FOOTNOTE:

[1] The verb "to jump" only dates from the beginning of the 16th

century. The _New English Dictionary_ takes it to be of onomatopoeic

origin and does not consider a connexion with Dan. _gumpe_, Icel.

_goppa_, &c., possible. The earlier English word is "leap" (O.E.

_hléapan_, to run, jump, cf. Ger. _laufen_).

JUMPING-HARE, the English equivalent of springhaas, the Boer name of a

large leaping south and east African rodent mammal, _Pedetes caffer_,

typifying a family by itself, the _Pedetidae_. Originally classed with

the jerboas, to which it has no affinity, this remarkable rodent

approximates in the structure of its skull to the porcupine-group, near

which it is placed by some naturalists, although others consider that

its true position is with the African scaly-tailed flying squirrels

(_Anomaluridae_). The colour of the creature is bright rufous fawn; the

eyes are large; and the bristles round the muzzle very long, the former

having a fringe of long hairs. The front limbs are short, and the hind

ones very long; and although the fore-feet have five toes, those of the

hind-feet are reduced to four. The bones of the lower part of the hind

leg (tibia and fibula) are united for a great part of their length.

There are four pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, which do not develop

roots. The jumping-hare is found in open or mountainous districts, and

has habits very like a jerboa. It is nocturnal, and dwells in composite

burrows excavated and tenanted by several families. When feeding it

progresses on all four legs, but if frightened takes gigantic leaps on

the hind-pair alone; the length of such leaps frequently reaches twenty

feet, or even more. The young are generally three or four in number, and

are born in the summer. A second smaller species has been named. (See

RODENTIA.)

JUMPING-MOUSE, the name of a North American mouse-like rodent, _Zapus

hudsonius_, belonging to the family _Jaculidae_ (_Dipodidae_), and the

other members of the same genus. Although mouse-like in general

appearance, these rodents are distinguished by their elongated hind

limbs, and, typically, by the presence of four pairs of cheek-teeth in

each jaw. There are five toes to all the feet, but the first in the

fore-feet is rudimentary, and furnished with a flat nail. The cheeks are

provided with pouches. Jumping-mice were long supposed to be confined to

North America, but a species is now known from N.W. China. It is

noteworthy that whereas E. Coues in 1877 recognized but a single

representative of this genus, ranging over a large area in North

America, A. Preble distinguishes no fewer than twenty North American

species and sub-species, in addition to the one from Szechuen. Among

these, it may be noted that _Z. insignis_ differs from the typical _Z.

hudsonius_ by the loss of the premolar, and has accordingly been

referred to a sub-genus apart. Moreover, the Szechuen jumping-mouse

differs from the typical _Zapus_ by the closer enamel-folds of the

molars, the shorter ears, and the white tail-tip, and is therefore made

the type of another sub-genus. In America these rodents inhabit forest,

pasture, cultivated fields or swamps, but are nowhere numerous. When

disturbed, they start off with enormous bounds of eight or ten feet in

length, which soon diminish to three or four; and in leaping the feet

scarcely seem to touch the ground. The nest is placed in clefts of

rocks, among timber or in hollow trees, and there are generally three

litters in a season. (See RODENTIA.)

JUMPING-SHREW, a popular name for any of the terrestrial insectivora of

the African family _Macroscelididae_, of which there are a number of

species ranging over the African continent, representing the tree-shrews

of Asia. They are small long-snouted gerbil-like animals, mainly

nocturnal, feeding on insects, and characterized by the great length of

the metatarsal bones, which have been modified in accordance with their

leaping mode of progression. In some (constituting the genus

_Rhyncocyon_) the muzzle is so much prolonged as to resemble a

proboscis, whence the name elephant-shrews is sometimes applied to the

members of the family.

JUNAGARH, or JUNAGADH, a native state of India, within the Gujarat

division of Bombay, extending inland from the southern coast of the

peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 3284 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 395,428, showing

a decrease of 19% in the decade, owing to famine; estimated gross

revenue, £174,000; tribute to the British government and the gaekwar of

Baroda, £4200; a considerable sum is also received as tribute from minor

states in Kathiawar. The state is traversed by a railway from Rajkot, to

the seaport of Verawal. It includes the sacred mountain of Girnar and

the ruined temple of Somnath, and also the forest of Gir, the only place

in India where the lion survives. Junagarh ranks as a first-class state

among the many chiefships of Kathiawar, and its ruler first entered into

engagements with the British in 1807. Nawab Sir Rasul Khanji, K.C.S.I.,

was born in 1858 and succeeded his brother in 1892.

The modern town of JUNAGARH (34,251), 60 m. by rail S. of Rajkot, is

handsomely built and laid out. In November 1897 the foundation-stones of

a hospital, library and museum were laid, and an arts college has

recently been opened.

JUNCACEAE (rush family), in botany, a natural order of flowering plants

belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class Monocotyledons,

containing about two hundred species in seven genera, widely distributed

in temperate and cold regions. It is well represented in Britain by the

two genera which comprise nearly the whole order--_Juncus_, rush, and

_Luzula_, woodrush. They are generally perennial herbs with a creeping

underground stem and erect, unbranched, aerial stems, bearing slender

leaves which are grass-like or cylindrical or reduced to membranous

sheaths. The small inconspicuous flowers are generally more or less

crowded in terminal or lateral clusters, the form of the inflorescence

varying widely according to the manner of branching and the length of

the pedicels. The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular, with the same

number and arrangement of parts as in the order Liliaceae, from which

they differ in the inconspicuous membranous character of the perianth,

the absence of honey or smell, and the brushlike stigmas with long

papillae-adaptations to wind-pollination as contrasted with the methods

of pollination by insect agency, which characterize the Liliaceae.

Juncaceae are, in fact, a less elaborated group of the same series as

Liliaceae, but adapted to a simpler and more uniform environment than

that larger and much more highly developed family.

[Illustration: _Juncus effusus_, common rush.

1. Plant.

2. Inflorescence.

3. End of branch of inflorescence, slightly enlarged.

4. Flower, enlarged.

5. Fruit, enlarged.

6. Seed.

7. Seed, much enlarged.]

JUNCTION CITY, a city and the county-seat of Geary county, Kansas,

U.S.A., between Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, about 3 m. above their

confluence to form the Kansas, and 72 m. by rail W. of Topeka. Pop.

(1900), 4695, of whom 545 were foreign-born and 292 were negroes;

(1905), 5494; (1910), 5598. Junction City is served by the Union Pacific

and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. It is the commercial centre

of a region in whose fertile valleys great quantities of wheat, Indian

corn, oats and hay are grown and live stock is raised, and whose uplands

contain extensive beds of limestone, which is quarried for building

purposes. Excellent water-power is available and is partly utilized by

flour mills. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. At the

confluence of Smoky Hill and Republican rivers and connected with the

city by an electric railway is Fort Riley, a U.S. military post, which

was established in 1853 as Camp Centre but was renamed in the same year

in honour of General Bennett Riley (1787-1853); in 1887 the mounted

service school of the U.S. army was established here. Northward from the

post is a rugged country over which extends a military reservation of

about 19,000 acres. Adjoining the reservation and about 5 m. N.E. of

Junction City is the site of the short-lived settlement of Pawnee, where

from the 2nd to the 6th of July 1855 the first Kansas legislature met,

in a building the ruins of which still remain; the establishment of

Pawnee (in December 1854) was a speculative pro-slavery enterprise

conducted by the commandant of Fort Riley, other army officers and

certain territorial officials, and when a government survey showed that

the site lay within the Fort Riley reservation, the settlers were

ordered (August 1855) to leave, and the commandant of Fort Riley was

dismissed from the army; one of the charges brought against Governor A.

H. Reeder was that he had favoured the enterprise. Junction City was

founded in 1857 and was chartered as a city in 1859.

JUNE, the sixth month in the Christian calendar, consisting of thirty

days. Ovid (_Fasti_, vi. 25) makes Juno assert that the name was

expressly given in her honour. Elsewhere (_Fasti_, vi. 87) he gives the

derivation _a junioribus_, as May had been derived from _majores_, which

may be explained as in allusion either to the two months being dedicated

respectively to youth and age in general, or to the seniors and juniors

of the government of Rome, the senate and the _comitia curiata_ in

particular. Others connect the term with the gentile name Junius, or

with the consulate of Junius Brutus. Probably, however, it originally

denoted the month in which crops grow to ripeness. In the old Latin

calendar June was the fourth month, and in the so-called year of Romulus

it is said to have had thirty days; but at the time of the Julian reform

of the calendar its days were only twenty-nine. To these Caesar added

the thirtieth. The Anglo-Saxons called June "the dry month," "midsummer

month," and, in contradistinction to July, "the earlier mild month." The

summer solstice occurs in June. Principal festival days in this month:

11th June, St Barnabas; 24th June, Midsummer Day (Nativity of St John

the Baptist); 29th June, St Peter.

JUNEAU, formerly HARRISBURG, a mining and trading town picturesquely

situated at the mouth of Gold Creek on the continental shore of

Gastineau channel, south-east Alaska, and the capital of Alaska. Pop.

