DISEASES AND INJURIES OF JOINTS

The affection of the joints of the human body by specific diseases is

dealt with under various headings (RHEUMATISM, &c.); in the present

article the more direct forms of ailment are discussed. In most

joint-diseases the trouble starts either in the synovial lining or in

the bone--rarely in the articular cartilage or ligaments. As a rule, the

disease begins after an injury. There are three principal types of

injury: (1) sprain or strain, in which the ligamentous and tendinous

structures are stretched or lacerated; (2) contusion, in which the

opposing bones are driven forcibly together; (3) dislocation, in which

the articular surfaces are separated from one another.

A _sprain_ or _strain_ of a joint means that as the result of violence

the ligaments holding the bones together have been suddenly stretched

or even torn. On the inner aspect the ligaments are lined by a

synovial membrane, so when the ligaments are stretched the synovial

membrane is necessarily damaged. Small blood-vessels are also torn,

and bleeding occurs into the joint, which may become full and

distended. If, however, bleeding does not take place, the swelling is

not immediate, but synovitis having been set up, serous effusion comes

on sooner or later. There is often a good deal of heat of the

surrounding skin and of pain accompanying the synovitis. In the case

of a healthy individual the effects of a sprain may quickly pass off,

but in a rheumatic or gouty person chronic synovitis may obstinately

remain. In a person with a tuberculous history, or of tuberculous

descent, a sprain is apt to be the beginning of serious disease of the

joint, and it should, therefore, be treated with continuous rest and

prolonged supervision. In a person of health and vigour, a sprained

joint should be at once bandaged. This may be the only treatment

needed. It gives support and comfort, and the even pressure around the

joint checks effusion into it. Wide pieces of adhesive strapping,

layer on layer, form a still more useful support, and with the joint

so treated the person may be able at once to use the limb. If

strapping is not employed, the bandage may be taken off from time to

time in order that the limb and the joint may be massaged. If the

sprain is followed by much synovitis a plaster of Paris or leather

splint may be applied, complete rest being secured for the limb. Later

on, blistering or even "firing" may be found advisable.

_Synovitis._--When a joint has been injured, inflammation occurs in

the damaged tissue; that is inevitable. But sometimes the attack of

inflammation is so slight and transitory as to be scarcely noticeable.

This is specially likely to occur if the joint-tissues were in a state

of perfect nutrition at the time of the hurt. But if the individual or

the joint were at that time in a state of imperfect nutrition, the

effects are likely to be more serious. As a rule, it is the synovial

membrane lining the fibrous capsule of the joint which first and

chiefly suffers; the condition is termed _synovitis_. Synovitis may,

however, be due to other causes than mechanical injury, as when the

interior of the joint is attacked by the micro-organisms of pyæmia

(blood-poisoning), typhoid fever, pneumonia, rheumatism, gonorrhoea or

syphilis. Under judicious treatment the synovitis generally clears up,

but it may linger on and cause the formation of adhesions which may

temporarily stiffen the joint; or it may, especially in tuberculous,

septic or pyæmic infections, involve the cartilages, ligaments and

bones in such serious changes as to destroy the joint, and possibly

call for resection or amputation.

The symptoms of synovitis include stiffness and tenderness in the

joint. The patient notices that movements cause pain. Effusion of

fluid takes place, and there is marked fullness in the neighbourhood.

If the inflammation is advancing, the skin over the joint may be

flushed, and if the hand is placed on the skin it feels hot.

Especially is this the case if the joint is near the surface, as at

the knee, wrist or ankle.

The treatment of an inflamed joint demands rest. This may be

conveniently obtained by the use of a light wooden splint, padding and

bandages. Slight compression of the joint by a bandage is useful in

promoting absorption of the fluid. If the inflamed joint is in the

lower extremity, the patient had best remain in bed, or on the sofa;

if in the upper extremity, he should wear his arm in a sling. The

muscles acting on the joint must be kept in complete control. If the

inflammation is extremely acute a few leeches, followed by a

fomentation, will give relief; or an icebag or an evaporating lotion

may, by causing constriction of the blood-vessels, lessen the

congestion of the part and the associated pain. As the inflammation is

passing off, massage of the limb and of the joint will prove useful.

If the inflammation is long continued, the limb must still be kept at

rest. By this time it may be found that some other material for the

retentive apparatus is more convenient and comfortable, as, for

instance, undressed leather which has been moulded on wet and allowed

to dry and harden; poro-plastic felt, which has been softened by heat

and applied limp, or house-flannel which has been dipped in a creamy

mixture of plaster-of-Paris and water, and secured by a bandage.

_Chronic Disease of a Joint_ may be the tailing off of an acute

affection, and under the influence of alternate douchings of hot and

cold water, of counter-irritation by blistering or "firing," and of

massage, it may eventually clear up, especially if the general health

of the individual is looked after. But if chronic disease lingers in

the joint of a child or young person, the probability of its being

under the influence of tuberculous infection must be considered. In

such a case prolonged and absolute rest is the one thing necessary. If

the disease be in the hip, knee, ankle or foot, the patient may be

fitted with an appropriate Thomas's splint and allowed to walk about,

for it is highly important to have these patients out in the fresh

air. If the disease be in the shoulder, elbow, wrist or hand, a

leather or poro-plastic splint should be moulded on, and the arm worn

in a sling. There must be no hurry; convalescence will needs be slow.

And if the child can be sent to a bracing sea-side place it will be

much in his favour.

As the disease clears up, the surface heat, the pains and the

tenderness having disappeared, and the joint having so diminished in

size as to be scarcely larger than its fellow--though the wasting of

the muscles of the limb may cause it still to appear considerably

enlarged--the splint may be gradually left off. This remission may be

for an hour or two every other day; then every other night; then every

other day, and so on, the freedom being gained little by little, and

the surgeon watching the case carefully. On the slightest indication

of return of trouble, the former restrictive measures must be again

resorted to. Massage and gentle exercises may be given day by day, but

there must be no thought of "breaking down the stiffness." Many a

joint has in such circumstances been wrecked by the manipulations of a

"bone-setter."

_Permanent Stiffness._--During the treatment of a case of chronic

disease of a joint, the question naturally arises as to whether the

joint will be left permanently stiff. People have the idea that if an

inflamed joint is kept long on a splint, it may eventually be found

permanently stiff. And this is quite correct. But it should be clearly

understood that it is not the _rest_ of the inflamed joint which

causes the stiffness. The matter should be put thus: in tuberculous

and other forms of chronic disease stiffness may ensue in spite of

long-continued rest. It is the destructive disease, not the enforced

rest which causes it; for inflammation of a joint rest is absolutely

necessary.

The _Causes of permanent Stiffness_ are the destructive changes

wrought by the inflammation. In one case it may be that the synovial

membrane is so far destroyed by the tuberculous or septic invasion

that its future usefulness is lost, and the joint ever afterwards

creaks at its work and easily becomes tired and painful. Thus the

joint is crippled but not destroyed. In another case the ligaments and

the cartilages are implicated as well as the synovial membrane, and

when the disease clears up, the bones are more or less locked, only a

small range of motion being left, which forcible flexion and other

methods of vigorous treatment are unable materially to improve. In

another set of cases the inflammatory germs quickly destroy the soft

tissues of the joint, and then invade the bones, and, the disease

having at last come to an end, the softened ends of the bones solidly

join together like the broken fragments in simple fracture. As a

result, osseous solidification of the joint (_synostosis_) ensues

without, of course, the possibility of any movement. And, inasmuch as

the surgeon cannot tell in any case whether the disease may not

advance in this direction, he is careful to place the limb in that

position in which it will be most useful if the bony union should

occur. Thus, the leg is kept straight, and the elbow bent.

In the course of a tuberculous or other chronic disease of a joint,

the germs of septic disease may find access to the inflamed area,

through a wound or ulceration into the joint, or by the germs being

carried thither by the blood-stream. A _joint-abscess_ results, which

has to be treated by incision and fomentations. If chronic suppuration

continues, it may become necessary to scrape out or to excise the

joint, or even to amputate the limb. And if tuberculous disease of the

joint is steadily progressing in spite of treatment, vigorous measures

may be needed to prevent the fluid from quietly ulcerating its way out

and thus inviting the entrance of septic germs. The fluid may need to

be drawn off by aspiration, and direct treatment of the diseased

synovial membrane may be undertaken by injections of chloride of zinc

or some other reagent. Or the joint may need scraping out with a sharp

spoon with the view of getting rid of the tuberculous material. Later,

excision may be deemed necessary, or in extreme cases, amputation. But

before these measures are considered, A. C. G. Bier's method of

treatment by passive congestion, and the treatment by serum

injection, will probably have been tried. If a joint is left

permanently stiff in an awkward and useless position, the limb may be

greatly improved by excision of the joint. Thus, if the knee is left

bent and the joint is excised a useful, straight limb may be obtained,

somewhat shortened, and, of course, permanently stiff. If after

disease of the hip-joint the thigh remains fixed in a faulty position,

it may be brought down straight by dividing the bone near the upper

end. A stiff shoulder or elbow may be converted into a useful, movable

joint by excision of the articular ends of the bones.

A _stiff joint_ may remain as the result of long continued

inflammation; the unused muscles are wasted and the joint in

consequence looks large. Careful measurement, however, may show that

it is not materially larger than its fellow. And though all tenderness

may have passed away, and though the neighbouring skin is no longer

hot, still the joint remains stiff and useless. No progress being made

under the influence of massage, or of gentle exercises, the surgeon

may advise that the lingering adhesion be broken down under an

anaesthetic, after which the function of the joint may quickly return.

