, peasant proprietorship,
agricultural wage-labour, etc._
Bolton King and Thomas Okey, _Italy today_, new ed London 1909.
R E Prothero, _The pleasant land of France_, London 1908
(Essays II and III).
Anne Macdonell, _In the Abruzzi_, London 1908 (chapters 1-3).
G Renwick, _Finland today_, London 1911 (pages 59, 60).
Sir J D Rees, _The real India_, London 1908.
Marion L Newbigin, _Geographical aspects of Balkan problems_,
London 1915.
Ralph Butler, _The new eastern Europe_, London 1919 (chapter
VII).
John Spargo, _Bolshevism, the enemy of political and industrial
democracy_, London 1919 (pages 69, 156, 275, 278).
W H Dawson, _The evolution of modern Germany_, London 1908
(chapters XIII, XIV).
P Vinogradoff, _The growth of the Manor_, ed 2 London 1911.
G G Coulton, _Social life in Britain from the Conquest to the
Reformation_, Cambridge 1918 (Section VI).
Mary Bateson, _Medieval England_ 1066-1350, London 1903.
Sidney Low, _Egypt in transition_, London 1914 (pages 60-2,
240-1).
Sidney Low, _A vision of India_, ed 2 London 1907 (chapter
XXIII).
Sir A Fraser, _Among Indian Rajahs and Ryots_, ed 3 London 1912
(pages 185, 191-210).
J Macgowan, _Men and Manners in modern China_, London 1912
(pages 17 foll, 189-96, 275-7).
M Augé-Laribé, _L’évolution de la France agricole_, Paris 1912.
(7) SPECIAL AMERICAN SECTION.
H Baerlein, _Mexico, the land of unrest_, London 1914 (chapters
VIII, XI).
F L Olmsted, _A journey in the seaboard slave States_ (1853-4),
ed 2 New York 1904 (pages 240, 282, vol II pages 155, 198, 237).
H R Helper, _The impending crisis of the South (economic)_, New
York 1857.
B B Munford, _Virginia’s attitude towards Slavery and
Secession_, ed 2 London 1910 (pages 133-4 etc).
W Archer, _Through Afro-America, an English reading of the
Race-problem_, London 1910.
A H Stone, _Studies in the American Race-problem_, London 1908
printed in New York.
F F Browne, _The everyday life of Abraham Lincoln_, London 1914
(pages 348-9).
G P Fisher, _The colonial era in America_, London 1892 (pages
254, 259).
J Rodway, _Guiana_, London 1912 (of Indians, pages 224-5).
J Creelman, _Diaz, Master of Mexico_, New York 1911 (pages
401-5).
E R Turner, _The Negro in Pennsylvania 1639-1861_, Washington
1911.
_Social and economic forces in American history_, New York and
London 1913 (by several authors).
J F Rhodes, _History of the United States from 1850_, London
1893-1906.
C R Enock, _The Republics of Central and South America_, London
and New York 1913.
FOOTNOTES
[1] A good specimen of such work at a late date may be found in Statius
_Silvae_ IV 3 on the _via Domitiana_ lines 40-66.
[2] For instance Diodorus V 38 § 1, Strabo XII 3 § 40 (p 562), Apuleius
_met_ IX 12.
[3] Not artistic, of course.
[4] See especially Ed Meyer _Kleine Schriften_ pp 80-212.
[5] To this question I return in the concluding chapter.
[6] A good instance is Xen _anab_ IV 1 §§ 12-14.
[7] Veget I 3.
[8] Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία cap 16, with Sandys’ notes.
[9] _Catil 4 § 1 non fuit consilium ... neque vero agrum colundo aut
venando servilibus officiis intentum aetatem agere._
[10] To this topic I return in the concluding chapter. See chapter on
Aristotle.
[11] See chapter on Cato.
[12] For the existence of this system in Modern Italy see Bolton King and
Okey _Italy today_ pp 174-5.
[13] Cic _in Catil_ II § 18. See the chapter on Cicero.
[14] Cf Valerius Maximus VII 5 § 2.
[15] For modern Italy see Appendix.
[16] Cf Caesar _B C_ I 34, 56, discussed in the chapter on Varro.