(1900), 1864 (450 Indians); (1910), 1644. It has a United States

custom-house and court-house. The city has fishing, manufacturing and

trading interests, but its prosperity is chiefly due to the gold mines

in the adjacent Silver Bow basin, the source of Gold Creek, and the site

of the great Perseverance mine, and to those on the Treadwell lode on

Douglas Island, 2 m. from Juneau. Placer gold was found at the mouth of

the creek in 1879, and the city was settled in 1880 by two prospectors

named Joseph Juneau and Richard Harris. The district was called Juneau

and the camp Harrisburg by the first settlers; exploring naval officers

named the camp Rockwell, in honour of Commander Charles Henry Rockwell,

U.S.N. (b. 1840). A town meeting then adopted the name of Juneau. The

town was incorporated in 1900. In October 1906 the seat of government of

Alaska was removed from Sitka to Juneau.

JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH (1740-1817), best known by his assumed name of

HEINRICH STILLING, German author, was born in the vlllage of Grund near

Hilchenbach in Westphalia on the 12th of September 1740. His father,

Wilhelm Jung, schoolmaster and tailor, was the son of Eberhard Jung,

charcoal-burner, and his mother was Dortchen Moritz, daughter of a poor

clergyman. Jung became, by his father's desire, schoolmaster and tailor,

but found both pursuits equally wearisome. After various teaching

appointments he went in 1768 with "half a French dollar" to study

medicine at the university of Strassburg. There he met Goethe, who

introduced him to Herder. The acquaintance with Goethe ripened into

friendship; and it was by his influence that Jung's first and best work,

_Heinrich Stillings Jugend_ was written. In 1772 he settled at Elberfeld

as physician and oculist, and soon became celebrated for operations in

cases of cataract. Surgery, however, was not much more to his taste than

tailoring or teaching; and in 1778 he was glad to accept the appointment

of lecturer on "agriculture, technology, commerce and the veterinary

art" in the newly established Kameralschule at Kaiserslautern, a post

which he continued to hold when the school was absorbed in the

university of Heidelberg. In 1787 he was appointed professor of

economical, financial and statistical science in the university of

Marburg. In 1803 he resigned his professorship and returned to

Heidelberg, where he remained until 1806, when he received a pension

from the grand-duke Charles Frederick of Baden, and removed to

Karlsruhe, where he remained until his death on the 2nd of April 1817.

He was married three times, and left a numerous family. Of his works his

autobiography _Heinrich Stillings Leben_, from which he came to be known

as Stilling, is the only one now of any interest, and is the chief

authority for his life. His early novels reflect the piety of his early

surroundings.

A complete edition of his numerous works, in 14 vols. 8vo, was

published at Stuttgart in 1835-1838. There are English translations by

Sam. Jackson of the Leben (1835) and of the _Theorie der Geisterkunde_

(London, 1834, and New York, 1851); and of _Theobald, or the Fanatic_,

a religious romance, by the Rev. Sam. Schaeffer (1846). See

biographies by F. W. Bodemann (1868), J. v. Ewald (1817), Peterson

(1890).

JUNG BAHADUR, SIR, MAHARAJAH (1816-1877), prime minister of Nepal, was a

grand-nephew of Bhim sena Thapa (Bhim sen Thappa), the famous military

minister of Nepal, who from 1804 to 1839 was _de facto_ ruler of the

state under the rani Tripuri and her successor. Bhimsena's supremacy was

threatened by the Kala Pandry, and many of his relations, including Jung

Bahadur, went into exile in 1838, thus escaping the cruel fate which

overtook Bhimsena in the following year. The Pandry leaders, who then

reverted to power, were in turn assassinated in 1843, and Matabar Singh,

uncle of Jung Bahadur, was created prime minister. He appointed his

nephew general and chief judge, but shortly afterwards he was himself

put to death. Fateh Jung thereon formed a ministry, of which Jung

Bahadur was made military member. In the following year, 1846, a quarrel

was fomented, in which Fateh Jung and thirty-two other chiefs were

assassinated, and the rani appointed Jung Bahadur sole minister. The

rani quickly changed her mind, and planned the death of her new

minister, who at once appealed to the maharaja. But the plot failed. The

raja and the rani wisely sought safety in India, and Jung Bahadur firmly

established his own position by the removal of all dangerous rivals. He

succeeded so well that in January 1850 he was able to leave for a visit

to England, from which he did not return to Nepal until the 6th of

February 1851. On his return, and frequently on subsequent dates, he

frustrated conspiracies for his assassination. The reform of the penal

code, and a desultory war with Tibet, occupied his attention until news

of the Indian Mutiny reached Nepal. Jung Bahadur resisted all overtures

from the rebels, and sent a column to Gorakpur in July 1857. In December

he furnished a force of 8000 Gurkhas, which reached Lucknow on the 11th

of March 1858, and took part in the siege. The moral support of the

Nepalese was more valuable even than the military services rendered by

them. Jung Bahadur was made a G.C.B., and a tract of country annexed in

1815 was restored to Nepal. Various frontier disputes were settled, and

in 1875 Sir Jung Bahadur was on his way to England when he had a fall

from his horse in Bombay and returned home. He received a visit from the

Prince of Wales in 1876. On the 25th of February 1877 he died, having

reached the age of sixty-one. Three of his widows immolated themselves

on his funeral pyre. (W. L.-W.)

JUNG-BUNZLAU (Czech, _Mladá Boleslav_), a town of Bohemia, 44 m. N.N.E.

of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,479, mostly Czech. The town contains

several old buildings of historical interest, notably the castle, built

towards the end of the 10th century, and now used as barracks. There are

several old churches. In that of St Maria the celebrated bishop of the

Bohemian brethren, Johann August, was buried in 1595; but his tomb was

destroyed in 1621. The church of St Bonaventura with the convent,

originally belonging to the friars minor and later to the Bohemian

brethren, is now a Piaristic college. The church of St Wenceslaus, once

a convent of the brotherhood, is now used for military stores.

Jung-Bunzlau was built in 995, under Boleslaus II., as the seat of a

_gaugraf_ or royal count. Early in the 13th century it was given the

privileges of a town and pledged to the lords of Michalovic. In the

Hussite wars Jung-Bunzlau adhered to the Taborites and became later the

metropolis of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1595 Bohuslav of Lobkovic sold

his rights as over-lord to the town, which was made a royal city by

Rudolf II. During the Thirty Years' War it was twice burned, in 1631 by

the imperialists, and in 1640 by the Swedes.

JUNGFRAU, a well-known Swiss mountain (13,669 ft.), admirably seen from

Interlaken. It rises on the frontier between the cantons of Bern and of

the Valais, and is reckoned among the peaks of the Bernese Oberland, two

of which (the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Aletschhorn, 13,721

ft.) surpass it in height. It was first ascended in 1811 by the brothers

Meyer, and again in 1812 by Gottlieb Meyer (son of J. R. Meyer), in both

cases by the eastern or Valais side, the foot of which (the final ascent

being made by the 1811-1812 route) was reached in 1828 over the

Mönchjoch by six peasants from Grindelwald. In 1841 Principal J. D.

Forbes, with Agassiz, Desor and Du Châtelier, made the fourth ascent by

the 1812 route. It was not till 1865 that Sir George Young and the Rev.

H. B. George succeeded in making the first ascent from the west or

Interlaken side. This is a far more difficult route than that from the

east, the latter being now frequently taken in the course of the summer.

(W. A. B. C.)

JUNGLE (Sans. _jangala_), an Anglo-Indian term for a forest, a thicket,

a tangled wilderness. The Hindustani word means strictly waste,

uncultivated ground; then such ground covered with trees or long grass;

and thence again the Anglo-Indian application is to forest or other wild

growth, rather than to the fact that it is not cultivated.

JUNIN, an interior department of central Peru, bounded N. by Huanuco, E.

by Loreto and Cuzco, S. by Huancavelica, and W. by Lima and Ancachs.

Pop. (1906 estimate), 305,700. It lies wholly within the Andean zone and

has an area of 23,353 sq. m. It is rich in minerals, including silver,

copper, mercury, bismuth, molybdenum, lead and coal. The Huallaga and

Mantaro rivers have their sources in this department, the latter in Lake

Junin, or Chanchaycocha, 13,230 ft. above sea-level. The capital of

Junin is Cerro de Pasco, and its two principal towns are Jauja and Tarma

(pop., 1906, about 12,000 and 5000 respectively).

JUNIPER. The junipers, of which there are twenty-five or more species,

are evergreen bushy shrubs or low columnar trees, with a more or less

aromatic odour, inhabiting the whole of the cold and temperate northern

hemisphere, but attaining their maximum development in the Mediterranean

region, the North Atlantic islands, and the eastern United States. The

leaves are usually articulated at the base, spreading, sharp-pointed and

needle-like in form, destitute of oil-glands, and arranged in

alternating whorls of three; but in some the leaves are minute and

scale-like, closely adhering to the branches, the apex only being free,

and furnished with an oil-gland on the back. Sometimes the same plant

produces both kinds of leaves on different branches, or the young plants

produce acicular leaves, while those of the older plants are squamiform.

The male and female flowers are usually produced on separate plants. The

male flowers are developed at the ends of short lateral branches, are

rounded or oblong in form, and consist of several antheriferous scales

in two or three rows, each scale bearing three or six almost spherical

pollen-sacs on its under side. The female flower is a small bud-like

cone situated at the apex of a small branch, and consists of two or

three whorls of two or three scales. The scales of the upper or middle

series each bear one or two erect ovules. The mature cone is fleshy,

with the succulent scales fused together and forming the fruit-like

structure known to the older botanists as the _galbulus_, or berry of

the juniper. The berries are red or purple in colour, varying in size

from that of a pea to a nut. They thus differ considerably from the

cones of other members of the order Coniferae, of _Gymnosperms_ (q.v.),

to which the junipers belong. The seeds are usually three in number,

sometimes fewer (1), rarely more (8), and have the surface near the

middle or base marked with large glands containing oil. The genus occurs

in a fossil state, four species having been described from rocks of

Tertiary age.