There are the cases over which the "bone-setter" secures his greatest

triumphs. A qualified practitioner may have been for months

judiciously treating an inflamed joint by rest, and then feels a

hesitation with regard to suddenly flexing the stiffened limb. The

"bone-setter," however, has no such qualms, and when the case passes

out of the hands of the perhaps over-careful surgeon, the unqualified

practitioner (because he, from a scientific point of view, knows

nothing) fears nothing, and, breaking down inflammatory adhesions,

sets the joint free. And his manipulations prove triumphantly

successful. But, knowing nothing and fearing nothing, he is apt to do

grievous harm in carrying out his rough treatment in other cases.

Malignant disease at the end of a bone (sarcoma), tuberculosis of a

joint, and a joint stiffened by old inflammation are to him the same

thing. "A small bone is out of place," or, "The bone is out of its

socket; it has never been put in," and a breaking down of everything

that resists his force is the result of the case being taken to him.

For the "bone-setter" has only one line of treatment. Of the

improvement which he often effects as if by magic the public are told

much. Of the cases over which the doctor has been too long devoting

skill and care, and which are set free by the "bone-setter," everybody

hears--and sometimes to the discomfiture of the medical man. But of

the cases in which irreparable damage follows his vigorous

manipulation nothing is said--of his rough usage of a tuberculous hip,

or of a sarcomatous shoulder-joint, and of the inevitable disaster and

disappointment, those most concerned are least inclined to talk! A

practical surgeon with common-sense has nothing to learn from the

"bone-setter."

_Rheumatoid Arthritis_, or chronic _Osteo-arthritis_, is generally

found in persons beyond middle age; but it is not rare in young

people, though with them it need not be the progressive disease which

it too often is in their elders. It is an obscure affection of the

cartilage covering the joint surfaces of the bones, and it eventually

involves the bones and the ligaments. A favourite joint for it is the

knee or hip, and when one large joint is thus affected the other

joints may escape. But when the hands or feet are implicated pretty

nearly all the small joints are apt to suffer. Whether the joint is

large or small, the cartilages wear away and new bone is developed

about the ends of the bones, so that the joint is large and

mis-shapen, the fingers being knotted and the hands deformed. When the

spine is affected it becomes bowed and stiff. This is the disease

which has crippled the old people in the workhouses and almshouses,

and with them it is steadily progressive. Its early signs are

stiffness and creaking or cracking in the joints, with discomfort and

pain after exercise, and with a little effusion into the capsule of

the joint. As regards _treatment_, medicines are of no great value.

Wet, cold and damp being bad for the patient, he should be, if

possible, got into a dry, bright, sunny place, and he should dress

warmly. Perhaps there is no better place for him in the winter than

Assuan. Cairo is not so suitable as it used to be before the dam was

made, when its climate was drier. For the spring and summer certain

British and Continental watering-places serve well. But if this luxury

cannot be afforded, the patient must make himself as happy as he can

with such hot douchings and massage as he can obtain, keeping himself

warm, and his joints covered by flannel bandages and rubbed with

stimulating liniments. In people advanced or advancing in years, the

disease, as a rule, gets slowly worse, sometimes very slowly, but

sometimes rapidly, especially when its makes its appearance in the

hip, shoulder or knee as the result of an injury. In young people,

however, its course may be cut short by attention being given to the

principles stated above.

_Charcot's Disease_ resembles osteo-arthritis in that it causes

destruction of a joint and greatly deforms it. The deformity, however,

comes on rapidly and without pain or tenderness. It is usually

associated with the symptoms of locomotor ataxy, and depends upon

disease of the nerves which preside over the nutrition of the joints.

It is incurable.

_A Loose Cartilage, or a Displaced Cartilage in the Knee Joint_ is apt

to become caught in the hinge between the thigh bone and the leg bone,

and by causing a sudden stretching of the ligaments of the joint to

give rise to intense pain. When this happens the individual is apt to

be thrown down as he walks, for it comes on with great suddenness. And

thus he feels himself to be in a condition of perpetual insecurity.

After the joint has thus gone wrong, bleeding and serous effusion take

place into it, and it becomes greatly swollen. And if the cartilage

still remains in the grip of the bones he is unable to straighten or

bend his knee. But the surgeon by suddenly flexing and twisting the

leg may manage to unhitch the cartilage and restore comfort and

usefulness to the limb. As a rule, the slipping of a cartilage first

occurs as the result of a serious fall or of a sudden and violent

action--often it happens when the man is "dodging" at football, the

foot being firmly fixed on the ground and the body being violently

twisted at the knee. After the slipping has occurred many times, the

amount of swelling, distress and lameness may diminish with each

subsequent slipping, and the individual may become somewhat reconciled

to his condition. As regards _treatment_, a tightly fitting steel

cage-like splint, which, gripping the thigh and leg, limits the

movements of the knee to flexion and extension, may prove useful. But

for a muscular, athletic individual the wearing of this apparatus may

prove vexatious and disappointing. The only alternative is to open the

joint and remove the loose cartilage. The cartilage may be found on

operation to be split, torn or crumpled, and lying right across

between the joint-surfaces of the bones, from which nothing but an

operation could possibly have removed it. The operation is almost sure

to give complete and permanent relief to the condition, the individual

being able to resume his old exercises and amusements without fear of

the knee playing him false. It is, however, one that should not be

undertaken without due consideration and circumspection, and the

details of the operation should be carried out with the utmost care

and cleanliness.

An accidental _wound of a joint_, as from the blade of a knife, or a

spike, entering the knee is a very serious affair, because of the risk

of septic germs entering the synovial cavity either at the time of the

injury or later. If the joint becomes thus infected there is great

swelling of the part, with redness of the skin, and with the escape of

blood-stained or purulent synovia. Absorption takes place of the

poisonous substances produced by the action of the germs, and, as a

result, great constitutional disturbance arises. Blood-poisoning may

thus threaten life, and in many cases life is saved only by

amputation. The best treatment is freely to open the joint, to wash it

out with a strong antiseptic fluid, and to make arrangement for

thorough drainage, the limb being fixed on a splint. Help may also be

obtained by increasing the patient's power of resistance to the effect

of the poisoning by injections of a serum prepared by cultivation of

the septic germs in question. If the limb is saved, there is a great

chance of the knee being permanently stiff.

_Dislocation._--The ease with which the joint-end of a bone is

dislocated varies with its form and structure, and with the position

in which it happens to be placed when the violence is applied. The

relative frequency of fracture of the bone and dislocation of the

joint depends on the strength of the bones above and below the joint

relatively to the strength of the joint itself. The strength of the

various joints in the body is dependent upon either ligament or

muscle, or upon the shape of the bones. In the hip, for instance, all

three sources of strength are present; therefore, considering the

great leverage of the long thigh bone, the hip is rarely dislocated.

The shoulder, in order to allow of extensive movement, has no osseus

or ligamentous strength; it is, therefore, frequently dislocated. The

wrist and ankle are rarely dislocated; as the result of violence at

the wrist the radius gives way, at the ankle the fibula, these bones

being relatively weaker than the respective joints. The wrist owes its

strength to ligaments, the elbow and the ankle to the shape of the

bones. The symptoms of a dislocation are distortion and limited

movement, with absence of the grating sensation felt in fracture when

the broken ends of the bone are rubbed together. The treatment

consists in reducing the dislocation, and the sooner this replacement

is effected the better--the longer the delay the more difficult it

becomes to put things right. After a variable period, depending on the

nature of the joint and the age of the person, it may be impossible to

replace the bones. The result will be a more or less useless joint.

The administration of an anaesthetic, by relaxing the muscles, greatly

assists the operation of reduction. The length of time that a joint

has to be kept quiet after it has been restored to its normal shape

depends on its form, but, as a rule, early movement is advisable. But

when by the formation of the bones a joint is weak, as at the outer

end of the collar-bone, and at the elbow-end of the radius, prolonged

rest for the joint is necessary or dislocation may recur.

_Congenital Dislocation at the Hip._--Possibly as a result of faulty

position of the subject during intra-uterine life, the head of the

thigh-bone leaves, or fails throughout to occupy, its normal situation

on the haunch-bone. The defect, which is a very serious one, is

probably not discovered until the child begins to walk, when its

peculiar rolling gait attracts attention. The want of fixation at the

joint permits of the surgeon thrusting up the thigh-bone, or drawing

it down in a painless, characteristic manner.

The first thing to be done is to find out by means of the X-rays

whether a socket exists into which, under an anaesthetic, the surgeon

may fortunately be enabled to lodge the end of the thigh-bone. If this

offers no prospect of success, there are three courses open: First,

to try under an anaesthetic to manipulate the limb until the head of

the thigh-bone rests as nearly as possible in its normal position, and

then to endeavour to fix it there by splints, weights and bandaging

until a new joint is formed; second, to cut down upon the site of the

joint, to scoop out a new socket in the haunch-bone, and thrust the

end of the thigh-bone into it, keeping it fixed there as just

described; and third, to allow the child to run about as it pleases,

merely raising the sole of the foot of the short leg by a thick boot,

so as to keep the lower part of the trunk fairly level, lest secondary

curvature of the spine ensue. The first and second methods demand many

months of careful treatment in bed. The ultimate result of the second

is so often disappointing that the surgeon now rarely advises its

adoption. But, if under an anaesthetic, as the result of skilful

manipulation the head of the thigh-bone can be made to enter a more or

less rudimentary socket, the case is worth all the time, care and

attention bestowed upon it. Sometimes the results of prolonged

treatment are so good that the child eventually is able to walk with

scarce a limp. But a vigorous attempt at placing the head of the bone

in its proper position should be made in every case. (E. O.*)

JOINTS, in engineering, may be classed either (a) according to their

material, as in stone or brick, wood or metal; or (b) according to their

object, to prevent leakage of air, steam or water, or to transmit force,

which may be thrust, pull or shear; or (c) according as they are

stationary or moving ("working" in technical language). Many joints,

like those of ship-plates and boiler-plates, have simultaneously to

fulfil both objects mentioned under (b).