[17] _Oratio_ XV (1 pp 266-7 Dind).
[18] VI 315, XXIII 712, VII 221.
[19] XII 433-5, XXI 445, 451, X 304.
[20] XXI 444.
[21] XVIII 550.
[22] II 751.
[23] XVIII 542, 554, XI 67, XX 495-7, V 500, XIII 590.
[24] XXI 257-9.
[25] XI 68.
[26] XVIII 550-60.
[27] XXI 281-3.
[28] XXI 40-2, 78-80, 101-3, 453-4, XXII 45, XXIV 751-2.
[29] XVI 835-6, VI 463.
[30] VI 455, XVI 831, XX 193.
[31] XII 421-4.
[32] IV 245, XIV 3-4, 62-5, XVI 302-3, XVII 533. (_Iliad_ V 413, VI 366.)
[33] Selling XIV 297, XV 387, 428, 452-3, XX 382-3. Buying I 430, XIV
115, etc.
[34] XIX 488-90, XXII 173-7, 189-93, 440-5, 462-4, 465-77. (Cf XVIII
82-7.)
[35] IV 245 foll.
[36] IX 205-7, XI 430-2, XVI 14 foll, XIX 489, XXIII 227-8, etc.
[37] XIV 449-52.
[38] VII 224-5, XIX 526.
[39] IV 643-4, 652.
[40] In XIX 56-7 a τέκτων, Icmalius, is even mentioned by name.
[41] XVII 382-7, XIX 134-5.
[42] XIV 56-8.
[43] XVII 578.
[44] XVII 18-9, 226-8.
[45] XVIII 403.
[46] VII 112 foll, VIII 557-63.
[47] IX 109-11, 125 foll.
[48] XV 319 foll.
[49] XVIII 1-116.
[50] IX 191.
[51] II 22, IV 318, XIV 344, XVI 139-45.
[52] XIV 222-3.
[53] XIII 31-4.
[54] XVIII 357-64.
[55] XI 489-91.
[56] IV 644.
[57] IV 735-7.
[58] XXIV 208-10.
[59] XXIV 222-55.
[60] XXIV 257.
[61] XV 412-92.
[62] XIV 271-2.
[63] XXI 213-6.
[64] XV 363-5.
[65] XIV 62-5.
[66] XVIII 366-75.
[67] 299-302, 394-5, 399-400, 403-4, 646-7.
[68] 289-90, 303-5, 308-13, 381-2, 410-3 (cf 498).
[69] 20-4.
[70] 37-41.
[71] 298-9, 397-8.
[72] 289-90.
[73] 303-5.
[74] 308-13.
[75] 410-3, 500-1, 554 foll, 576 foll.
[76] 391.
[77] 25-6.
[78] 493, 538, 544, 809.
[79] 686.
[80] 717-8.
[81] 394-400.
[82] 327-34.
[83] 341.
[84] 605.
[85] 602-3.
[86] 370.
[87] 459, 469-71, 502-3, 559-60, 573, 597-8, 607-8, 765-7.
[88] 406 is reasonably suspected.
[89] 405, 779, 800.
[90] 695-705.
[91] 32, 597, 606-7.
[92] _Solon the Athenian_, by Ivan M. Linforth of the University of
California (1919) discusses in full the conditions of Solon’s time and
his actual policy, with an edition of his poetic remains.
[93] The view of M Clerc _Les métèques Athéniens_ pp 340-5.
[94] ἄλλος γῆν τέμνων πολυδένδρεον εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν λατρεύει τοῖσιν καμπύλ’
ἄροτρα μέλει. Mr Linforth takes the last four words as defining ἄλλος,
the plowman. I think they refer to the employers, spoken of as a class.
[95] Aristotle Ἀθ πολ 11, 12, 16.
[96] See the remarks of Dareste Haussoullier and Th Reinach in the
_Recueil des inscriptions juridiques Grecques_ (Paris 1904) on the Gortyn
Laws.
[97] See Livy X 4 § 9.
[98] See his references to the Spartan use of ξείνοι = βάρβαροι IX 11,
53, 55.
[99] VIII 68 γ.