The genus is divided into three sections, _Sabina_, _Oxycedrus_ and

_Caryocedrus_. _Juniperus Sabina_ is the savin, abundant on the

mountains of central Europe, an irregularly spreading much-branched

shrub with scale-like glandular leaves, and emitting a disagreeable

odour when bruised. The plant is poisonous, acting as a powerful local

and general stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue and anthelmintic; it was

formerly employed both internally and externally. The oil of savin is

now occasionally used criminally as an abortifacient. _J. bermudiana_, a

tree about 40 or 50 ft. in height, yields a fragrant red wood, which was

used for the manufacture of "cedar" pencils. The tree is now very scarce

in Bermuda, and the "red cedar," _J. virginiana_, of North America is

employed instead for pencils and cigar-boxes. The red cedar is abundant

in some parts of the United States and in Virginia is a tree 50 ft. in

height. It is very widely distributed from the Great Lakes to Florida

and round the Gulf of Mexico, and extends as far west as the Rocky

Mountains and beyond to Vancouver Island. The wood is applied to many

uses in the United States. The fine red fragrant heart-wood takes a high

polish, and is much used in cabinet-work and inlaying, but the small

size of the planks prevents its more extended use. The galls produced at

the ends of the branches have been used in medicine, and the wood yields

cedar-camphor and oil of cedar-wood. _J. thurifera_ is the incense

juniper of Spain and Portugal, and _J. phoenicea_ (_J. lycia_) from the

Mediterranean district is stated by Loudon to be burned as incense.

_J. communis_, the common juniper (see fig.), and several other species,

belong to the section _Oxycedrus_. The common juniper is a very widely

distributed plant, occurring in the whole of northern Europe, central

and northern Asia to Kamchatka, and east and west North America. It

grows at considerable elevations in southern Europe, in the Alps,

Apennines, Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada (4000 to 8000 ft.). It also grows

in Asia Minor, Persia, and at great elevations on the Himalayas. In

Great Britain it is usually a shrub with spreading branches, less

frequently a low tree. In former times the juniper seems to have been a

very well-known plant, the name occurring almost unaltered in many

languages. The Lat. _juniperus_, probably formed from _juni_--crude form

of _juvenis_, fresh, young, and _parere_, to produce, is represented by

Fr. _genièvre_, Sp. _enebro_, Ital. _ginepito_, &c. The dialectical

names, chiefly in European languages, were collected by Prince L. L.

Bonaparte, and published in the _Academy_ (July 17, 1880, No. 428, p.

45). The common juniper is official in the British pharmacopoeia and in

that of the United States, yielding the oil of juniper, a powerful

diuretic, distilled from the unripe fruits. This oil is closely allied

in composition to oil of turpentine and is given in doses of a half to

three minims. The _Spiritus juniperi_ of the British pharmacopoeia is

given in doses up to one drachm. Much safer and more powerful diuretics

are now in use. The wood is very aromatic and is used for ornamental

purposes. In Lapland the bark is made into ropes. The fruits are used

for flavouring gin (a name derived from _juniper_, through Fr.

_genièvre_); and in some parts of France a kind of beer called

_genévrette_ was made from them by the peasants. _J. Oxycedrus_, from

the Mediterranean district and Madeira, yields cedar-oil which is

official in most of the European pharmacopoeias, but not in that of

Britain. This oil is largely used by microscopists in what is known as

the "oil-immersion lens."

The third section, _Caryocedrus_, consists of a single species, _J.

drupacea_ of Asia Minor. The fruits are large and edible: they are known

in the East by the name _habhel_.

[Illustration: (From Bentley and Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by

permission of J. & A. Churchill.)

Juniper (_Juniperus communis_).

1. Vertical section of fruit.

2. Male catkin.]

JUNIUS, the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of letters to

the London _Public Advertiser_, from the 21st of January 1769 to the

21st of January 1772. The signature had been already used by him in a

letter of the 21st of November 1768, which he did not include in his

collection of the _Letters of Junius_ published in 1772. The name was

chosen in all probability because he had already signed "Lucius" and

"Brutus," and wished to exhaust the name of Lucius Junius Brutus the

Roman patriot. Whoever the writer was, he wrote under other pseudonyms

before, during and after the period between January 1769 and January

1772. He acknowledged that he had written as "Philo-Junius," and there

is evidence that he was identical with "Veteran," "Nemesis" and other

anonymous correspondents of the _Public Advertiser_. There is a marked

distinction between the "letters of Junius" and his so-called

miscellaneous letters. The second deal with a variety of subjects, some

of a purely personal character, as for instance the alleged injustice of

Viscount Barrington the secretary at war to the officials of his

department. But the "letters of Junius" had a definite object--to

discredit the ministry of the duke of Grafton. This administration had

been formed in October 1768, when the earl of Chatham was compelled by

ill health to retire from office, and was a reconstruction of his

cabinet of July 1766. Junius fought for the return to power of Chatham,

who had recovered and was not on good terms with his successors. He

communicated with Chatham, with George Grenville, with Wilkes, all

enemies of the duke of Grafton, and also with Henry Sampson Woodfall,

printer and part owner of the _Public Advertiser_. This private

correspondence has been preserved. It is written in the disguised hand

used by Junius.

The letters are of interest on three grounds--their political

significance, their style, and the mystery which long surrounded their

authorship. As political writings they possess no intrinsic value.

Junius was wholly destitute of insight, and of the power to disentangle,

define and advocate principles. The matter of his letters is always

invective. He began by a general attack on the ministry for their

personal immorality or meanness. An ill-judged defence of one of the

body--the marquess of Granby, commander-in-chief--volunteered by Sir

William Draper, gave him an easy victory over a vulnerable opponent. He

then went on to pour acrimonious abuse on Grafton, on the duke of

Bedford, on King George III. himself in the letter of the 19th of

December 1769, and ended with a most malignant and ignorant assault on

Lord Chief Justice Mansfield. Several of his accusations were shown to

be unfounded. The practical effect of the letters was insignificant.

They were noticed and talked about. They provoked anger and retorts. But

the letter to the king aroused indignation, and though Grafton's

administration fell in January 1770, it was succeeded by the long-lived

cabinet of Lord North. Junius confessed himself beaten, in his private

letter to Woodfall of the 19th of January 1773. He had materially

contributed to his own defeat by his brutal violence. He sinned indeed

in a large company. The employment of personal abuse had been habitual

in English political controversy for generations, and in the 18th

century there was a strong taste for satire. Latin literature, which was

not only studied but imitated, supplied the inspiration and the models,

in the satires of Juvenal, and the speeches of Cicero against Verres and

Catiline.

If, however, Junius was doing what others did, he did it better than

anybody else--a fact which sufficiently explains his rapid popularity.

His superiority lay in his style. Here also he was by no means original,

and he was unequal. There are passages in his writings which can be best

described in the words which Burke applied to another writer: "A mere

mixture of vinegar and water, at once vapid and sour." But at his best

Junius attains to a high degree of artificial elegance and vigour. He

shows the influence of Bolingbroke, of Swift, and above all of Tacitus,

who appears to have been his favourite author. The imitation is never

slavish. Junius adapts, and does not only repeat. The white heat of his

malignity animates the whole. No single sentence will show the quality

of a style which produces its effect by persistence and repetition, but

such a typical passage as follows displays at once the method and the

spirit. It is taken from Letter XLIX. to the duke of Grafton, June 22,

1771:--

"The profound respect I bear to the gracious prince who governs this

country with no less honour to himself than satisfaction to his

subjects, and who restores you to your rank under his standard, will

save you from a multitude of reproaches. The attention I should have

paid to your failings is involuntarily attracted to the hand which

rewards them; and though I am not so partial to the royal judgment as

to affirm that the favour of a king can remove mountains of infamy, it

serves to lessen at least, for undoubtedly it divides, the burden.

While I remember how much is due to his sacred character, I cannot,

with any decent appearance of propriety, call you the meanest and the

basest fellow in the kingdom. I protest, my Lord, I do not think you

so. You will have a dangerous rival in that kind of fame to which you

have hitherto so happily directed your ambition, as long as there is

one man living who thinks you worthy of his confidence, and fit to be

trusted with any share in his government.... With any other prince,

the shameful desertion of him in the midst of that distress, which you

alone had created, in the very crisis of danger, when he fancied he

saw the throne already surrounded by men of virtue and abilities,

would have outweighed the memory of your former services. But his

majesty is full of justice, and understands the doctrine of

compensations; he remembers with gratitude how soon you had

accommodated your morals to the necessities of his service, how

cheerfully you had abandoned the engagements of private friendship,

and renounced the most solemn professions to the public. The

sacrifice of Lord Chatham was not lost on him. Even the cowardice and

perfidy of deserting him may have done you no disservice in his

esteem. The instance was painful, but the principle might please."

What is artificial and stilted in this style did not offend the would-be

classic taste of the 18th century, and does not now conceal the fact

that the laboriously arranged words, and artfully counterbalanced

clauses, convey a venomous hate and scorn.

The pre-established harmony between Junius and his readers accounts for

the rapidity of his success, and for the importance attributed to him by

Burke and Johnson, far better writers than himself. Before 1772 there

appeared at least twelve unauthorized republications of his letters,

made by speculative printers. In that year he revised the collection

named "_Junius: Stat nominis umbra_," with a dedication to the English

people and a preface. Other independent editions followed in quick

succession. In 1801 one was published with annotations by Robert Heron.

