GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COOKING
Texture and Flavor of Meat--General Methods of Cooking Meat--Economies
in Use of Meat.
A good idea of the changes which take place while meat is being cooked
can be obtained by examining a piece of flesh which has been "cooked to
pieces," as the saying goes. In this the muscular fibers may be seen
completely separated one from another, showing that the connective
tissue has been destroyed. It is also evident that the fibers themselves
are of different texture from those in the raw meat. In preparing meat
for the table it is usual to stop short of the point of disintegration,
but while the long process of cooking is going on the connective tissue
is gradually softening and the fibers are gradually changing in texture.
The former is the thing to be especially desired, but the latter is not.
For this reason it is necessary to keep the temperature below the
boiling point and as low as is consistent with thorough cooking, for
cooks seem agreed, as the result of experience shows, that slow gentle
cooking results in better texture than is the case when meat is boiled
rapidly. This is the philosophy that lies back of the simmering process.
Losses of elements vary considerably with the method of cooking
employed, being of course greatest where small pieces of meat are
subjected to prolonged cooking. The chief loss in weight when meat is
cooked is due to the driving off of water. When beef is cooked by pan
broiling--that is, searing in a hot, greased pan, a common cooking
process--no great loss of nutrition results, particularly if the fat and
other substances adhering to the pan are utilized in the preparation of
gravy. When beef is cooked by boiling, there is a loss of 3 to 20 per
cent. of material present, though this is not an actual loss if the
broth is utilized for soup or in some similar way. Even in the case of
meat which is used for the preparation of beef tea or broth, the losses
of nutritive material are apparently small though much of the flavoring
matter has been removed. The amount of fat found in broth varies
directly with the amount originally present in the meat; the fatter the
meat the greater the quantity of fat in the broth. The loss of water
in cooking varies inversely with the fatness of the meat; that is,
the fatter the meat the smaller the shrinkage due to loss of water.
In cooked meat the loss of various constituents is inversely proportional
to the size of the cut. In other words, the smaller the piece of meat
the greater the percentage of loss. Loss also appears to be dependent
somewhat upon the length of time the cooking is continued. When pieces
of meat weighing 1-1/2 to 5 pounds are cooked in water somewhat under
the boiling point there appears to be little difference in the amount of
material found in broth whether the meat is placed in cold water or hot
water at the beginning of the cooking period. When meat is roasted in
the oven the amount of material removed is somewhat affected by the
character of the roasting pan and similar factors, thus the total loss
in weight is naturally greater in an open than in a closed pan as the
open pan offers more opportunity for the evaporation of water. Judging
from the average results of a considerable number of tests, it appears
that a roast weighing 6 pounds raw should weigh 5 pounds after cooking,
or in other words the loss is about one-sixth of the original weight.
This means that if the raw meat costs 20 cents per pound the cooked
would represent an increase of 4 cents a pound on the original cost;
but this increase would, of course, be lessened if all the drippings
and gravy are utilized.
ECONOMIES IN USE OF MEAT
The expense for meat in the home may be reduced in several ways, and
each housekeeper can best judge which to use in her own case. From a
careful consideration of the subject it appears that the various
suggestions which have been made on the subject may be grouped under the
following general heads: Economy in selection and purchase so as to take
advantage of varying market conditions; purchasing meat in wholesale
quantities for home use; serving smaller portions of meat than usual or
using meat less frequently; careful attention to the use of meat, bone,
fat, and small portions commonly trimmed off and thrown away and the
utilization of left-over portions of cooked meat; and the use of the
less expensive kinds.
The choice of cuts should correspond to the needs of the family and the
preferences of its members. Careful consideration of market conditions
is also useful, not only to make sure that the meat is handled and
marketed in a sanitary way, but also to take advantage of any favorable
change in price which may be due, for instance, to a large local supply
of some particular kind or cut of meat. In towns where there is
opportunity for choice, it may sometimes be found more satisfactory not
to give all the family trade to one butcher; by going to various markets
before buying the housekeeper is in a better position to hear of
variations in prices and so be in a position to get the best values.
Ordering by telephone or from the butcher's boy at the door may be less
economical than going to market in person as the range of choice and
prices is of course more obvious when the purchaser sees the goods and
has a chance to observe market conditions. Each housekeeper must decide
for herself whether or not the greater convenience compensates for the
smaller range of choice which such ordering from description entails.
No matter what the cut, whether expensive or cheap, it can not be utilized
to the best advantage unless it is well cooked. A cheap cut of meat, well
cooked, is always preferable to a dear one spoiled in the preparation.
There is sometimes an advantage in using canned meat and meat products,
and, if they are of good quality, such products are wholesome and
palatable.
That economy is furthered by careful serving at table is obvious. If
more meat is given at each serving than the person wishes or habitually
eats the table waste is unduly increased. Economy in all such points is
important and not beneath the dignity of the family.