[100] VIII 26, 105-6.
[101] II 164-7.
[102] Isocrates _Busiris_ §§ 15-20 pp 224-5 also allows for no special
class of γεωργοὶ in Egypt.
[103] Plato _Timaeus_ p 24. Diodorus I 28, 73-4 (? from Hecataeus of
Abdera, latter half of 3rd cent BC).
[104] II 141, 168. See Index under _Egypt_.
[105] The passage of Isocrates just cited seems to favour this view.
[106] VIII 137.
[107] VIII 26.
[108] VIII 51.
[109] VII 102.
[110] VI 137.
[111] IV 72.
[112] VIII 142.
[113] οἰκετέων here = members of the family, as often. Stein refers to
VIII 4, 41, 44, 106. Compare the use of οἰκεὺς in the Iliad, and see
Aesch _Agam_ 733, Eur _Suppl_ 870.
[114] _Pers_ 186-7, 255, 337, 391, 423, 434, 475, 798, 844.
[115] _Eum_ 186-90.
[116] _Prom_ 454-8, 708.
[117] Fragm 194, 198, Dind.
[118] _Suppl_ 612-4, _Eum_ 890-1.
[119] _Trach_ 52-3, 61-3, _O T_ 763-4, Fragm 518, 677, Dind.
[120] _Antig_ 338-40. The use of horses for ploughing is strange. Jebb
thinks that mules are meant.
[121] _O T_ 1029.
[122] _Trach_ 31-3.
[123] _Electra_ 37-8, 375-6, _Phoenissae_ 405, fragm 143 and many more.
[124] The loyalty of slaves to kind masters is referred to very often.
[125] References in Euripides are too many to cite here.
[126] Cf the oft-quoted line from Eur Auge ἡ φύσις ἐβούλεθ’, ᾗ νόμων
oὐδὲν μέλει.
[127] Cf Eur fragm 515, 828, Dind, etc.
[128] Cf Eur fragm 263, 1035, Dind, and the use of τὸ δοῦλον ‘the
slave-quality’ in _Hecuba_ 332-3, _Ion_ 983, etc.
[129] See Cope’s note on Aristotle _rhet_ 1 13 § 2.
[130] _Herc Fur_ 1341-6.
[131] _Alcestis_ 2, 6. _Electra_ 203-4. _Cyclops_ 76 foll, cf 23-4.
[132] _Electra_ 252.
[133] _Electra_ 35-9.
[134] _ibid_ 73-4.
[135] _ibid_ 75-6.
[136] _ibid_ 78-81.
[137] The slaves in 360 and 394 are attendants of Orestes.
[138] _Suppl_ 420-2.
[139] _Orest_ 918-20. Cf fragm 188 Dind where the virtue of rustic life
is sketched καὶ δόξεις φρονεῖν σκάπτων ἀρῶν γῆν ποιμνίοις ἐπιστατῶν.
[140] _Rhesus_ 74-5.
[141] _Rhesus_ 176.
[142] _Heracl_ 639, 788-9, 890, cf fragm 827 Dind.
[143] _Die pseudoxenophontische Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία ... von Ernst Kalinka_
(Teubner 1913). A great work.
[144] 1 § 3.
[145] 1 § 5 etc.
[146] This view reappears later in Isocrates.
[147] In his book _The Greek Commonwealth_.
[148] 1 §§ 10-12.
[149] Kalinka well points out that in 1 § 11 ἐλευθέρους ἀφιέναι is not
technical = manumit.
[150] In 1 § 17 it is notable that among those who gain by concentration
of business at Athens is εἴ τῳ ζεῦγός ἐστιν ἢ ἀνδράποδον μισθοφοροῦν.
Country carts would now be plentiful in Athens.
[151] 1 § 19.
[152] 2 § 14.
[153] _Equites_ 792-4, _Pax_ 632-6, _Eccl_ 243.
[154] _Eccl_ 197-8.
[155] _Eccl_ 591-2.
[156] _Plut_ 510-626.
[157] Old Strepsiades still has his thoughts fixed on these, _Nubes_
202-3.
[158] _Plut_ 903.
[159] _Plut_ 223-4.