In 1806 another appeared with notes by John Almon. The first new edition

of real importance was issued by the Woodfall family in 1812. It

contained the correspondence of Junius with H. S. Woodfall, a selection

of the miscellaneous letters attributed to Junius, facsimiles of his

handwriting, and notes by Dr Mason Good. Curiosity as to the mystery of

the authorship began to replace political and literary interest in the

writings. Junius himself had been early aware of the advantage he

secured by concealment. "The mystery of Junius increases his importance"

is his confession in a letter to Wilkes dated the 18th of September

1771. The calculation was a sound one. For two generations after the

appearance of the letter of the 21st of January 1769, speculations as to

the authorship of Junius were rife, and discussion had hardly ceased in

1910. Joseph Parkes, author with Herman Merivale of the _Memoirs of Sir

Philip Francis_ (1867), gives a list of more than forty persons who had

been supposed to be Junius. They are: Edmund Burke, Lord George

Sackville, Lord Chatham, Colonel Barré, Hugh Macaulay Boyd, Dr Butler,

John Wilkes, Lord Chesterfield, Henry Flood, William Burke, Gibbon, W.

E. Hamilton, Charles Lloyd, Charles Lee (general in the American War of

Independence), John Roberts, George Grenville, James Grenville, Lord

Temple, Duke of Portland, William Greatrakes, Richard Glover, Sir

William Jones, James Hollis, Laughlin Maclean, Philip Rosenhagen, Horne

Tooke, John Kent, Henry Grattan, Daniel Wray, Horace Walpole, Alexander

Wedderburn (Lord Loughborough), Dunning (Lord Ashburton), Lieut.-General

Sir R. Rich, Dr Philip Francis, a "junto" or committee of writers who

used a common name, De Lolme, Mrs Catherine Macaulay (1733-91), Sir

Philip Francis, Lord Littleton, Wolfram Cornwall and Gov. Thomas

Pownall. In the great majority of cases the attribution is based on

nothing more than a vague guess. Edmund Burke denied that he could have

written the letters of Junius if he would, or would have written them if

he could. Grattan pointed out that he was young when they appeared. More

plausible claims, such as those made for Lord Temple and Lord George

Sackville, could not stand the test of examination. Indeed after 1816

the question was not so much "Who wrote Junius?" as "Was Junius Sir

Philip Francis, or some undiscoverable man?" In that year John Taylor

was led by a careful study of Woodfall's edition of 1812 to publish _The

identity of Junius with a distinguished living character established_,

in which he claimed the letters for Sir Philip Francis. He had at first

been inclined to attribute them to Sir Philip's father, Dr Francis, the

author of translations of Horace and Demosthenes. Taylor applied to Sir

Philip, who did not die till 1818, for leave to publish, and received

from him answers which to an unwary person might appear to constitute

denials of the authorship, but were in fact evasions.

The reasons for believing that Sir Philip Francis (q.v.) was Junius are

very strong. His evasions were only to be expected. Several of the men

he attacked lived nearly as long as himself, the sons of others were

conspicuous in society, and King George III. survived him. Sir Philip,

who had held office, who had been decorated, and who in his later years

was ambitious to obtain the governor-generalship of India, dared not

confess that he was Junius. The similarity of his handwriting to the

disguised hand used by the writer of the letters is very close. If Sir

Philip Francis did, as his family maintain, address a copy of verses to

a Miss Giles in the handwriting of Junius (and the evidence that he did

is weighty) there can be no further question as to the identity of the

two. The similarity of Junius and Francis in regard to their opinions,

their likes and dislikes, their knowledge and their known movements,

amount, apart from the handwriting, almost to proof. It is certain that

many felons have been condemned on circumstantial evidence less

complete. The opposition to his claim is based on such assertions as

that his known handwriting was inferior to the feigned hand of Junius,

and that no man can make a disguised hand better than his own. But the

first assertion is unfounded, and the second is a mere expression of

opinion. It is also said that Francis must have been guilty of baseness

if he wrote Junius, but if that explains why he did not avow the

authorship it can be shown to constitute a moral impossibility only by

an examination of his life.

AUTHORITIES.--The best edition of the _Letters of Junius_, properly so

called, with the _Miscellaneous Letters_, is that of J. Ward (1854).

The most valuable contributions to the controversy as to the

authorship are: _The Handwriting of Junius investigated by Charles

Chabot, expert, with preface and collateral evidence by the Hon. E.

Twisleton_ (1871); _Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis, K.C.B._, by Parkes

and Merivale (1867); _Junius Revealed by his Surviving Grandson_, by

H. R. Francis (1894); _The Francis Letters_, edited by Beata Francis

and Eliza Keary, with a note on the Junius controversy by C. F. Keary

(1901); and "Francis, Sir Philip," by Sir Leslie Stephen, in _Dict. of

Nat. Biog._ The case for those who decline to accept the claim of Sir

Philip Francis is stated by C. W. Dilke, _Papers of a Critic_ (1875),

and Abraham Hayward, _More about Junius, Franciscan Theory Unsound_

(1868). (D. H.)

JUNIUS, FRANZ (in French, François du Jon), the name of two Huguenot

scholars.

(1) FRANZ JUNIUS (1545-1602) was born at Bourges in France on the 1st of

May 1545. He had studied law for two years under Hugo Donellus

(1527-1591) when he was given a place in the retinue of the French

ambassador to Constantinople, but before he reached Lyons the ambassador

had departed. Junius found ample consolation in the opportunities for

study at the gymnasium at Lyons. A religious tumult warned him back to

Bourges, where he was cured of certain rationalistic principles that he

had imbibed at Lyons, and he determined to enter the reformed church. He

went in 1562 to study at Geneva, where he was reduced to the direst

poverty by the failure of remittances from home, owing to civil war in

France. He would accept only the barest sustenance from a humble friend

who had himself been a protégé of Junius's family at Bourges, and his

health was permanently injured. The long-expected remittance from home

was closely followed by the news of the brutal murder of his father by a

Catholic fanatic at Issoudun; and Junius resolved to remain at Geneva,

where his reputation enabled him to live by teaching. In 1565, however,

he was appointed minister of the Walloon church at Antwerp. His foreign

birth excluded him from the privileges of the native reformed pastors,

and exposed him to persecution. Several times he barely escaped arrest,

and finally, after spending six months in preaching at Limburg, he was

forced to retire to Heidelberg in 1567. There he was welcomed by the

elector Frederick II., and temporarily settled in charge of the Walloon

church at Schönau; but in 1568 his patron sent him as chaplain with

Prince William of Orange in his unfortunate expedition to the

Netherlands. Junius escaped as soon as he could from that post, and

returning to his church remained there till 1573. From 1573 till 1578 he

was at Heidelberg, assisting Emmanuel Tremellius (1510-1580), whose

daughter he married, in his Latin version of the Old Testament

(Frankfort, 1579); in 1581 he was appointed to the chair of divinity at

Heidelberg. Thence he was taken to France by the duke of Bouillon, and

after an interview with Henry IV. was sent again to Germany on a

mission. As he was returning to France he was named professor of

theology at Leiden, where he died on the 13th of October 1602.

He was a voluminous writer on theological subjects, and translated and

composed many exegetical works. He is best known from his own edition

of the Latin Old Testament, slightly altered from the former joint

edition, and with a version of the New Testament added (Geneva, 1590;

Hanover, 1624). The _Opera Theologica Francisci Junii Biturigis_ were

published at Geneva (2 vols., 1613), to which is prefixed his

autobiography, written about 1592 (new ed., edited by Abraham Kuypers,

1882 seq.). The autobiography had been published at Leiden (1595), and

is reprinted in the _Miscellanea Groningana_, vol. i., along with a

list of the author's other writings.

(2) FRANZ JUNIUS (1589-1677), son of the above, was born at Heidelberg,

and brought up at Leiden. His attention was diverted from military to

theological studies by the peace of 1609 between Spain and the

Netherlands. In 1617 he became pastor at Hillegondsberg, but in 1620

went to England, where he became librarian to Thomas Howard, earl of

Arundel, and tutor to his son. He remained in England thirty years,

devoting himself to the study of Anglo-Saxon, and afterwards of the

cognate old Teutonic languages. His work, intrinsically valuable, is

important as having aroused interest in a frequently neglected subject.

In 1651 he returned to Holland; and for two years lived in Friesland in

order to study the old dialect. In 1675 he returned to England, and

during the next year resided in Oxford; in 1677 he went to live at

Windsor with his nephew, Isaac Vossius, in whose house he died on the

19th of November 1677. He was buried at Windsor in St George's Chapel.