All stone joints of any consequence are stationary. It being

uneconomical to dress the surfaces of the stones resting on each other

smoothly and so as to be accurately flat, a layer of mortar or other

cementing material is laid between them. This hardens and serves to

transmit the pressure from stone to stone without its being concentrated

at the "high places." If the ingredients of the cement are chosen so

that when hard the cement has about the same coefficient of

compressibility as the stone or brick, the pressure will be nearly

uniformly distributed. The cement also adheres to the surfaces of the

stone or brick, and allows a certain amount of tension to be borne by

the joint. It likewise prevents the stones from slipping one on the

other, i.e. it gives the joint very considerable shearing strength. The

composition of the cement is chosen according as it has to "set" in air

or water. The joints are made impervious to air or water by "pointing"

their outer edges with a superior quality of cement.

Wood joints are also nearly all stationary. They are made partially

fluid-tight by "grooving and tenoning," and by "caulking" with oakum or

similar material. If the wood is saturated with water, it swells, the

edges of the joints press closer together, and the joints become tighter

the greater the water-pressure is which tends to produce leakage.

Relatively to its weaker general strength, wood is a better material

than iron so far as regards the transmission of a thrust past a joint.

So soon as a heavy pressure comes on the joint all the small

irregularities of the surfaces in contact are crushed up, and there

results an approximately uniform distribution of the pressure over the

whole area (i.e. if there be no bending forces), so that no part of the

material is unduly stressed. To attain this result the abutting surfaces

should be well fitted together, and the bolts binding the pieces

together should be arranged so as to ensure that they will not interfere

with the timber surfaces coming into this close contact. Owing to its

weak shearing strength on sections parallel to the fibre, timber is

peculiarly unfitted for tension joints. If the pieces exerting the pull

are simply bolted together with wooden or iron bolts, the joint cannot

be trusted to transmit any considerable force with safety. The stresses

become intensely localized in the immediate neighborhood of the bolts. A

tolerably strong timber tension-joint can, however, be made by making

the two pieces abut, and connecting them by means of iron plates

covering the joint and bolted to the sides of the timbers by bolts

passing through the wood. These plates should have their surfaces which

lie against the wood ribbed in a direction transverse to the pull. The

bolts should fit their holes slackly, and should be well tightened up so

as to make the ribs sink into the surface of the timber. There will then

be very little localized shearing stress brought upon the interior

portions of the wood.

Iron and the other commonly used metals possess in variously high

degrees the qualities desirable in substances out of which joints are to

be made. The joint ends of metal pieces can easily be fashioned to any

advantageous form and size without waste of material. Also these metals

offer peculiar facilities for the cutting of their surfaces at a

comparatively small cost so smoothly and evenly as to ensure the close

contact over their whole areas of surfaces placed against each other.

This is of the highest importance, especially in joints designed to

transmit force. Wrought iron and mild steel are above all other metals

suitable for tension joints where there is not continuous rapid motion.

Where such motion occurs, a layer, or, as it is technically termed, a

"bush," of brass is inserted underneath the iron. The joint then

possesses the high strength of a wrought-iron one and at the same time

the good frictional qualities of a brass surface. Leakage past moving

metal joints can be prevented by cutting the surfaces very accurately to

fit each other. Steam-engine slide-valves and their seats, and piston

"packing-rings" and the cylinders they work to and fro in, may be cited

as examples. A subsidiary compressible "packing" is in other situations

employed, an instance of which may be seen in the "stuffing boxes" which

prevent the escape of steam from steam-engine cylinders through the

piston-rod hole in the cylinder cover. Fixed metal joints are made fluid

tight--(a) by caulking a riveted joint, i.e. by hammering in the edge of

the metal with a square-edged chisel (the tighter the joint requires to

be against leakage the closer must be the spacing of the rivets--compare

the rivet-spacing in bridge, ship and boiler-plate joints); (b) by the

insertion between the surfaces of a layer of one or other of various

kinds of cement, the layer being thick or thin according to

circumstances; (c) by the insertion of a layer of soft solid substance

called "packing" or "insertion."

Apart from cemented and glued joints, most joints are formed by cutting

one or more holes in the ends of the pieces to be joined, and inserting

in these holes a corresponding number of pins. The word "pin" is

technically restricted to mean a cylindrical pin in a movable joint. The

word "bolt" is used when the cylindrical pin is screwed up tight with a

nut so as to be immovable. When the pin is not screwed, but is fastened

by being beaten down on either end, it is called a "rivet." The pin is

sometimes rectangular in section, and tapered or parallel lengthwise.

"Gibs" and "cottars" are examples of the latter. It is very rarely the

case that fixed joints have their pins subject to simple compression in

the direction of their length, though they are frequently subject to

simple tension in that direction. A good example is the joint between a

steam cylinder and its cover, where the bolts have to resist the whole

thrust of the steam, and at the same time to keep the joint steam-tight.

JOINTS, in geology. All rocks are traversed more or less completely by

vertical or highly inclined divisional planes termed _joints_. Soft

rocks, indeed, such as loose sand and uncompacted clay, do not show

these planes; but even a soft loam after standing for some time,

consolidated by its own weight, will usually be found to have acquired

them. Joints vary in sharpness of definition, in the regularity of their

perpendicular or horizontal course, in their lateral persistence, in

number and in the directions of their intersections. As a rule, they are

most sharply defined in proportion to the fineness of grain of the rock.

They are often quite invisible, being merely planes of potential

weakness, until revealed by the slow disintegrating effects of the

weather, which induces fracture along their planes in preference to

other directions in the rock; it is along the same planes that a rock

breaks most readily under the blow of a hammer. In coarse-textured

rocks, on the other hand, joints are apt to show themselves as irregular

rents along which the rock has been shattered, so that they present an

uneven sinuous course, branching off in different directions. In many

rocks they descend vertically at not very unequal distances, so that the

spaces between them are marked off into so many wall-like masses. But

this symmetry often gives place to a more or less tortuous course with

lateral joints in various apparently random directions, more especially

where in stratified rocks the beds have diverse lithological characters.

A single joint may be traced sometimes for many yards or even for

several miles, more particularly when the rock is fine-grained and

fairly rigid, as in limestone. Where the texture is coarse and unequal,

the joints, though abundant, run into each other in such a way that no

one in particular can be identified for so great a distance. The number

of joints in a mass of rock varies within wide limits. Among rocks which

have undergone little disturbance the joints may be separated from each

other by intervals of several yards. In other cases where the

terrestrial movement appears to have been considerable, the rocks are so

jointed as to have acquired therefrom a fissile character that has

almost obliterated their tendency to split along the lines of bedding.

_The Cause of Jointing in Rocks._--The continual state of movement in

the crust of the earth is the primary cause of the majority of joints.

It is to the outermost layers of the lithosphere that joints are

confined; in what van Hise has described as the "zone of fracture,"

which he estimates may extend to a depth of 12,000 metres in the case

of rigid rocks. Below the zone of fracture, joints cannot be formed,

for there the rocks tend to flow rather than break. The rocky crust,

as it slowly accommodates itself to the shrinking interior of the

earth, is subjected unceasingly to stresses which induce jointing by

tension, compression and torsion. Thus joints are produced during the

slow cyclical movements of elevation and depression as well as by the

more vigorous movements of earthquakes. Tension-joints are the most

widely spread; they are naturally most numerous over areas of

upheaval. Compression-joints are generally associated with the more

intense movements which have involved shearing, minor-faulting and

slaty cleavage. A minor cause of tension-jointing is shrinkage, due

either to cooling or to desiccation. The most striking type of

jointing is that produced by the cooling of igneous rocks, whereby a

regularly columnar structure is developed, often called basaltic

structure, such as is found at the Giant's Causeway. This structure is

described in connexion with modern volcanic rocks, but it is met with

in igneous rocks of all ages. It is as well displayed among the

felsites of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, and the basalts of

Carboniferous Limestone age as among the Tertiary lavas of Auvergne

and Vivarais. This type of jointing may cause the rock to split up

into roughly hexagonal prisms no thicker than a lead pencil; on the

other hand, in many dolerites and diorites the prisms are much

coarser, having a diameter of 3 ft. or more, and they are more

irregular in form; they may be so long as to extend up the face of a

cliff for 300 or 400 ft. A columnar jointing has often been

superinduced upon stratified rocks by contact with intrusive igneous

masses. Sandstones, shales and coal may be observed in this condition.

The columns diverge perpendicularly from the surface of the injected

altering substance, so that when the latter is vertical, the columns

are horizontal; or when it undulates the columns follow its

curvatures. Beautiful examples of this character occur among the

coal-seams of Ayrshire. Occasionally a prismatic form of jointing may

be observed in unaltered strata; in this case it is usually among

those which have been chemically formed, as in gypsum, where, as

noticed by Jukes in the Paris Basin, some beds are divided from top to

bottom by vertical hexagonal prisms. Desiccation, as shown by the

cracks formed in mud when it dries, has probably been instrumental in

causing jointing in a limited number of cases among stratified rocks.

_Movement along Joint Planes._--In some conglomerates the joints may

be seen traversing the enclosed pebbles as well as the surrounding

matrix; large blocks of hard quartz are cut through by them as sharply

as if they had been sliced by a lapidary's machine. A similar

phenomenon may be observed in flints as they lie embedded in the

chalk, and the same joints may be traced continuously through many

yards of rock. Such facts show that the agency to which the jointing

of rocks was due must have operated with considerable force. Further

indication of movement is supplied by the rubbed and striated surfaces

of some joints. These surfaces, termed _slickensides_, have evidently

been ground against each other.