In many American families meat is eaten two or three times a day; in
such cases the simplest way of reducing the meat bill would very likely
be to cut down the amount used, either by serving it less often or by
using less at a time. Deficiency of protein need not be feared when one
good meat dish a day is served, especially if such nitrogenous materials
as eggs, milk, cheese, and beans are used instead. In localities where
fish can be obtained fresh and cheap, it might well be more frequently
substituted for meat for the sake of variety as well as economy.
Ingenious cooks have many ways of "extending the flavor" of meat, that
is, of combining a small quantity with other materials to make a large
dish, as in meat pies, stews, and similar dishes.
By buying in large quantities under certain conditions it may be
possible to procure meat at better prices than those which ordinarily
prevail in the retail market. The whole side or quarter of an animal can
frequently be obtained at noticeably less cost per pound than when it is
bought by cut, and can be used to advantage when the housekeeper
understands the art and has proper storage facilities and a good-sized
family. When a hind quarter of mutton, for example, comes from the
market the flank (on which the meat is thin and, as good housekeepers
believe, likely to spoil more easily than some other cuts) should be
cooked immediately, or, if preferred, it may be covered with a thin
layer of fat (rendered suet) which can be easily removed when the time
for cooking comes. The flank, together with the rib bone, ordinarily
makes a gallon of good Scotch broth. The remainder of the hind quarter
may be used for roast or chops. The whole pig carcass has always been
used by families living on the farms where the animals are slaughtered,
and in village homes; town housekeepers not infrequently buy pigs whole
and "put down" the meat. An animal six months old and weighing about one
hundred pounds would be suitable for this purpose. The hams and thin
pieces of belly meat may be pickled and smoked. The thick pieces of
belly meat, packed in a two-gallon jar and covered with salt or brine,
will make a supply of fat pork to cook with beans and other vegetables.
The tenderloin makes good roasts, the head and feet may go into head
cheese or scrapple, and the trimmings and other scraps of lean meat
serve for a few pounds of home-made sausage. In some large families it
is found profitable to "corn" a fore quarter of beef for spring and
summer use. Formerly it was a common farm practice to dry beef, but now
it seems to be more usual to purchase beef which has been dried in large
establishments. The general use of refrigerators and ice chests in homes
at the present time has had a great influence on the length of time meat
may be kept and so upon the amount a housewife may buy at a time with
advantage.
In the percentage of fat present in different kinds and cuts of meat, a
greater difference exists than in the percentage of proteids. The lowest
percentage of fat is 8.1 per cent. in the shank of beef; the highest is
32 per cent. in pork chops. The highest priced cuts, loin and ribs of
beef, contain 20 to 25 per cent. If the fat of the meat is not eaten at
the table, and is not utilized otherwise, a pecuniary loss results. If
butter is the fat used in making crusts for meat pies, and in preparing
the cheaper cuts, there is little economy involved; the fats from other
meat should therefore be saved, as they may be used in place of butter
in such cases, as well as in preparing many other foods. The fat from
sausage or from the soup kettle, or from a pot roast, which is savory
because it has been cooked with vegetables, is particularly acceptable.
Sometimes savory vegetables, onion, or sweet herbs are added to fat when
it is tried out to give it flavor.
Almost any meat bones can be used in soup making, and if the meat is not
all removed from them the soup is better. But some bones, especially the
rib bones, if they have a little meat left on them, can be grilled or
roasted into very palatable dishes. The "sparerib" of southern cooks is
made of the rib bones from a roast of pork, and makes a favorite dish
when well browned. The braised ribs of beef often served in high-class
restaurants are made from the bones cut from rib roasts. In this
connection it may be noted that many of the dishes popular in good
hotels are made of portions of meat such as are frequently thrown away
in private houses, but which with proper cooking and seasoning make
attractive dishes and give most acceptable variety to the menu. An old
recipe for "broiled bones" directs that the bone (beef ribs or sirloin
bones on which the meat is not left too thick in any part) be sprinkled
with salt and pepper (Cayenne), and broiled over a clear fire until
browned. Another example of the use of bones is boiled marrow bone. The
bones are cut in convenient lengths, the ends covered with a little
piece of dough over which a floured cloth is tied, and cooked in boiling
water for two hours. After removing the cloth and dough, the bones are
placed upright on toast and served. Prepared as above, the bones may
also be baked in a deep dish. Marrow is sometimes removed from bones
after cooking, seasoned, and served on toast.
Trimmings from meat may be utilized in various "made dishes," or they
can always be put to good use in the soup kettle. It is surprising how
many economies may be practiced in such ways and also in the table use
of left-over portions of cooked meat if attention is given to the
matter. Many of the following recipes involve the use of such
left-overs. Others will suggest themselves or may be found in all the
usual cookery books.