He was pre-eminently a student. He published _De pictura veterum_

(1637) (in English by the author, 1638; enlarged and improved edition,

edited by J. G. Graevius, who prefixed a life of Junius, with a

catalogue of architects, painters, &c., and their works, Rotterdam,

1694); _Observationes in Willerami Abbatis francicam paraphrasin

cantici canticorum_ (Amsterdam, 1655); _Annotationes in harmoniam

latino-francicam quatuor evangelistarum, latine a Tatiano confectam_

(Amsterdam, 1655); _Caedmonis monachi paraphrasis poetica geneseos_

(Amsterdam, 1655) (see criticism under CAEDMON); _Quatuor D.N.I.C.

evangeliorum versiones perantiquae duae, gothica scilicet et

anglo-saxonica_ (Dort, 2 vols., 1665) (the Gothic version in this book

Junius transcribed from the Silver Codex of Ulfilas; the Anglo-Saxon

version is from an edition by Thomas Marshall, whose notes to both

versions are given, and a Gothic glossary by Junius); _Etymologicum

anglicanum_, edited by Edward Lye, and preceded by a life of Junius

and George Hickes's Anglo-Saxon grammar (Oxford, 1743) (its results

require careful verification in the light of modern research). His

rich collection of ancient MSS., edited and annotated by him, Junius

bequeathed to the university of Oxford. Graevius gives a list of them;

the most important are a version of the _Ormulum_, the version of

Caedmon, and 9 volumes containing _Glossarium v. linguarum

septentrionalium_.

JUNK. (1) (Through Port. _junco_, adapted from Javanese _djong_, or

Malayan _adjong_, ship), the name of the native sailing vessel, common

to the far eastern seas, and especially used by the Chinese and

Javanese. It is a flat-bottomed, high-sterned vessel with square bows

and masts carrying lug-sails, often made of matting. (2) A nautical term

for small pieces of disused rope or cable, cut up to make fenders,

oakum, &c., hence applied colloquially by sailors to the salt beef and

pork used on board ship. The word is of doubtful origin, but may be

connected with "junk" (Lat. _juncus_), a reed, or rush. This word is now

obsolete except as applied to a form of surgical appliance, used as a

support in cases of fracture where immediate setting is impossible, and

consisting of a shaped pillow or cushion stuffed with straw or

horsehair, formerly with rushes or reeds.

JUNKER, WILHELM (1840-1892), German explorer of Africa, was born at

Moscow on the 6th of April 1840. He studied medicine at Dorpat,

Göttingen, Berlin and Prague, but did not practise for long. After a

series of short journeys to Iceland, Tunis and Lower Egypt, he remained

almost continuously in eastern Equatorial Africa from 1875 to 1886,

making first Khartum and afterwards Lado the base of his expeditions,

Junker was a leisurely traveller and a careful observer; his main object

was to study the peoples with whom he came into contact, and to collect

specimens of plants and animals, and the result of his investigations in

these particulars is given in his _Reisen in Afrika_ (3 vols., Vienna,

1889-1891), a work of high merit. An English translation by A. H. Keane

was published in 1890-1892. Perhaps the greatest service he rendered to

geographical science was his investigation of the Nile-Congo watershed,

when he successfully combated Georg Schweinfurth's hydrographical

theories and established the identity of the Welle and Ubangi. The

Mahdist rising prevented his return to Europe through the Sudan, as he

had planned to do, in 1884, and an expedition, fitted out in 1885 by his

brother in St Petersburg, failed to reach him. Junker then determined to

go south. Leaving Wadelai on the 2nd of January 1886 he travelled by way

of Uganda and Tabora and reached Zanzibar in December 1886. In 1887 he

received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. As an

explorer Junker is entitled to high rank, his ethnographical

observations in the Niam-Niam (Azandeh) country being especially

valuable. He died at St Petersburg on the 13th of February 1892.

See the biographical notice by E. G. Ravenstein in _Proceedings of the

Royal Geographical Society_ (1892), pp. 185-187.

JUNKET, a dish of milk curdled by rennet, served with clotted cream and

flavoured with nutmeg, which is particularly associated in England with

Devonshire and Cornwall. The word is of somewhat obscure history. It

appears to come through O. Fr. _jonquette_, a rush-basket, from Lat.

_juncus_, rush. In Norman dialect this word is used of a cream cheese.

The commonly accepted origin is that it refers to the rush-basket on

which such cream cheeses or curds were served. _Juncade_ appears in

Rabelais, and is explained by Cotgrave as "spoon-meat, rose-water and

sugar." Nicholas Udall (in his translation of Erasmus's _Apophthegms_,

1542) speaks of "marchepaines or wafers with other like junkerie." The

word "junket" is also used for a festivity or picnic.

JUNO, the chief Roman and Latin goddess, and the special object of

worship by women at all the critical moments of life. The etymology of

the name is not certain, but it is usually taken as a shortened form of

_Jovino_, answering to _Jovis_, from a root _div_, shining. Under Greek

influence Juno was early identified with the Greek Hera, with whose cult

and characteristics she has much in common; thus the Juno with whom we

are familiar in Latin literature is not the true Roman deity. In the

_Aeneid_, for example, her policy is antagonistic to the plans of

Jupiter for the conquest of Latium and the future greatness of Rome;

though in the fourth _Eclogue_, as Lucina, she appears in her proper

rôle as assisting at childbirth. It was under Greek influence again that

she became the wife of Jupiter, the mother of Mars; the true Roman had

no such personal interest in his deities as to invent family relations

for them.

That Juno was especially a deity of women, and represents in a sense the

female principle of life, is seen in the fact that as every man had his

_genius_, so every woman had her Juno; and the goddess herself may have

been a development of this conception. The various forms of her cult all

show her in close connexion with women. As Juno Lucina she was invoked

in childbirth, and on the 1st of March, the old Roman New Year's day,

the matrons met and made offerings at her temple in a grove on the

Esquiline; hence the day was known as the _Matronalia_. As _Caprotina_

she was especially worshipped by female slaves on the 7th of July

(_Nonae Caprotinae_); as _Sospita_ she was invoked all over Latium as

the saviour of women in their perils, and later as the saviour of the

state; and under a number of other titles, _Cinxia_, _Unxia_, _Pronuba_,

&c., we find her taking a leading part in the ritual of marriage. Her

real or supposed connexion with the moon is explained by the alleged

influence of the moon on the lives of women; thus she became the deity

of the Kalends, or day of the new moon, when the _regina sacrorum_

offered a lamb to her in the _regia_, and her husband the _rex_ made

known to the people the day on which the Nones would fall. Thus she is

brought into close relation with Janus, who also was worshipped on the

Kalends by the _rex sacrorum_, and it may be that in the oldest Roman

religion these two were more closely connected than Juno and Jupiter.

But in historical times she was associated with Jupiter in the great

temple on the Capitoline hill as Juno _Regina_, the queen of all Junones

or queen of heaven, as Jupiter there was _Optimus Maximus_ (see

JUPITER), and under the same title she was enticed from Veii after its

capture in 392 B.C., and settled in a temple on the Aventine. Thus

exalted above all other female deities, she was prepared for that

identification with Hera which was alluded to above. That she was in

some sense a deity of light seems certain; as Lucina, e.g., she

introduced new-born infants "in luminis oras."

See Roscher's article "Juno" in his Lexicon of Mythology, and his

earlier treatise on Juno and Hera; Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der

Römer_, 113 foll.; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in

_Philologus_ for 1905 (p. 161 foll.). (W. W. F.*)

JUNOT, ANDOCHE, DUKE OF ABRABANTES (1771-1813), French general, was born

at Bussy-le-Grand (Côte d'Or), on the 23rd of October 1771. He went to

school at Chatillon, and was known among his comrades as a blustering

but lovable creature, with a pugnacious disposition. He was studying law

in Paris at the outbreak of the Revolution and joined a volunteer

battalion. He distinguished himself by his valour in the first year of

the Revolutionary wars, and came under the special notice of Napoleon

Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon, while serving as his secretary. It

is related that as he was taking down a despatch, a shell burst hard by

and covered the paper with sand, whereupon he exclaimed, "Bien! nous

n'avions pas de sable pour sécher l'encre! en voici!" He remained the

faithful companion of his chief during the latter's temporary disgrace,

and went with him to Italy as aide-de-camp. He distinguished himself so

much at the battle of Millesimo that he was selected to carry back the

captured colours to Paris; returning to Italy he went through the

campaign with honour, but was badly wounded in the head at Lonato. Many

rash incidents in his career may be traced to this wound, from which he

never completely recovered. During the expedition to Egypt he became a

general of brigade. His devotion to Bonaparte involved him in a duel

with General Lanusse, in which he was again wounded. He had to be left

in Egypt to recover, and in crossing to France was captured by English

cruisers. On his return to France he was made commandant of Paris, and

afterwards promoted general of division. It was at this time that he

married Laure Permon (see JUNOT, LAURE). He next served at Arras in

command of the grenadiers of the army destined for the invasion of

England, and made some alterations in the equipment of the troops which

received the praise of the emperor. It was, however, a bitter

mortification that he was not appointed a marshal of France when he

received the grand cross of the legion of honour. He was made

colonel-general of hussars instead and sent as ambassador to Lisbon, his

entry into which city resembled a royal progress. But he was so restless

and dissatisfied in the Portuguese capital that he set out, without

leave, for the army of Napoleon, with which he took part in the battle

of Austerlitz, behaving with his usual courage and zeal. But he soon

gave fresh offence. Although his early devotion was never forgotten by

the emperor, his uncertain temper and want of self-control made it

dangerous to employ him at court or headquarters, and he was sent to

Parma to put down an insurrection and to be out of the way. In 1806 he

was recalled and became governor of Paris. His extravagance and

prodigality shocked the government, and some rumours of an intrigue with

a lady of the imperial family--it is said Pauline Bonaparte--made it

desirable again to send him away. He was therefore appointed to lead an

invading force into Portugal. For the first time Junot had a great task

to perform, and only his own resources to fall back upon for its

achievement. Early in November 1807 he set out from Salamanca, crossed

the mountains of Beira, rallied his wearied forces at Abrantes, and,

with 1500 men, dashed upon Lisbon, in order, if possible, to seize the

Portuguese fleet, which had, however, just sailed away with the regent

and court to Brazil. The whole movement only took a month; it was

undoubtedly bold and well-conducted, and Junot was made duke of Abrantes

and invested with the governorship of Portugal. But administration was

his weak point. He was not a civil governor, but a _sabreur_, brave,

truculent, and also dissipated and rapacious, though in the last respect

he was far from being the worst offender amongst the French generals in

Spain. His hold on Portugal was never supported by a really adequate

force, and his own conduct, which resembled that of an eastern monarch,

did nothing to consolidate his conquest. After Wellesley encountered him

at Vimiera (see Peninsular War) he was obliged to conclude the so-called

convention of Cintra, and to withdraw from Portugal with all his forces.