_Influence of Joints on Water-flow and Scenery._--Joints form natural

paths for the passage downward and upward of subterranean water and

have an important bearing upon water supply. Water obtained directly

from highly jointed rock is more liable to become contaminated by

surface impurities than that from a more compact rock through which it

has had to soak its way; for this reason many limestones are objected

to as sources of potable water. On exposed surfaces joints have great

influence in determining the rate and type of weathering. They furnish

an effective lodgment for surface water, which, frozen by lowering of

temperature, expands into ice and wedges off blocks of the rock; and

the more numerous the joints the more rapidly does the action proceed.

As they serve, in conjunction with bedding, to divide stratified rocks

into large quadrangular blocks, their effect on cliffs and other

exposed places is seen in the splintered and dislocated aspect so

familiar in mountain scenery. Not infrequently, by directing the

initial activity of weathering agents, joints have been responsible

for the course taken by large streams as well as for the type of

scenery on their banks. In limestones, which succumb readily to the

solvent action of water, the joints are liable to be gradually

enlarged along the course of the underground waterflow until caves are

formed of great size and intricacy.

_Infilled Joints._--Joints which have been so enlarged by solution are

sometimes filled again completely or partially by minerals brought

thither in solution by the water traversing the rock; calcite, barytes

and ores of lead and copper may be so deposited. In this way many

valuable mineral veins have been formed. Widened joints may also be

filled in by detritus from the surface, or, in deep-seated portions of

the crust, by heated igneous rock, forced from below along the planes

of least resistance. Occasionally even sedimentary rocks may be forced

up joints from below, as in the case of the so-called "sandstone

dykes."

[Illustration: Joints in Limestone Quarry near Mallow, co. Cork. (G.

V. Du Noyer.)]

_Practical Utility of Joints._--An important feature in the joints of

stratified rocks is the direction in which they intersect each other.

As the result of observations we learn that they possess two dominant

trends, one coincident in a general way with the direction in which

the strata are inclined to the horizon, the other running transversely

approximately at right angles. The former set is known as

_dip-joints_, because they run with the _dip_ or inclination of the

rocks, the latter is termed _strike-joints_, inasmuch as they conform

to the general _strike_ or mean outcrop. It is owing to the existence

of this double series of joints that ordinary quarrying operations can

be carried on. Large quadrangular blocks can be wedged off that would

be shattered if exposed to the risk of blasting. A quarry is usually

worked on the dip of the rock, hence strike-joints form clean-cut

faces in front of the workmen as they advance. These are known as

_backs_, and the dip-joints which traverse them as _cutters_. The way

in which this double set of joints occurs in a quarry may be seen in

the figure, where the parallel lines which traverse the shaded and

unshaded faces mark the successive strata. The broad white spaces

running along the length of the quarry behind the seated figure are

strike-joints or backs, traversed by some highly inclined lines which

mark the position of the dip-joints or cutters. The shaded ends

looking towards the spectator are cutters from which the rock has been

quarried away on one side. In crystalline (igneous) rocks, bedding is

absent and very often there is no horizontal jointing to take its

place; the joint planes break up the mass more irregularly than in

stratified rocks. Granite, for example, is usually traversed by two

sets of chief or _master-joints_ cutting each other somewhat

obliquely. Their effect is to divide the rock into long quadrangular,

rhomboidal, or even polygonal columns. But a third set may often be

noticed cutting across the columns, though less continuous and

dominant than the others. When these transverse joints are few in

number, columns many feet in length can be quarried out entire. Such

monoliths have been from early times employed in the construction of

obelisks and pillars. (J. A. H.)

JOINTURE, in law, a provision for a wife after the death of her husband.

As defined by Sir E. Coke, it is "a competent livelihood of freehold for

the wife, of lands or tenements, to take effect presently in possession

or profit after the death of her husband, for the life of the wife at

least, if she herself be not the cause of determination or forfeiture of

it" (Co. Litt. 36b). A jointure is of two kinds, legal and equitable. A

legal jointure was first authorized by the Statute of Uses. Before this

statute a husband had no legal seisin in such lands as were vested in

another to his "use," but merely an equitable estate. Consequently it

was usual to make settlements on marriage, the most general form being

the settlement by deed of an estate to the use of the husband and wife

for their lives in joint tenancy (or "jointure"), so that the whole

would go to the survivor. Although, strictly speaking, a jointure is a

joint estate limited to both husband and wife, in common acceptation the

word extends also to a sole estate limited to the wife only. The

requisites of a legal jointure are: (1) the jointure must take effect

immediately after the husband's death; (2) it must be for the wife's

life or for a greater estate, or be determinable by her own act; (3) it

must be made before marriage--if after, it is voidable at the wife's

election, on the death of the husband; (4) it must be expressed to be in

satisfaction of dower and not of part of it. In equity, any provision

made for a wife before marriage and accepted by her (not being an

infant) in lieu of dower was a bar to such. If the provision was made

after marriage, the wife was not barred by such provision, though

expressly stated to be in lieu of dower; she was put to her election

between jointure and dower (see DOWER).

JOINVILLE, the name of a French noble family of Champagne, which traced

its descent from Étienne de Vaux, who lived at the beginning of the 11th

century. Geoffroi III. (d. 1184), sire de Joinville, who accompanied

Henry the Liberal, count of Champagne, to the Holy Land in 1147,

received from him the office of seneschal, and this office became

hereditary in the house of Joinville. In 1203 Geoffroi V., sire de

Joinville, died while on a crusade, leaving no children. He was

succeeded by his brother Simon, who married Beatrice of Burgundy,

daughter of the count of Auxonne, and had as his son Jean (q.v.), the

historian and friend of St Louis. Henri (d. 1374), sire de Joinville,

the grandson of Jean, became count of Vaudémont, through his mother,

Marguerite de Vaudémont. His daughter, Marguerite de Joinville, married

in 1393 Ferry of Lorraine (d. 1415), to whom she brought the lands of

Joinville. In 1552, Joinville was made into a principality for the house

of Lorraine. Mlle de Montpensier, the heiress of Mlle de Guise,

bequeathed the principality of Joinville to Philip, duke of Orleans

(1693). The castle, which overhung the Marne, was sold in 1791 to be

demolished. The title of prince de Joinville (q.v.) was given later to

the third son of King Louis Philippe. Two branches of the house of

Joinville have settled in other countries: one in England, descended

from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Vaucouleurs, and brother of the

historian, who served under Henry III. and Edward I.; the other,

descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Briquenay, and son of

Jean, settled in the kingdom of Naples.

See J. Simonnet, _Essai sur l'histoire et la généalogie des seigneurs

de Joinville_ (1875); H. F. Delaborde, _Jean de Joinville et les

seigneurs de Joinville_ (1894). (M. P.*)

JOINVILLE, FRANÇOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS MARIE, PRINCE DE

(1818-1900), third son of Louis Phllippe, duc d'Orléans, afterwards king

of the French, was born at Neuilly on the 14th of August 1818. He was

educated for the navy, and became lieutenant in 1836. His first

conspicuous service was at the bombardment of San Juan de Ulloa, in

November 1838, when he headed a landing party and took the Mexican

general Arista prisoner with his own hand at Vera Cruz. He was promoted

captain, and in 1840 was entrusted with the charge of bringing the

remains of Napoleon from St Helena to France. In 1844 he conducted naval

operations on the coast of Morocco, bombarding Tangier and occupying

Mogador, and was recompensed with the grade of vice-admiral. In the

following year he published in the _Revue des deux mondes_ an article on

the deficiencies of the French navy which attracted considerable

attention, and by his hostility to the Guizot ministry, as well as by an

affectation of ill-will towards Great Britain, he gained considerable

popularity. The revolution of 1848 nevertheless swept him away with the

other Orleans princes. He hastened to quit Algeria, where he was then

serving, and took refuge at Claremont, in Surrey, with the rest of his

family. In 1861, upon the breaking out of the American Civil War, he

proceeded to Washington, and placed the services of his son and two of

his nephews at the disposal of the United States government. Otherwise,

he was little heard of until the overthrow of the Empire in 1870, when

he re-entered France, only to be promptly expelled by the government of

national defence. Returning incognito, he joined the army of General

d'Aurelle de Paladines, under the assumed name of Colonel Lutherod,

fought bravely before Orleans, and afterwards, divulging his identity,

formally sought permission to serve. Gambretta, however, arrested him

and sent him back to England. In the National Assembly, elected in

February 1871, the prince was returned by two departments and elected to

sit for the Haute Marne, but, by an arrangement with Thiers, did not

take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the

provincial republic. His deafness prevented him from making any figure

in the assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In 1886 the

provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne deprived him of

his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live in France, and died

in Paris on the 16th of June 1900. He had married in 1843 the princess

Francisca, sister of Pedro II., emperor of Brazil, and had a son, the

duc de Penthièvre (born in 1845), also brought up to the navy, and a

daughter Françoise (1844- ) who married the duc de Chartres in 1863.

The prince de Joinville was the author of several essays and pamphlets

on naval affairs and other matters of public interest, which were

originally published for the most part either unsigned or

pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own name after

the fall of the Empire. They include _Essais sur la marine française_

(1853); _Études sur la marine_ (1859 and 1870); _La Guerre d'Amérique,

campagne du Potomac_ (1862 and 1872); _Encore un mot sur Sadowa_

(Brussels, 1868); and _Vieux souvenirs_ (1894).