[160] _Ach_ 180, 211, _Pax_ 570, 1185-6, _Eq_ 316-7, _Nub_ 43 foll.
[161] The gradual conversion is seen in _Ach_ 557 foll, 626 foll.
[162] _Ach_ 32-4.
[163] _Pax_ 551-70, 1127 foll; cf fragm 100, 107, 109, 294, 387, Kock.
[164] _Pax_ 509-11.
[165] _Pax_ 190.
[166] _Pax_ 551-70, 1318-24.
[167] _Lysistr_ 1173-4.
[168] _Ach_ 248-50, 259.
[169] _Ach_ 266.
[170] _Nub_ 43 foll, 138.
[171] _Vesp_ 442-52.
[172] _Pax_ 1140 foll.
[173] _Pax_ 1248-9.
[174] _Lys_ 1203-14.
[175] _Eccl_ 651.
[176] _Plut_ 26-7, 253.
[177] _Plut_ 517-20, 525-6.
[178] _Plut_ 510-626.
[179] _Aves_ 1152.
[180] _Aves_ 1431-2 (cf Vesp 959), fragm of Δαιταλεῖς 4 Dind, 221 Kock.
[181] _Vesp_ 712.
[182] _Ran_ 164-77.
[183] _Eccl_ 197-8, 591-2.
[184] _Nub_ 71-2. Cf φελλέα in Isaeus VIII § 42 p 73.
[185] _Pax_ 552, 1318.
[186] _Ach_ 1018-36.
[187] _Eccl_ 605, _Av_ 712.
[188] _Thucydides and the history of his age_ chapters III-VII.
[189] See Francotte _L’industrie dans la Grèce ancienne_ livre II cc 5-7.
[190] _Thucydides mythistoricus_ chapter II.
[191] II 14, 16. An earlier period is referred to in I 126 §§ 7, 8.
[192] II 65 § 2.
[193] I 141.
[194] _Die Bevölkerung der Griechisch-Röm. Welt_ p 150.
[195] I 143.
[196] Theopompus in Athenaeus 149 d.
[197] I 139 § 2.
[198] VI 91 § 7.
[199] VII 27 § 5.
[200] Trygaeus in Aristoph _Pax_ is a farmer from this district.
[201] III 73, VIII 40 § 2.
[202] III 88 § 3.
[203] II 62 § 3.
[204] _opus cit_ chapters IV, VII.
[205] For instance, in Euboea and Aegina.
[206] III 50. Herodes, whose murder was later the occasion of a speech of
Antiphon, is thought to have been one of the cleruchs.
[207] Arnold’s note explains the situation well, and Beloch p 83 agrees.
[208] See the inscription relative to Brea, G F Hill _Sources_ III 317.
[209] See the hint in the speech of Pericles I 143 § 4.
[210] That there was normally much insecurity in rustic life in some
parts of Greece, may be inferred from the dance-scene of the farmer and
the robber, acted by men from north central Greece in _Anabasis_ VI 1 §§
7, 8. Daubeny’s Lectures pp 17, 18.
[211] _Hellenica_ II 1 § 1.
[212] _Hellenica_ VI 2 § 37.
[213] Ar _Pol_ VII 6 § 8.
[214] _Anab_ III 2 § 26.
[215] _Anab_ VI 4 § 8.
[216] _Anab_ I 2 § 27, V 6 § 13, VII 3 § 48, 8 §§ 12-19.
[217] _Anab_ IV 1 §§ 12, 13.
[218] _Anab_ V 3 § 4.
[219] _Anab_ IV 8 § 4. It does not appear that the man rejoined his
native tribe.
[220] _Anab_ VII 7 § 53.
[221] See the protest of Callicratidas, _Hellen_ I 6 § 14, with
Breitenbach’s note.
[222] _Anab_ VII 1 § 36, 2 § 6, 3 § 3.
[223] _Memorab_ II 7.
[224] _Memor_ I 2 § 57, II 7 §§ 4-11, 8.
[225] _Memor_ III 13 § 4.
[226] _Memor_ I 1 § 16, IV 2 §§ 22-31.
[227] _Memor_ I 5 § 2.