Napoleon was furious, but, as he said, was spared the necessity of

sending his old friend before a court martial by the fact that the

English put their own generals on their trial. Junot was sent back to

Spain, where, in 1810-1811, acting under Masséna, he was once more

seriously wounded. His last campaign was made in Russia, and he received

more than a just share of discredit for it. Napoleon next appointed him

to govern Illyria. But Junot's mind had become deranged under the weight

of his misfortunes, and on the 29th of July 1813, at Montbard, he threw

himself from a window in a fit of insanity.

JUNOT, LAURE, DUCHESS OF ABRANTES (1783-1834), wife of the preceding,

was born at Montpellier. She was the daughter of Mme. Permon, to whom

during her widowhood the young Bonaparte made an offer of marriage--such

at least is the version presented by the daughter in her celebrated

_Memoirs_. The Permon family, after various vicissitudes, settled at

Paris, and Bonaparte certainly frequented their house a good deal after

the downfall of the Jacobin party in Thermidor 1794. Mlle. Permon was

married to Junot early in the consulate, and at once entered eagerly

into all the gaieties of Paris, and became noted for her beauty, her

caustic wit, and her extravagance. The first consul nicknamed her

_petite peste_, but treated her and Junot with the utmost generosity, a

fact which did not restrain her sarcasms and slanders in her portrayal

of him in her _Memoirs_. During Junot's diplomatic mission to Lisbon,

his wife displayed her prodigality so that on his return to Paris in

1806 he was burdened with debts, which his own intrigues did not lessen.

She joined him again at Lisbon after he had entered that city as

conqueror at the close of 1807; but even the presents and spoils won at

Lisbon did not satisfy her demands; she accompanied Junot through part

of the Peninsular War. On her return to France she displeased the

emperor by her vivacious remarks and by receiving guests whom he

disliked. The mental malady of Junot thereafter threatened her with

ruin; this perhaps explains why she took some part in the intrigues for

bringing back the Bourbons in 1814. She did not side with Napoleon

during the Hundred Days. After 1815 she spent most of her time at Rome

amidst artistic society, which she enlivened with her sprightly

converse. She also compiled her spirited but somewhat spiteful

_Memoirs_, which were published at Paris in 1831-1834 in 18 volumes.

Many editions have since appeared.

Of her other books the most noteworthy are _Histoires contemporaines_

(2 vols., 1835); _Scènes de la vie espagnole_ (2 vols., 1836);

_Histoire des salons de Paris_ (6 vols., 1837-1838); _Souvenirs d'une

ambassade et d'un séjour en Espagne et en Portugal, de 1808 à 1811_ (2

vols., 1837). (J. Hl. R.)

JUNTA (from _juntar_, to join), a Spanish word meaning (1) any meeting

for a common purpose; (2) a committee; (3) an administrative council or

board. The original meaning is now rather lost in the two derivative

significations. The Spaniards have even begun to make use of the

barbarism _métin_, corrupted from the English "meeting." The word

_junta_ has always been and still is used in the other senses. Some of

the boards by which the Spanish administration was conducted under the

Habsburg and the earlier Bourbon kings were styled _juntas_. The

superior governing body of the Inquisition was the _junta suprema_. The

provincial committees formed to organize resistance to Napoleon's

invasion in 1808 were so called, and so was the general committee chosen

from among them to represent the nation. In the War of Independence

(1808-1814), and in all subsequent civil wars or revolutionary

disturbances in Spain or Spanish America, the local executive bodies,

elected, or in some cases self-chosen, to appoint officers, raise money

and soldiers, look after the wounded, and discharge the functions of an

administration, have been known as juntas.

The form "Junto," a corruption due to other Spanish words ending in

-_o_, came into use in English in the 17th century, often in a

disparaging sense, of a party united for a political purpose, a faction

or cabal; it was particularly applied to the advisers of Charles I., to

the Rump under Cromwell, and to the leading members of the great Whig

houses who controlled the government in the reigns of William III. and

Anne.

JUPITER, the chief deity of the Roman state. The great and constantly

growing influence exerted from a very early period on Rome by the

superior civilization of Greece not only caused a modification of the

Roman god on the analogy of Zeus, the supreme deity of the Greeks, but

led the Latin writers to identify the one with the other, and to

attribute to Jupiter myths and family relations which were purely Greek

and never belonged to the real Roman religion. The Jupiter of actual

worship was a Roman god; the Jupiter of Latin literature was more than

half Greek. This identification was facilitated by the community of

character which really belonged to Jupiter and Zeus as the Roman and

Greek developments of a common original conception of the god of the

light and the heaven.

That this was the original idea of Jupiter, not only in Rome, but among

all Italian peoples, admits of no doubt. The earliest form of his name

was _Diovis pater_, or _Diespiter_, and his special priest was the

flamen dialis; all these words point to a root _div_, shining, and the

connexion with _dies_, day, is obvious (cf. JUNO). One of his most

ancient epithets is _Lucetius_, the light-bringer; and later literature

has preserved the same idea in such phrases as _sub Jove_, under the

open sky. All days of the full moon (_idus_) were sacred to him; all

emanations from the sky were due to him and in the oldest form of

religious thought were probably believed to be manifestations of the god

himself. As Jupiter _Elicius_ he was propitiated, with a peculiar

ritual, to send rain in time of drought; as Jupiter _Fulgur_ he had an

altar in the Campus Martius, and all places struck by lightning were

made his property and guarded from the profane by a circular wall. The

vintage, which needs especially the light and heat of the sun, was under

his particular care, and in the festivals connected with it (_Vinalia

urbana_) and _Meditrinalia_, he was the deity invoked, and his flamen

the priest employed. Throughout Italy we find him worshipped on the

summits of hills, where nothing intervened between earth and heaven, and

where all the phenomena of the sky could be conveniently observed. Thus

on the Alban hill south of Rome was an ancient seat of his worship as

Jupiter _Latiaris_, which was the centre of the league of thirty Latin

cities of which Rome was originally an ordinary member. At Rome itself

it is on the Capitoline hill that we find his oldest temple, described

by Livy (i. 10); here we have a tradition of his sacred tree, the oak,

common to the worship both of Zeus and Jupiter, and here too was kept

the _lapis silex_, perhaps a celt, believed to have been a thunderbolt,

which was used symbolically by the fetiales when officially declaring

war and making treaties on behalf of the Roman state. Hence the curious

form of oath, _Jovem lapident jurare_, used both in public and private

life at Rome.

In this oldest Jupiter of the Latins and Romans, the god of the light

and the heaven, and the god invoked in taking the most solemn oaths, we

may undoubtedly see not only the great protecting deity of the race, but

one, and perhaps the only one, whose worship embodies a distinct moral

conception. He is specially concerned with oaths, treaties and leagues,

and it was in the presence of his priest that the most ancient and

sacred form of marriage, _confarreatio_, took place. The lesser deities,

Dius Fidius and Fides, were probably originally identical with him, and

only gained a separate existence in course of time by a process familiar

to students of ancient religion. This connexion with the conscience,

with the sense of obligation and right dealing, was never quite lost

throughout Roman history. In Virgil's great poem, though Jupiter is in

many ways as much Greek as Roman, he is still the great protecting deity

who keeps the hero in the path of duty (_pietas_) towards gods, state

and family.

But this aspect of Jupiter gained a new force and meaning at the close

of the monarchy with the building of the famous temple on the Capitol,

of which the foundations are still to be seen. It was dedicated to

Jupiter _Optimus Maximus_, i.e. the best and greatest of all the

Jupiters, and with him were associated Juno and Minerva, in a fashion

which clearly indicates a Graeco-Etruscan origin; for the combination of

three deities in one temple was foreign to the ancient Roman religion,

while it is found both in Greece and Etruria. This temple was built on a

scale of magnificence quite unknown to primitive Rome, and was beyond

doubt the work of Etruscan architects employed, we may presume, by the

Tarquinii. Its three _cellae_ contained the statues of the three

deities, with Jupiter in the middle holding his thunderbolt.

Henceforward it was the centre of the religious life of the state, and

symbolized its unity and strength. Its dedication festival fell on the

13th of September, on which day the consuls originally succeeded to

office; accompanied by the senate and other magistrates and priests, and

in fulfilment of a vow made by their predecessors, they offered to the

great god a white heifer, his favourite sacrifice, and after rendering

thanks for the preservation of the state during the past year, made the

same vow as that by which they themselves had been bound. Then followed

the _epulum Jovis_ or feast of Jupiter, in which the three deities seem

to have been visibly present in the form of their statues, Jupiter

having a couch and each goddess a _sella_, and shared the meal with

senate and magistrates. In later times this day became the central point

of the great Roman games (_ludi Romani_), originally games vowed in

honour of the god if he brought a war to a successful issue. When a

victorious army returned home, it was to this temple that the triumphal

procession passed, and the triumph of which we hear so often in Roman

history may be taken as a religious ceremonial in honour of Jupiter. The

general was dressed and painted to resemble the statue of Jupiter

himself, and was drawn on a gilded chariot by four white horses through

the Porta Triumphalis to the Capitol, where he offered a solemn

sacrifice to the god, and laid on his knees the victor's laurels (see

TRIUMPH).