JOINVILLE, JEAN, SIRE DE (1224-1319), was the second great writer of

history in Old French, and in a manner occupies the interval between

Villehardouin and Froissart. Numerous minor chroniclers fill up the

gaps, but no one of them has the idiosyncrasy which distinguishes these

three writers, who illustrate the three periods of the middle

ages--adolescence, complete manhood, and decadence. Joinville was the

head of a noble family of the province of Champagne (see JOINVILLE,

above). The provincial court of the counts of Champagne had long been a

distinguished one, and the action of Thibaut the poet, together with the

proximity of the district to Paris, made the province less rebellious

than most of the great feudal divisions of France to the royal

authority. Joinville's first appearance at the king's court was in 1241,

on the occasion of the knighting of Louis IX.'s younger brother

Alphonse. Seven years afterwards he took the cross, thereby giving St

Louis a valuable follower, and supplying himself with the occasion of an

eternal memory. The crusade, in which he distinguished himself equally

by wisdom and prowess, taught his practical spirit several lessons. He

returned with the king in 1254. But, though his reverence for the

personal character of his prince seems to have known no bounds, he had

probably gauged the strategic faculties of the saintly king, and he

certainly had imbibed the spirit of the dictum that a man's first duties

are those to his own house. He was in the intervals of residence on his

own fief a constant attendant on the court, but he declined to accompany

the king on his last and fatal expedition. In 1282 he was one of the

witnesses whose testimony was formally given at St Denis in the matter

of the canonization of Louis, and in 1298 he was present at the

exhumation of the saint's body. It was not till even later that he began

his literary work, the occasion being a request from Jeanne of Navarre,

the wife of Philippe le Bel and the mother of Louis le Hutin. The great

interval between his experiences and the period of the composition of

his history is important for the due comprehension of the latter. Some

years passed before the task was completed, on its own showing, in

October 1309. Jeanne was by this time dead, and Joinville presented his

book to her son Louis the Quarreller. This original manuscript is now

lost, whereby hangs a tale. Great as was his age, Joinville had not

ceased to be actively loyal, and in 1315 he complied with the royal

summons to bear arms against the Flemings. He was at Joinville again in

1317, and on the 11th of July 1319 he died at the age of ninety-five,

leaving his possessions and his position as seneschal of Champagne to

his second son Anselm. He was buried in the neighbouring church of St

Laurent, where during the Revolution his bones underwent profanation.

Besides his _Histoire de Saint Louis_ and his _Credo_ or "Confession of

Faith" written much earlier, a considerable number, relatively speaking,

of letters and business documents concerning the fief of Joinville and

so forth are extant. These have an importance which we shall consider

further on; but Joinville owes his place in general estimation only to

his history of his crusading experiences and of the subsequent fate of

St Louis.

Of the famous French history books of the middle ages Joinville's bears

the most vivid impress of the personal characteristics of its composer.

It does not, like Villehardouin, give us a picture of the temper and

habits of a whole order or cast of men during a heroic period of human

history; it falls far short of Froissart in vivid portraying of the

picturesque and external aspects of social life; but it is a more

personal book than either. The age and circumstances of the writer must

not be forgotten in reading it. He is a very old man telling of

circumstances which occurred in his youth. He evidently thinks that the

times have not changed for the better--what with the frequency with

which the devil is invoked in modern France, and the sinful expenditure

common in the matter of embroidered silk coats. But this laudation of

times past concentrates itself almost wholly on the person of the

sainted king whom, while with feudal independence he had declined to

swear fealty to him, "because I was not his man," he evidently regarded

with an unlimited reverence. His age, too, while garrulous to a degree,

seems to have been free from the slightest taint of boasting. No one

perhaps ever took less trouble to make himself out a hero than

Joinville. He is constantly admitting that on such and such an occasion

he was terribly afraid; he confesses without the least shame that, when

one of his followers suggested defiance of the Saracens and voluntary

death, he (Joinville) paid not the least attention to him; nor does he

attempt to gloss in any way his refusal to accompany St Louis on his

unlucky second crusade, or his invincible conviction that it was better

to be in mortal sin than to have the leprosy, or his decided preference

for wine as little watered as might be, or any other weakness. Yet he

was a sincerely religious man, as the curious _Credo_, written at Acre

and forming a kind of anticipatory appendix to the history, sufficiently

shows. He presents himself as an altogether human person, brave enough

in the field, and, at least when young, capable of extravagant devotion

to an ideal, provided the ideal was fashionable, but having at bottom a

sufficient respect for his own skin and a full consciousness of the side

on which his bread is buttered. Nor can he be said to be in all respects

an intelligent traveller. There were in him what may be called

glimmerings of deliberate literature, but they were hardly more than

glimmerings. His famous description of Greek fire has a most provoking

mixture of circumstantial detail with absence of verifying particulars.

It is as matter-of-fact and comparative as Dante, without a touch of

Dante's genius. "The fashion of Greek fire was such that it came to us

as great as a tun of verjuice, and the fiery tail of it was as big as a

mighty lance; it made such noise in the coming that it seemed like the

thunder from heaven, and looked like a dragon flying through the air; so

great a light did it throw that throughout the host men saw as though it

were day for the light it threw." Certainly the excellent seneschal has

not stinted himself of comparisons here, yet they can hardly be said to

be luminous. That the thing made a great flame, a great noise, and

struck terror into the beholder is about the sum of it all. Every now

and then indeed a striking circumstance, strikingly told, occurs in

Joinville, such as the famous incident of the woman who carried in one

hand a chafing dish of fire, in the other a phial of water, that she

might burn heaven and quench hell, lest in future any man should serve

God merely for hope of the one or fear of the other. But in these cases

the author only repeats what he has heard from others. On his own

account he is much more interested in small personal details than in

greater things. How the Saracens, when they took him prisoner, he being

half dead with a complication of diseases, kindly left him "un mien

couverture d'écarlate" which his mother had given him, and which he put

over him, having made a hole therein and bound it round him with a cord;

how when he came to Acre in a pitiable condition an old servant of his

house presented himself, and "brought me clean white hoods and combed my

hair most comfortably", how he bought a hundred tuns of wine and served

it--the best first, according to high authority--well-watered to his

private soldiers, somewhat less watered to the squires, and to the

knights neat, but with a suggestive phial of the weaker liquid to mix

"si comme ils vouloient"--these are the details in which he seems to

take greatest pleasure, and for readers six hundred years after date

perhaps they are not the least interesting details.

It would, however, be a mistake to imagine that Joinville's book is

exclusively or even mainly a chronicle of small beer. If he is not a

Villehardouin or a Carlyle, his battlepieces are vivid and truthful, and

he has occasional passages of no small episodic importance, such as that

dealing with the Old Man of the Mountain. But, above all, the central

figure of his book redeems it from the possibility of the charge of

being commonplace or ignoble. To St Louis Joinville is a nobler Boswell;

and hero-worshipper, hero, and heroic ideal all have something of the

sublime about them. The very pettiness of the details in which the good

seneschal indulges as to his own weakness only serves to enhance the

sublime unworldliness of the king. Joinville is a better warrior than

Louis, but, while the former frankly prays for his own safety, the

latter only thinks of his army's when they have escaped from the hands

of the aliens. One of the king's knights boasts that ten thousand pieces

have been "forcontés" (counted short) to the Saracens; and it is with

the utmost trouble that Joinville and the rest can persuade the king

that this is a joke, and that the Saracens are much more likely to have

got the advantage. He warns Joinville against wine-bibbing, against bad

language, against all manner of foibles small and great; and the pupil

acknowledges that this physician at any rate had healed himself in these

respects. It is true that he is severe towards infidels; and his

approval of the knight who, finding a Jew likely to get the better of a

theological argument, resorted to the baculine variety of logic, does

not meet the views of the 20th century. But Louis was not of the 20th

century but of the 13th, and after his kind he certainly deserved

Joinville's admiration. Side by side with his indignation at the idea of

cheating his Saracen enemies may be mentioned his answer to those who

after Taillebourg complained that he had let off Henry III. too easily.

"He is my man now, and he was not before," said the king, a most

unpractical person certainly, and in some ways a sore saint for France.

But it is easy to understand the half-despairing adoration with which a

shrewd and somewhat prosaic person like Joinville must have regarded

this flower of chivalry born out of due time. He has had his reward, for

assuredly the portrait of St Louis, from the early collection of

anecdotes to the last hearsay sketch of the woeful end at Tunis, with

the famous _enseignement_ which is still the best summary of the

theoretical duties of a Christian king in medieval times, is such as to

take away all charge of vulgarity or mere _commérage_ from Joinville, a

charge to which otherwise he might perhaps have been exposed.

The arrangement of the book is, considering its circumstances and the

date of its composition, sufficiently methodical. According to its own

account it is divided into three parts--the first dealing generally with

the character and conduct of the hero; the second with his acts and

deeds in Egypt, Palestine, &c., as Joinville knew them; the third with

his subsequent life and death. Of these the last is very brief, the

first not long; the middle constitutes the bulk of the work. The

contents of the first part are, as might be expected, miscellaneous

enough, and consist chiefly of stories chosen to show the valour of

Louis, his piety, his justice, his personal temperance, and so forth.

The second part enters upon the history of the crusade itself, and tells

how Joinville pledged all his land save so much as would bring in a

thousand livres a year, and started with a brave retinue of nine knights

(two of whom besides himself wore bannerets), and shared a ship with the

sire d'Aspremont, leaving Joinville without raising his eyes, "pour ce

que le cuer ne me attendrisist du biau chastel que je lessoie et de mes

deux enfans"; how they could not get out of sight of a high mountainous

island (Lampedusa or Pantellaria) till they had made a procession round

the masts in honour of the Virgin; how they reached first Cyprus and

then Egypt; how they took Damietta, and then entangled themselves in the

Delta. Bad generalship, which is sufficiently obvious, unwholesome

food--it was Lent, and they ate the Nile fish which had been feasting on

the carcases of the slain--and Greek fire did the rest, and personal

valour was of little avail, not merely against superior numbers and

better generals, but against dysentery and a certain "mal de l'ost"

which attacked the mouth and the legs, a curious human version of a

well-known bestial malady. After ransom Acre was the chief scene of

Louis's stay in the East, and here Joinville lived in some state, and

saw not a few interesting things, hearing besides much gossip as to the

inferior affairs of Asia from ambassadors, merchants and others. At last

they journeyed back again to France, not without considerable

experiences of the perils of the deep, which Joinville tells with a good

deal of spirit. The remainder of the book is very brief. Some anecdotes

of the king's "justice," his favourite and distinguishing attribute

during the sixteen years which intervened between the two crusades, are

given; then comes the story of Joinville's own refusal to join the

second expedition, a refusal which bluntly alleged the harm done by the

king's men who stayed at home to the vassals of those who went abroad as

the reason of Joinville's resolution to remain behind. The death of the

king at Tunis, his _enseignement_ to his son, and the story of his

canonization complete the work.

The book in which this interesting story is told has had a literary

history which less affects its matter than the vicissitudes to which

Froissart has been subjected, but which is hardly less curious in its

way. There is no reason for supposing that Joinville indulged in

various editions, such as those which have given Kervyn de Lettenhove

and Siméon Luce so much trouble, and which make so vast a difference

between the first and the last redaction of the chronicler of the

Hundred Years' War. Indeed the great age of the seneschal of

Champagne, and his intimate first-hand acquaintance with his subject,

made such variations extremely improbable. But, whereas there is no

great difficulty (though much labour) in ascertaining the original and

all subsequent texts of Froissart, the original text of Joinville was

until recently unknown, and even now may be said to be in the state of

a conjectural restoration. It has been said that the book was

presented to Louis le Hutin. Now we have a catalogue of Louis le

Hutin's library, and, strange to say, Joinville does not figure in it.

His book seems to have undergone very much the same fate as that which

befell the originals of the first two volumes of the _Paston Letters_

which Sir John Fenn presented to George the Third. Several royal

library catalogues of the 14th century are known, but in none of these

does the _Histoire de St Louis_ appear. It does appear in that of

Charles V. (1411), but apparently no copy even of this survives. As

everybody knows, however, books could be and were multiplied by the

process of copying tolerably freely, and a copy at first or second

hand which belonged to the fiddler king René of Provence in the 15th

century was used for the first printed edition in 1547. Other editions

were printed from other versions, all evidently posterior to the

original. But in 1741 the well-known medievalist La Curne de St Palaye

found at Lucca a manuscript of the 16th century, evidently

representing an older text than any yet printed. Three years later a

14th-century copy was found at Brussels, and this is the standard

manuscript authority for the text of Joinville. Those who prefer to

rest on MS. authority will probably hold to this text, which appears

in the well-known collection of Michaud and Poujoulat as well as that

of Buchon, and in a careful and useful separate edition by Francisque

Michel. The modern science of critical editing, however, which applies

to medieval texts the principles long recognized in editing the

classics, has discovered in the 16th-century manuscript, and still

more in the original miscellaneous works of Joinville, the letters,

deeds, &c., already alluded to, the materials for what we have already

called a conjectural restoration, which is not without its interest,

though perhaps it is possible for that interest to be exaggerated.

For merely general readers Buchon's or Michaud's editions of Joinville

will amply suffice. Both include translations into modern French,

which, however, are hardly necessary, for the language is very easy.

Natalis de Wailly's editions of 1868 and particularly 1874 are

critical editions, embodying the modern research connected with the

text, the value of which is considerable, but contestable. They are

accompanied by ample annotations and appendices, with illustrations of

great merit and value. Much valuable information appeared for the

first time in the edition of F. Michel (1859). To these may be added

A. F. Didot's _Études sur Joinville_ (1870) and H. F. Delaborde's

_Jean de Joinville_ (1894). A good sketch of the whole subject will be

found in Aubertin's _Histoire de la langue et de la littérature

françaises au moyen âge_, ii. 196-211; see also Gaston Paris, _Litt.

française au moyen âge_ (1893), and A. Debidour, _Les Chroniqueurs_

(1888). There are English translations by T. Johnes (1807), J. Hutton

(1868), Ethel Wedgwood (1906), and (more literally) Sir F. T. Marzials

("Everyman's Library," 1908). (G. Sa.)

JOIST, in building, one of a row or tier of beams set edgewise from one

wall or partition to another and carrying the flooring boards on the

upper edge and the laths of the ceiling on the lower. In double flooring

there are three series of joists, _binding_, _bridging_, and _ceiling_

joists. The binding joists are the real support of the floor, running

from wall to wall, and carrying the bridging joists above and the

ceiling joists below (see CARPENTRY), The Mid. Eng. form of the word

was _giste_ or _gyste_, and was adapted from O. Fr. _giste_, modern

_gîte_, a beam supporting the platform of a gun. By origin the word

meant that on which anything lies or rests (_gésir_, to lie; Lat.

_jacere_).

The English word "gist," in such phrases as "the gist of the matter,"

the main or central point in an argument, is a doublet of joist.

According to Skeat, the origin of this meaning is an O. Fr. proverbial

expression, _Je sçay bien où gist le lièvre_, I know well where the hare

lies, i.e. I know the real point of the matter.

JÓKAI, MAURUS (1825-1904), Hungarian novelist, was born at Rév-Komárom

on the 19th of February 1825. His father, Joseph, was a member of the

Asva branch of the ancient Jókay family; his mother was a scion of the

noble Pulays. The lad was timid and delicate, and therefore educated at

home till his tenth year, when he was sent to Pressburg, subsequently

completing his education at the Calvinist college at Pápá, where he

first met Petöfi, Alexander Kozma, and several other brilliant young men

who subsequently became famous. His family had meant him to follow the

law, his father's profession, and accordingly the youth, always

singularly assiduous, plodded conscientiously through the usual

curriculum at Kecskemet and Pest, and as a full-blown advocate actually

succeeded in winning his first case. But the drudgery of a lawyer's

office was uncongenial to the ardently poetical youth, and, encouraged

by the encomiums pronounced by the Hungarian Academy upon his first

play, _Zsidó fiu_ ("The Jew Boy"), he flitted, when barely twenty, to

Pest in 1845 with a MS. romance in his pocket; he was introduced by

Petöfi to the literary notabilities of the Hungarian capital, and the

same year his first notable romance _Hétköznapok_ ("Working Days"),

appeared, first in the columns of the _Pesti Dievatlap_, and

subsequently, in 1846, in book form. _Hétköznapok_, despite its manifest

crudities and extravagances, was instantly recognized by all the leading

critics as a work of original genius, and in the following year Jókai

was appointed the editor of _Életképek_, the leading Hungarian literary

journal, and gathered round him all the rising talent of the country. On

the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 the young editor enthusiastically

adopted the national cause, and served it with both pen and sword. Now,

as ever, he was a moderate Liberal, setting his face steadily against

all excesses; but, carried away by the Hungarian triumphs of April and

May 1849, he supported Kossuth's fatal blunder of deposing the Hapsburg

dynasty, and though, after the war was over, his life was saved by an

ingenious stratagem of his wife, the great tragic actress, Roza Benke

Laborfalvi, whom he had married on the 29th of August 1848, he lived for

the next fourteen years the life of a political suspect. Yet this was

perhaps the most glorious period of his existence, for during it he

devoted himself to the rehabilitation of the proscribed and humiliated

Magyar language, composing in it no fewer than thirty great romances,

besides innumerable volumes of tales, essays, criticisms and facetiæ.

This was the period of such masterpieces as _Erdély Arany Kord_ ("The

Golden Age of Transylvania"), with its sequel _Törökvilág

Magyarországon_ ("The Turks in Hungary"), _Egy Magyar Nábob_ ("A

Hungarian Nabob"), _Karpáthy Zoltán, Janicsárok végnapjai_ ("The Last

Days of the Janissaries"), _Szomorú napok_ ("Sad Days"). On the

re-establishment of the Hungarian constitution by the Composition of

1867, Jókai took an active part in politics. As a constant supporter of

the Tisza administration, not only in parliament, where he sat

continuously for more than twenty years, but also as the editor of the

government organ, _Hon_, founded by him in 1863, he became a power in

the state, and, though he never took office himself, frequently

extricated the government from difficult places. In 1897 the emperor

appointed him a member of the upper house. As a suave, practical and

witty debater he was particularly successful. Yet it was to literature

that he continued to devote most of his time, and his productiveness

after 1870 was stupendous, amounting to some hundreds of volumes.

Stranger still, none of this work is slipshod, and the best of it

deserves to endure. Amongst the finest of his later works may be

mentioned the unique and incomparable _Az arany ember_ ("A Man of

Gold")--translated into English under the title of _Timar's Two

Worlds_--and _A téngerzemü hölgy_ ("Eyes like the Sea"), the latter of

which won the Academy's prize in 1890. He died at Budapest on the 5th of

May 1904; his wife having predeceased him in 1886. Jókai was an

arch-romantic, with a perfervid Oriental imagination, and humour of the

purest, rarest description. If one can imagine a combination, in almost

equal parts, of Walter Scott, William Beckford, Dumas _père_, and

Charles Dickens, together with the native originality of an ardent

Magyar, one may perhaps form a fair idea of the great Hungarian

romancer's indisputable genius.