Throughout the period of the Republic the great god of the Capitol in

his temple looking down on the Forum continued to overshadow all other

worships as the one in which the whole state was concerned, in all its

length and breadth, rather than any one gens or family. Under Augustus

and the new monarchy it is sometimes said that the Capitoline worship

suffered to some extent an eclipse (J. B. Carter, _The Religion of

Numa_, p. 160 seq.); and it is true that as it was the policy of

Augustus to identify the state with the interests of his own family, he

did what was feasible to direct the attention of the people to the

worships in which he and his family were specially concerned; thus his

temple of Apollo on the Palatine, and that of Mars Ultor in the Forum

Augusti, took over a few of the prerogatives of the cult on the Capitol.

But Augustus was far too shrewd to attempt to oust Jupiter Optimus

Maximus from his paramount position; and he became the protecting deity

of the reigning emperor as representing the state, as he had been the

protecting deity of the free republic. His worship spread over the whole

empire; it is probable that every city had its temple to the three

deities of the Roman Capitol, and the fact that the Romans chose the

name of Jupiter in almost every case, by which to indicate the chief

deity of the subject peoples, proves that they continued to regard him,

so long as his worship existed at all, as the god whom they themselves

looked upon as greatest.

See ZEUS, ROMAN RELIGION. Excellent accounts of Jupiter may be found

in Roscher's _Mythological Lexicon_, and in Wissowa's _Religion und

Kultus der Römer_ (p. 100 seq.). (W. M. Ra.; W. W. F.*)

JUPITER, in astronomy, the largest planet of the solar system; his size

is so great that it exceeds the collective mass of all the others in the

proportion of 5 to 2. He travels in his orbit at a mean distance from

the sun exceeding that of the earth 5.2 times, or 483,000,000 miles. The

eccentricity of this orbit is considerable, amounting to 0.048, so that

his maximum and minimum distances are 504,000,000 and 462,000,000 miles

respectively. When in opposition and at his mean distance, he is

situated 390,000,000 miles from the earth. His orbit is inclined about

1° 18´ 40´´ to the ecliptic. His sidereal revolution is completed in

4332.585 days or 11 years 314.9 days, and his synodical period, or the

mean interval separating his returns to opposition, amounts to 398.87

days. His real polar and equatorial diameters measure 84,570 and 90,190

miles respectively, so that the mean is 87,380 miles. His apparent

diameter (equatorial) as seen from the earth varies from about 32´´,

when in conjunction with the sun, to 50´´ in opposition to that

luminary. The oblateness, or compression, of his globe amounts to about

1/16; his volume exceeds that of the earth 1390 times, while his mass is

about 300 times greater. These values are believed to be as accurate as

the best modern determinations allow, but there are some differences

amongst various observers and absolute exactness cannot be obtained.

The discovery of telescopic construction early in the 17th century and

the practical use of the telescope by Galileo and others greatly

enriched our knowledge of Jupiter and his system. Four of the satellites

were detected in 1610, but the dark bands or belts on the globe of the

planet do not appear to have been noticed until twenty years later.

Though Galileo first sighted the satellites and perseveringly studied

the Jovian orb, he failed to distinguish the belts, and we have to

conclude either that these features were unusually faint at the period

of his observations, or that his telescopes were insufficiently powerful

to render them visible. The belts were first recognized by Nicolas

Zucchi and Daniel Bartoli on the 17th of May 1630. They were seen also

by Francesco Fontana in the same and immediately succeeding years, and

by other observers of about the same period, including Zuppi, Giovanni

Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi. Improvements in

telescopes were quickly introduced, and between 1655 and 1666 C.

Huygens, R. Hooke and J. D. Cassini made more effective observations.

Hooke discovered a large dark spot in the planet's southern hemisphere

on the 19th of May 1664, and from this object Cassini determined the

rotation period, in 1665 and later years, as 9 hours 56 minutes.

The belts, spots and irregular markings on Jupiter have now been

assiduously studied during nearly three centuries. These markings are

extremely variable in their tones, tints and relative velocities, and

there is little reason to doubt that they are atmospheric formations

floating above the surface of the planet in a series of different

currents. Certain of the markings appear to be fairly durable, though

their rates of motion exhibit considerable anomalies and prove that they

must be quite detached from the actual sphere of Jupiter. At various

times determinations of the rotation period were made as follows:--

_Date._ _Observer._ _Period._ _Place of Spot._

1672 J. D. Cassini 9 h. 55 m. 50 s. Lat. 16° S.

1692 " 9 h. 50 m. Equator.

1708 J. P. Maraldi 9 h. 55 m. 48 s. S. tropical zone

1773 J. Sylvabelle 9 h. 56 m. " "

1788 J. H. Schröter 9 h. 55 m. 33.6 s. Lat. 12° N.

1788 " 9 h. 55 m. 17.6 s. Lat. 20° S.

1835 J. H. Mädler 9 h. 55 m. 26.5 s. Lat. 5° N.

1835 G. B. Airy 9 h. 55 m. 21.3 s. N. tropical zone.

A great number of Jovian features have been traced in more recent years

and their rotation periods ascertained. According to the researches of

Stanley Williams the rates of motion for different latitudes of the

planet are approximately as under:--

_Latitude._ _Rotation Period._

+85° to +28° 9 h. 55 m. 37.5 s.

+28° to +24° 9 h. 54½ m. to 9 h. 56½ m.

+24° to +20° 9 h. 48 m. to 9 h. 49½ m.

+20° to +10° 9 h. 55 m. 33.9 s.

+10° to -12° 9 h. 50 m. 20 s.

-12° to -18° 9 h. 55 m. 40 s.

-18° to -37° 9 h. 55 m. 18.1 s.

-37° to -55° 9 h. 55 m. 5 s.

W. F. Denning gives the following relative periods for the years 1898 to

1905:--

_Latitude._ _Rotation Period._

N.N. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 41.5 s.

N. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 53.8 s.

N. tropical 9 h. 55 m. 30 s.

Equatorial 9 h. 50 m. 27 s.

S. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 19.5 s.

S.S. temperate 9 h. 55 m. 7 s.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Inverted disk of Jupiter, showing the different

currents and their rates of rotation.]

The above are the mean periods derived from a large number of markings.

The bay or hollow in the great southern equatorial belt north of the red

spot has perhaps been observed for a longer period than any other

feature on Jupiter except the red spot itself. H. Schwabe saw the hollow

in the belt on the 5th of September 1831 and on many subsequent dates.

The rotation period of this object during the seventy years to the 5th

of September 1901 was 9 h. 55 m. 36 s. from 61,813 rotations. Since 1901

the mean period has been 9 h. 55 m. 40 s., but it has fluctuated between

9 h. 55 m. 38 s. and 9 h. 55 m. 42 s. The motion of the various features

is not therefore dependent upon their latitude, though at the equator

the rate seems swifter as a rule than in other zones. But exceptions

occur, for in 1880 some spots appeared in about 23° N. which rotated in

9 h. 48 m. though in the region immediately N. of this the spot motion

is ordinarily the slowest of all and averages 9 h. 55 m. 53.8 s. (from

twenty determinations). These differences of speed remind us of the

sun-spots and their proper motions. The solar envelope, however, appears

to show a pretty regular retardation towards the poles, for according to

Gustav Spörer's formula, while the equatorial period is 25 d. 2 h. 15 m.

the latitudes 46° N. and S. give a period of 28 d. 15 h. 0 m.

The Jovian currents flow in a due east and west direction as though

mainly influenced by the swift rotatory movement of the globe, and

exhibit little sign of deviation either to N. or S. These currents do

not blend and pass gradually into each other, but seem to be definitely

bounded and controlled by separate, phenomena well capable of preserving

their individuality. Occasionally, it is true, there have been slanting

belts on Jupiter (a prominent example occurred in the spring of 1861),

as though the materials were evolved with some force in a polar

direction, but these oblique formations have usually spread out in

longitude and ultimately formed bands parallel with the equator. The

longitudinal currents do not individually present us with an equable

rate of motion. In fact they display some curious irregularities, the

spots carried along in them apparently oscillating to and fro without

any reference to fixed periods or cyclical variations. Thus the

equatorial current in 1880 moved at the rate of 9 h. 50 m. 6 s. whereas

in 1905 it was 9 h. 50 m. 33 s. The red spot in the S. tropical zone

gave 9 h. 55 m. 34 s. in 1879-1880, whereas during 1900-1908 it has

varied a little on either side of 9 h. 55 m. 40.6 s. Clearly therefore

no fixed period of rotation can be applied for any spot since it is

subject to drifts E. or W. and these drifts sometimes come into

operation suddenly, and may be either temporary or durable. Between 1878

and 1900 the red spot in the planet's S. hemisphere showed a continuous

retardation of speed.

It must be remembered that in speaking of the rotation of these

markings, we are simply alluding to the irregularities in the vaporous

envelope of Jupiter. The rotation of the planet itself is another matter

and its value is not yet exactly known, though it is probably little

different from that of the markings, and especially from those of the

most durable character, which indicate a period of about 9 h. 56 m. We

never discern the actual landscape of Jupiter or any of the individual

forms really diversifying it.