See Névy László, _Jókai Mór_; Hegedúsis Sándor, _Jókai Mórról_; H. W.

Temperley, "Maurus Jokai and the Historical Novel," _Contemporary

Review_ (July 1904).

JOKJAKARTA, or JOKJOKARTA (more correctly JOKYAKARTA; Du.

_Djokjakarta_), a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies,

bounded N. by Kedu and Surakarta, E. by Surakarta, S. by the Indian

Ocean, W. by Bagelen. Pop. (1897), 858,392. The country is mountainous

with the exception of a wedge-like strip in the middle between the

rivers Progo and Upak. In the north-west are the southern slopes of the

volcano Merapi, and in the east the Kidul hills and the plateau of Sewu.

The last-named is an arid and scantily populated chalk range, with

numerous small summits, whence it is also known as the Thousand Hills.

The remainder of the residency is well-watered and fertile, important

irrigation works having been carried out. Sugar, rice and indigo are

cultivated; salt-making is practised on the coast. The minerals include

coal-beds in the Kidul hills and near Nangulan, marble and gold in the

neighbourhood of Kalasan. The natives are poor, owing chiefly to

maladministration, the use of opium and the usury practised by

foreigners (Chinese, Arabs, &c.). The principality is divided between

the sultan (vassal of the Dutch government) and the so-called

independent prince Paku Alam; Ngawen and Imogiri are enclaves of

Surakarta. There are good roads, and railways connect the chief town

with Batavia, Samarang, Surakarta, &c. The town of Jokjakarta (see JAVA)

the seat of the resident, the sultan and the Paku Alam princes; its most

remarkable section is the _kraton_ or citadel of the sultan. Imogiri,

S.W. of the capital, the burial-place of the princes of Surakarta and

Jokjakarta, is guarded by priests and officials. Sentolo, Nangulan,

Brosot, Kalasan, Tempel, Wonosari are considerable villages. There are

numerous remains of Hindu temples, particularly in the neighbourhood of

Kalasan near the border of Surakarta and Prambanan, which is just across

it. Remarkable sacred grottoes are found on the coast, namely, the

so-called Nyabi Kidul and Rongkob, and at Selarong, south-east of

Jokjakarta.

JOLIET, a city and the county-seat of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., in

the township of Joliet, in the N.E. part of the state, on the Des

Plaines river, 40 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890), 23,264; (1900),

29,353, of whom 8536 were foreign-born, 1889 being German, 1579

Austrian, 1206 Irish and 951 Swedish; (1910 census) 34,670. In addition

there is a large population in the immediate suburbs: that of the

township including the city was 27,438 in 1890, and 50,640 in 1910.

Joliet is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago &

Alton, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Michigan Central, the

Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota, and the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern railways, by

interurban electric lines, and is on the Illinois & Michigan canal and

the Chicago Sanitary (ship) canal. The city is situated in a narrow

valley, on both sides of the river. It is the seat of the northern

Illinois penitentiary, and has a public library (in front of which is a

statue, by S. Asbjornsen, of Louis Joliet), the township high school,

two hospitals, two Catholic academies and a club-house, erected by the

Illinois Steel Company for the use of its employees. There are two

municipal parks, West Park and Highland Park; Dellwood Park is an

amusement resort, owned by the Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway

Company. In the vicinity are large deposits of calcareous building

stone, cement and fireclay, and there are coal mines 20 m. distant.

Mineral resources and water-power have facilitated the development of

manufactures. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $33,788,700

(20.3% more than in 1900), a large part of which was represented by

iron and steel goods. There are large industrial establishments just

outside the city limits. The first settlement on the site of Joliet

(1833) was called Juliet, in honour of the daughter of James B.

Campbell, one of the settlers. The present name was adopted in 1845, in

memory of Louis Joliet (1645-1700), the French Canadian explorer of the

Mississippi, and in 1852 a city charter was secured.

JOLLY (from O. Fr. _jolif_; Fr. _joli_, the French word is obscure in

origin; it may be from late Lat. _gaudivus_, from _gaudere_, to rejoice,

the change of _d_ to _l_ being paralleled by _cigada_ and _cigale_, or

from O. Norse _jol_, Eng. "yule," the northern festival of midwinter),

and adjective meaning gay, cheerful, jovial, high-spirited. The

colloquial use of the term as an intensive adverb, meaning extremely,

very, was in early usage quite literary; thus John Trapp (1601-1669),

_Commentaries on the New Testament, Matthew_ (1647), writes, "All was

jolly quiet at Ephesus before St Paul came hither." In the royal navy

"jolly" used as a substantive, is the slang name for a marine. To

"jolly" is a slang synonym for "chaff." The word "jolly-boat," the name

of a ship's small broad boat, usually clinker-built, is of doubtful

etymology. It occurs in English in the 18th century, and is usually

connected with Dan. or Swed. _jolle_, Dutch _jol_, a small ship's boat;

these words are properly represented in English by "yawl" originally a

ship's small boat, now chiefly used of a rig of sailing vessels, with a

cutter-rigged foremast and a small mizzen stepped far aft, with a

spanker sail (see RIGGING). A connexion has been suggested with a word

of much earlier appearance in English, _jolywat_, or _gellywatte_. This

occurs at the end of the 15th century and is used of a smaller type of

ship's boat. This is supposed to be a corruption of the French _galiote_

or Dutch _galjoot_, galliot (see GALLEY). The galliot was, however, a

large vessel.

JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE (1829-1908), Canadian politician,

was born at Epernay in France on the 5th of December 1829. His father,

Gaspard Pierre Gustave Joly, the owner of famous vineyards at Epernay,

was of Huguenot descent, and married Julie Christine, grand-daughter of

Eustache Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, marquis de Lotbinière

(one of Montcalm's engineers at Quebec); he thus became seigneur de

Lotbinière. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de Lotbinière in 1888,

under a statute of the province of Quebec. He was educated in Paris, and

called to the bar of lower Canada in 1858. On the 6th of May 1856 he

married Margaretta Josepha (d. 1904), daughter of Hammond Gowen, of

Quebec. At the general election of 1861 he was elected to the house of

assembly of the province of Canada as Liberal member for the county of

Lotbinière, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same county in the

House of Commons, Ottawa, and in the legislative assembly, Quebec. Joly

was opposed to confederation and supported Dorion in the stand which he

took on this question. In 1878 he was called by Luc Letellier de St

Just, lieutenant-governor of Quebec, to form an administration, which

was defeated in 1879, and until 1883 he was leader of the opposition.

During his brief administration he adopted a policy of retrenchment, and

endeavoured to abolish the legislative council. In 1885, as a protest

against the attitude of his party towards Louis Riel, who was tried and

executed for high treason, he retired from public life. Early in the

year 1895 he was induced again to take an active part in the campaign of

his party, and at the general election of 1896 he was returned as member

for the county of Portneuf. He had already in 1895 been created K.C.M.G.

On the formation of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's administration he accepted the

office of controller of inland revenue, and a year later he became a

privy councillor, as minister of inland revenue. From 1900 to 1906 he

was lieutenant-governor of the province of British Columbia. He twice

declined a seat in the senate, but rendered eminent service to Canada by

promoting the interest of agriculture, horticulture and of forestry. He

died on the 17th of November 1908. (A. G. D.)

JOMINI, ANTOINE HENRI, BARON (1779-1869), general in the French and

afterwards in the Russian service, and one of the most celebrated

writers on the art of war, was born on the 6th of March 1779 at Payerne

in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland, where his father was syndic. His

youthful preference for a military life was disappointed by the

dissolution of the Swiss regiments of France at the Revolution. For some

time he was a clerk in a Paris banking-house, until the outbreak of the

Swiss revolution. At the age of nineteen he was appointed to a post on

the Swiss headquarters staff, and when scarcely twenty-one to the

command of a battalion. At the peace of Lunéville in 1801 he returned to

business life in Paris, but devoted himself chiefly to preparing the

celebrated _Traité des grandes opérations militaires_, which was

published in 1804-1805. Introduced to Marshal Ney, he served in the

campaign of Austerlitz as a volunteer aide-de-camp on Ney's personal

staff. In December 1805 Napoleon, being much impressed by a chapter in

Jomini's treatise, made him a colonel in the French service. Ney

thereupon made him his principal aide-de-camp. In 1806 Jomini published

his views as to the conduct of the impending war with Prussia, and this,

along with his knowledge of Frederick the Great's campaigns, which he

had described in the _Traité_, led Napoleon to attach him to his own

headquarters. He was present with Napoleon at the battle of Jena, and at

Eylau won the cross of the Legion of Honour. After the peace of Tilsit

he was made chief of the staff to Ney, and created a baron. In the

Spanish campaign of 1808 his advice was often of the highest value to

the marshal, but Jomini quarrelled with his chief, and was left almost

at the mercy of his numerous enemies, especially Berthier, the emperor's

chief of staff. Overtures had been made to him, as early as 1807, to

enter the Russian service, but Napoleon, hearing of his intention to

leave the French army, compelled him to remain in the service with the

rank of general of brigade. For some years thereafter Jomini held both a

French and a Russian commission, with the consent of both sovereigns.

But when war between France and Russia broke out, he was in a difficult

position, which he ended by taking a command on the line of

communication. He was thus engaged when the retreat from Moscow and the

uprising of Prussia transferred the seat of war to central Germany. He

promptly rejoined Ney, took part in the battle of Lützen and, as chief

of the staff of Ney's group of corps, rendered distinguished services

before and at the battle of Bautzen, and was recommended for the rank of

general of division. Berthier, however, not only erased Jomini's name

from the list, but put him under arrest and censured him in army orders

for failing to supply certain returns that had been called for. How far

Jomini was held responsible for certain misunderstandings which

prevented the attainment of all the results hoped for from Ney's attack

(see BAUTZEN) there is no means of knowing. But the pretext for censure

was trivial and baseless, and during the armistice Jomini did as he had

intended to do in 1809-10, and went into the Russian service. As things

then were, this was tantamount to deserting to the enemy, and so it was

regarded by Napoleon and by the French army, and by not a few of his new

comrades. It must be observed, in Jomini's defence, that he had for

years held a dormant commission in the Russian army, that he had

declined to take part in the invasion of Russia in 1812, and that he was

a Swiss and not a Frenchman. His patriotism was indeed unquestioned, and

he withdrew from the Allied Army in 1814 when he found that he could not

prevent the violation of Swiss neutrality. Apart from love of his own

country, the desire to study, to teach and to practise the art of war

was his ruling motive. At the critical moment of the battle of Eylau he

exclaimed, "If I were the Russian commander for two hours!" On joining

the allies he received the rank of lieutenant-general and the

appointment of aide-de-camp from the tsar, and rendered important

assistance during the German campaign, though the charge that he

betrayed the numbers, positions and intentions of the French to the

enemy was later acknowledged by Napoleon to be without foundation. He

declined as a Swiss patriot and as a French officer to take part in the

passage of the Rhine at Basel and the subsequent invasion of France.

In 1815 he was with the emperor Alexander in Paris, and attempted in

vain to save the life of his old commander Ney. This almost cost him

his position in the Russian service, but he succeeded in making head

against his enemies, and took part in the congress of Vienna. Resuming,

after a period of several years of retirement and literary work, his

post in the Russian army, he was about 1823 made a full general, and

thenceforward until his retirement in 1829 he was principally employed

in the military education of the tsarevich Nicholas (afterwards emperor)

and in the organization of the Russian staff college, which was opened

in 1832 and still bears its original name of the Nicholas academy. In

1828 he was employed in the field in the Russo-Turkish War, and at the

siege of Varna he was given the grand cordon of the Alexander order.

This was his last active service. In 1829 he settled at Brussels where

he chiefly lived for the next thirty years. In 1853, after trying

without success to bring about a political understanding between France

and Russia, Jomini was called to St Petersburg to act as a military

adviser to the tsar during the Crimean War. He returned to Brussels on

the conclusion of peace in 1856 and some years afterwards settled at

Passy near Paris. He was busily employed up to the end of his life in

writing treatises, pamphlets and open letters on subjects of military

art and history, and in 1859 he was asked by Napoleon III. to furnish a

plan of campaign in the Italian War. One of his last essays dealt with

the war of 1866 and the influence of the breech-loading rifle, and he

died at Passy on the 24th of March 1869 only a year before the

Franco-German War. Thus one of the earliest of the great military

theorists lived to speculate on the tactics of the present day.

Amongst his numerous works the principal, besides the _Traité_, are:

_Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Révolution_ (1806;

new ed. 1819-1824); _Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon racontée

par lui-même_ (1827) and, perhaps the best known of all his

publications, the theoretical _Précis de l'art de la guerre_ (1836).

See Ferdinand Lecomte, _Le Général Jomini, sa vie et ses écrits_

(1861; new ed. 1888); C. A. Saint-Beuve, _Le Général Jomini_ (1869);

A. Pascal, _Observations historiques sur la vie, &c., du général

Jomini_ (1842).

JOMMELLI, NICCOLA (1714-1774), Italian composer, was born at Aversa near

Naples on the 10th of September 1714. He received his musical education

at two of the famous music schools of that capital, being a pupil of the

Conservatorio de' poveri di Gesù Cristo under Feo, and also of the

Conservatorio della pietà dei Turchini under Prota, Mancini and Leo. His

first opera, _L'Errore amoroso_, was successfully produced at Naples

(under a pseudonym) when Jommelli was only twenty-three. Three years

afterwards he went to Rome to bring out two new operas, and thence to

Bologna, where he profited by the advice of Padre Martini, the greatest

contrapuntist of his age. In the meantime Jommelli's fame began to

spread beyond the limits of his country, and in 1748 he went for the

first time to Vienna, where one of his finest operas, _Didone_, was

produced. Three years later he returned to Italy, and in 1753 he

obtained the post of chapel-master to the duke of Württemberg at

Stuttgart, which city he made his home for a number of years. In the

same year he had ten commissions to write operas for princely courts. In

Stuttgart he permitted no operas but his own to be produced, and he

modified his style in accordance with German taste, so much that, when

after an absence of fifteen years he returned to Naples, his countrymen

hissed two of his operas off the stage. He retired in consequence to his

native village, and only occasionally emerged from his solitude to take

part in the musical life of the capital. His death took place on the

25th of August 1774, his last composition being the celebrated

_Miserere_, a setting for two female voices of Saverio Mattei's Italian

paraphrase of Psalm li. Jommelli is the most representative composer of

the generation following Leo and Durante. He approaches very closely to

Mozart in his style, and is important as one of the composers who, by

welding together German and Italian characteristics, helped to form the

musical language of the great composers of the classical period of

Vienna.

JONAH, in the Bible, a prophet born at Gath-hepher in Zebulun, perhaps

under Jeroboam (2) (781-741 B.C.?), who foretold the deliverance of

Israel from the Aramaeans (2 Kings xiv. 25). This prophet may also be

the hero of the much later book of Jonah, but how different a man is

he! It is, however, the later Jonah who chiefly interests us. New

problems have arisen out of the book which relates to him, but here we

can only attempt to consider what, in a certain sense, may be called the

surface meaning of the text.

This, then is what we appear to be told. The prophet Jonah is summoned

to go to Nineveh, a great and wicked city (cf. 4 Esdras ii. 8, 9), and

prophesy against it. Jonah, however, is afraid (iv. 2) that the

Ninevites may repent, so, instead of going to Nineveh, he proceeds to

Joppa, and takes his passage in a ship bound for Tarshish. But soon a

storm arises, and, supplication to the gods failing, the sailors cast

lots to discover the guilty man who has brought this great trouble. The

lot falls on Jonah, who has been roughly awakened by the captain, and

when questioned frankly owns that he is a Hebrew and a worshipper of the

divine creator Yahweh, from whom he has sought to flee (as if He were

only the god of Canaan). Jonah advises the sailors to throw him into the

sea. This, after praying to Yahweh, they actually do; at once the sea

becomes calm and they sacrifice to Yahweh. Meantime God has "appointed a

great fish" which swallows up Jonah. Three days and three nights he is

in the fish's belly, till, at a word from Yahweh, it vomits Jonah on to

the dry ground. Again Jonah receives the divine call. This time he

obeys. After delivering his message to Nineveh he makes himself a booth

outside the walls and waits in vain for the destruction of the city

(probably iv. 5 is misplaced and should stand after iii. 4). Thereupon

Jonah beseeches Yahweh to take away his worthless life. As an answer

Yahweh "appoints" a small quickly-growing tree with large leaves (the

castor-oil plant) to come up over the angry prophet and shelter him from

the sun. But the next day the beneficent tree perishes by God's

"appointment" from a worm-bite. Once more God "appoints" something; it

is the east wind, which, together with the fierce heat, brings Jonah

again to desperation. The close is fine, and reminds us of Job. God

himself gives short-sighted man a lesson. Jonah has pitied the tree, and

should not God have pity on so great a city?

Two results of criticism are widely accepted. One relates to the psalm

in ch. ii., which has been transferred from some other place; it is in

fact an anticipatory thanksgiving for the deliverance of Israel, mostly

composed of phrases from other psalms. The other is that the narrative

before us is not historical but an imaginative story (such as was called

a Midrash) based upon Biblical data and tending to edification. It is,

however, a story of high type. The narrator considered that Israel had

to be a prophet to the "nations" at large, that Israel had, like Jonah,

neglected its duty and for its punishment was "swallowed up" in foreign

lands. God had watched over His people and prepared its choicer members

to fulfil His purpose. This company of faithful but not always

sufficiently charitable men represented their people, so that it might

be said that Israel itself (the second Isaiah's "Servant of Yahweh"--see

ISAIAH) had taken up its duty, but in an ungenial spirit which grieved

the All-merciful One. The book, which is post-exilic, may therefore be

grouped with another Midrash, the Book of Ruth, which also appears to

represent a current of thought opposed to the exclusive spirit of Jewish

legalism.

Some critics, however, think that the key of symbolism needs to be

supplemented by that of mythology. The "great fish" especially has a

very mythological appearance. The Babylonian dragon myth (see COSMOGONY)

is often alluded to in the Old Testament, e.g. in Jer. li. 44, which, as

the present writer long since pointed out, may supply the missing link

between Jonah i. 17 and the original myth. For the "great fish" is

ultimately Tiamat, the dragon of chaos, represented historically by

Nebuchadrezzar, by whom for a time God permitted or "appointed" Israel

to be swallowed up.

For further details see T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._, "Jonah"; and his

article "Jonah, a Study in Jewish Folklore and Religion," _Theological

Review_ (1877), pp. 211-219. König, Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, "Jonah,"

is full but not lucid; C. H. H. Wright, _Biblical Studies_ (1886)

argues ably for the symbolic theory. Against Cheyne, see Marti's work

on the _Minor Prophets_ (1894); the "great fish" and the "three days

and three nights" remain unexplained by this writer. On these points

see Zimmern, _K.A.T._ (3), pp. 366, 389, 508. The difficulties of the

mission of a Hebrew prophet to Asshur are diminished by Cheyne's later

theory, _Critica Biblica_ (1904), pp. 150-152. (T. K. C.)