Possibly the red spot which became so striking an object in 1878, and

which still remains faintly visible on the planet, is the same feature

as that discovered by R. Hooke in 1664 and watched by Cassini in

following years. It was situated in approximately the same latitude of

the planet and appears to have been hidden temporarily during several

periods up to 1713. But the lack of fairly continuous observations of

this particular marking makes its identity with the present spot

extremely doubtful. The latter was seen by W. R. Dawes in 1857, by Sir

W. Huggins in 1858, by J. Baxendell in 1859, by Lord Rosse and R.

Copeland in 1873, by H. C. Russell in 1876-1877, and in later years it

has formed an object of general observation. In fact it may safely be

said that no planetary marking has ever aroused such widespread interest

and attracted such frequent observation as the great red spot on

Jupiter.

The slight inclination of the equator of this planet to the plane of his

orbit suggests that he experiences few seasonal changes. From the

conditions we are, in fact, led to expect a prevailing calm in his

atmosphere, the more so from the circumstance that the amount of the

sun's heat poured upon each square mile of it is (on the average) less

than the 27th part of that received by each square mile of the earth's

surface. Moreover, the seasons of Jupiter have nearly twelve times the

duration of ours, so that it would be naturally expected that changes in

his atmosphere produced by solar action take place with extreme

slowness. But this is very far from being the case. Telescopes reveal

the indications of rapid changes and extensive disturbances in the

aspect and material forming the belts. New spots covering large areas

frequently appear and as frequently decay and vanish, implying an

agitated condition of the Jovian atmosphere, and leading us to admit the

operation of causes much more active than the heating influence of the

sun.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Jupiter, 1903, July 10, 2.50 a.m.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Jupiter, 1906, April 15, 5.50 p.m.]

When we institute a comparison between Jupiter and the earth on the

basis that the atmosphere of the former planet bears the same relation

to his mass as the atmosphere of the earth bears to her mass, we find

that a state of things must prevail on Jupiter very dissimilar to that

affecting our own globe. The density of the Jovian atmosphere we should

expect to be fully six times as great as the density of our air at

sea-level, while it would be comparatively shallow. But the telescopic

aspect of Jupiter apparently negatives the latter supposition. The belts

and spots grow faint as they approach the limb, and disappear as they

near the edge of the disk, thus indicating a dense and deep atmosphere.

R. A. Proctor considered that the observed features suggested inherent

heat, and adopted this conclusion as best explaining the surface

phenomena of the planet. He regarded Jupiter as belonging, on account of

his immense size, to a different class of bodies from the earth, and was

led to believe that there existed greater analogy between Jupiter and

the sun than between Jupiter and the earth. Thus the density of the sun,

like that of Jupiter, is small compared with the earth's; in fact, the

mean density of the sun is almost identical with that of Jupiter, and

the belts of the latter planet may be much more aptly compared with the

spot zones of the sun than with the trade zones of the earth.

In support of the theory of inherent heat on Jupiter it has been said

that his albedo (or light reflected from his surface) is much greater

than the amount would be were his surface similar to that of the moon,

Mercury or Mars, and the reasoning has been applied to the large outer

planets, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, as well as to Jupiter. The average

reflecting capacity of the moon and five outer planets would seem to be

(on the assumption that they possess no inherent light) as follows:--

Moon 0.1736 Jupiter 0.6238 Uranus 0.6400

Mars 0.2672 Saturn 0.4981 Neptune 0.4848

These values were considered to support the view that the four larger

and more distant orbs shine partly by inherent lustre, and the more so

as spectroscopic analysis indicates that they are each involved in a

deep vapour-laden atmosphere. But certain observations furnish a

contradiction to Proctor's views. The absolute extinction of the

satellites, even in the most powerful telescopes, while in the shadow of

Jupiter, shows that they cannot receive sufficient light from their

primary to render them visible, and the darkness of the shadows of the

satellites when projected on the planet's disk proves that the latter

cannot be self-luminous except in an insensible degree. It is also to be

remarked that, were it only moderately self-luminous, the colour of the

light which it sends to us would be red, such light being at first

emitted from a heated body when its temperature is raised. Possibly,

however, the great red spot, when the colouring was intense in 1878 and

several following years, may have represented an opening in the Jovian

atmosphere, and the ruddy belts may be extensive rifts in the same

envelope. If Jupiter's actual globe emitted a good deal of heat and

light we should probably distinguish little of it, owing to the

obscuring vapours floating above the surface. Venus reflects relatively

more light than Jupiter, and there is little doubt that the albedo of a

planet is dependent upon atmospheric characteristics, and is in no case

a direct indication of inherent light and heat.

The colouring of the belts appears to be due to seasonal variations, for

Stanley Williams has shown that their changes have a cycle of twelve

years, and correspond as nearly as possible with a sidereal revolution

of Jupiter. The variations are of such character that the two great

equatorial belts are alternately affected; when the S. equatorial belt

displays maximum redness the N. equatorial is at a minimum and vice

versa.

The most plausible hypothesis with regard to the red spot is that it is

of the nature of an island floating upon a liquid surface, though its

great duration does not favour this idea. But it is an open question

whether the belts of Jupiter indicate a liquid or gaseous condition of

the visible surface. The difficulty in the way of the liquid hypothesis

is the great difference in the times of rotation between the equatorial

portions of the planet and the spots in temperate latitudes. The latter

usually rotate in periods between 9 h. 55 m. and 9 h. 56 m., while the

equatorial markings make a revolution in about five minutes less, 9 h.

50 m. to 9 h. 51 m. The difference amounts to 7.5° in a terrestrial day

and proves that an equatorial spot will circulate right round the

enormous sphere of Jupiter (circumference 283,000 m.) in 48 days. The

motion is equivalent to about 6000 m. per day and 250 m. per hour.

(W. F. D.)

_Satellites of Jupiter._

Jupiter is attended by eight known satellites, resolvable as regards

their visibility into two widely different classes. Four satellites were

discovered by Galileo and were the only ones known until 1892. In

September of that year E. E. Barnard, at the Lick Observatory,

discovered a fifth extremely faint satellite, performing a revolution in

somewhat less than twelve hours. In 1904 two yet fainter satellites, far

outside the other five, were photographically discovered by C. D.

Perrine at the Lick Observatory. The eighth satellite was discovered by

P. J. Melotte of Greenwich on the 28th of February 1908. It is of the

17th magnitude and appears to be very distant from Jupiter; a

re-observation on the 16th of January 1909 proved it to be retrograde,

and to have a very eccentric orbit. These bodies are usually numbered in

the order of their discovery, the nearest to the sun being V. In

apparent brightness each of the four Galilean satellites may be roughly

classed as of the sixth magnitude; they would therefore be visible to a

keen eye if the brilliancy of the planet did not obscure them. Some

observers profess to have seen one or more of these bodies with the

naked eye notwithstanding this drawback, but the evidence can scarcely

be regarded as conclusive. It does not however seem unlikely that the

third, which is the brightest, might be visible when in conjunction with

one of the others.

Under good conditions and sufficient telescopic power the satellites are

visible as disks, and not mere points of light. Measures of the apparent

diameter of objects so faint are, however, difficult and uncertain. The

results for the Galilean satellites range between 0´´.9 and 1´´.5,

corresponding to diameters of between 3000 and 5000 kilometres. The

smallest is therefore about the size of our moon. Satellite I. has been

found to exhibit marked variations in its brightness and aspect, but the

law governing them has not been satisfactorily worked out. It seems

probable that one hemisphere of this satellite is brighter than the

other, or that there is a large dark region upon it. A revolution on its

axis corresponding with that of the orbital revolution around the planet

has also been suspected, but is not yet established. Variations of light

somewhat similar, but less in amount, have been noticed in the second

and third satellites.

The most interesting and easily observed phenomena of these bodies are

their eclipses and their transits across the disk of Jupiter. The four

inner satellites pass through the shadow of Jupiter at every superior

conjunction, and across his disk at every inferior conjunction. The

outer Galilean satellite does the same when the conjunctions are not too

near the line of nodes of the satellites' orbit. When most distant from

the nodes, the satellites pass above or below the shadow and below or

above the disk. These phenomena for the four Galilean satellites are

predicted in the nautical almanacs.

When one of the four Galilean satellites is in transit across the disk

of Jupiter it can generally be seen projected on the face of the planet.

It is commonly brighter than Jupiter when it first enters upon the limb

but sometimes darker near the centre of the disk. This is owing to the

fact that the planet is much darker at the limb. During these transits

the shadow of the satellites can also be seen projected on the planet as

a dark point.

The theories of the motion of these bodies form one of the more

interesting problems of celestial mechanics. Owing to the great

ellipticity of Jupiter, growing out of his rapid rotation, the

influence of this ellipticity upon the motions of the five inner

satellites is much greater than that of the sun, or of the satellites

on each other. The inclination of the orbits to the equator of Jupiter

is quite small and almost constant, and the motion of each node is

nearly uniform around the plane of the planet's equator.

The most marked feature of these bodies is a relation between the mean

longitudes of Satellites I., II. and III. The mean longitude of I.

plus twice that of III. minus three times that of II. is constantly

near to 180°. It follows that the same relations subsist among the

mean motions. The cause of this was pointed out by Laplace. If we put

L1 L2 and L3 for the mean longitudes, and define an angle U as

follows:--