The earliest reference to swimming costume I have found was in 1869. At
this date swimming in the United States was considered a masculine
skill, exercise, and recreation; only men were provided with a real
opportunity to swim at popular watering places. As described previously,
_Harper's Bazar_ reported that American women in general rejected the
European bathing suit made with long trousers and a skirtless waist.
Nevertheless, this costume was "... worn by expert swimmers, who do not
wish to be encumbered with bulky clothing."[48]
[48] "New York Fashions," _Harper's Bazar_ (July 10, 1869), vol. 2,
no. 28, p. 435.
In the 1870s the rare descriptions of this more functional
garment--called "swimming suit" even at this early date--were limited to
a sentence or two buried within long columns of fine print describing
popular bathing apparel. One mentions a "... single knitted worsted
garment, fitting the figure, with waist and trousers in one."[49]
Another was made without sleeves as "one garment, the blouse and
trousers being cut all in one, like the sleeping garments worn by small
children."[50] These more practical bifurcated garments probably derived
from the European suit of the 1860s that had been rejected by the
majority of American women. For example, an English source reported that
in 1866 the following garment was worn: "... Swimming Costume, a body
and trousers cut in one, secures perfect liberty of action and does not
expose the figure."[51]
[49] Ibid. (July 13, 1872), vol. 5, no. 28, p. 459.
[50] Ibid. (July 25, 1874), vol. 7, no. 30, p. 475.
[51] As quoted in C. WILLETT CUNNINGTON, _English Women's Clothing in
the 19th Century_ (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1958), p. 225.
The descriptions of American swimming suits, however brief, offered
evidence that the pastime was growing in popularity with women.
Generally speaking, 19th century women's magazines were mere
disseminators of fine and decorous ideas and practices for well-mannered
ladies; their editors were not innovators. With such an editorial policy
it is understandable that these magazines would not, as a rule,
publicize trends of popular origin until they were fairly well
established. The skirtless swimming suit of the 1870s was no doubt more
common in the United States than its meager description in _Harper's
Bazar_ would seem to indicate.
As long as feminine swimming was not generally accepted, however,
efforts to develop practical swimming suits remained isolated owing to
the lack of communication between manufacturer and consumer and to
traditional attitudes. Feminine interest in swimming and physical
activities threatened belief in the "weaker-sex" that contributed to
maintaining the traditional masculine and feminine roles; efforts to
develop functional swimming dress also attacked established standards of
feminine modesty. These challenges to the status quo were met with the
weapon of the complacent majority--silence. Consequently, from the third
quarter of the 19th century, when we find the first reference to a
specialized garment for swimming in the United States, writings on
swimming costume appeared infrequently until the 1920s.
In 1886 two "ladies' bathing jerseys" and two bathing suits of the
traditional type appeared in the _First Illustrated Catalogue of Knitted
Bathing Suits_ of J. J. Pfister Company in San Francisco. The captions
over the illustrations leave no question that the briefer bathing
jerseys were intended for swimming while the others were for bathing.
These jerseys--form-fitting tunics that were mid-thigh in length--were
made with high necks and cap sleeves. Underneath this garment women wore
trunks that extended to the knee and stockings; there was also the
alternate choice of tights, a combination of trunks and stockings. To
complete the outfit the feminine reader was encouraged to buy a knitted
skull cap.
Apparently these bathing jerseys were successful; three, instead of two,
jerseys appeared in the same catalog in 1890. It is obvious from this
later catalog, however, that there was a greater demand for bathing
dresses since twelve designs of the skirted costume were featured as
opposed to the two dresses in the first issue.
[Illustration: Figure 14.--THE RECOMMENDED COSTUME FOR SWIMMING from J.
Parmly Paret, _The Woman's Book of Sports_, 1901. (Smithsonian photo
58436.)]
Even by the early 20th century it is difficult to find specific
references to a swimming suit in women's magazines; only occasionally
does a concern with swimming obtrude into the traditional descriptions
of bathing dress. In _The Woman's Book of Sports_, however, J. Parmly
Paret was specific about the requirements for a suitable swimming
costume in 1901.
It is particularly important that nothing tight should be worn
while swimming, no matter how fashionable a dress may be for
bathing. The exercise requires the greatest freedom, and a
swimming costume should never include corsets, tight sleeves, or
a skirt below the knees. The freedom of the shoulders is the
most important of all, but anything tight around the body
interferes with the breathing and the muscles of the back, while
a long skirt--even one a few inches below the knees--binds the
legs constantly in making their strokes.[52]
[52] J. PARMLY PARET, _The Woman's Book of Sports_ (New York: D.
Appleton & Co., 1901), p. 74.
Although this costume (fig. 14) more closely resembles the traditional
bathing dress than the jersey described previously, this discussion
illustrates the growing dichotomy between bathing dress and swimming
dress and between fashionable styles and functional styles.
Photographs of East coast beach scenes in 1903 show a few women wearing
costumes different from the black or navy blue bathing dress worn by the
majority. These independent spirits seem to be wearing close-fitting
knitted trunks that cover the knees or, when with stockings, come within
an inch or two above the knee. Above these trunks they appear to be
wearing knitted one-piece tunics or belted blouses that cover the hips.
This costume, sleeveless or short-sleeved, and with a simplified
neckline, must have been the functional suit of its day.
An important impetus was given to the development of the swimming suit
with the entrance of women into swimming as a competitive sport. On
September 5, 1909, Adeline Trapp wore a one-piece knitted swimming suit
when she became the first woman to swim across the East River in New
York, through the treacherous waters of Hell Gate. Both the swimming
suit and the swim were part of a campaign devised by Wilbert
Longfellow--of the U.S. Volunteer Life Saving Corps--to encourage women
to learn to swim.
Adeline Trapp was a summer employee of the Life Saving Corps in 1909.
Mr. Longfellow saw in the 20-year-old Brooklyn school teacher a
respectable young woman who could be a source of publicity. He ordered
her to get a one-piece swimming suit for the swim. As early as 1899 in
England, a woman participating in competitions organized by the Amateur
Swimming Association could have worn a one-piece, skirtless, knitted
costume with a shaped sleeve at least three inches long, a slightly
scooped neck, and legs that extended to within three inches of the knee.
Mr. Longfellow may have had this English suit in mind. He might have
known of similar suits in the United States or he might have simply
wanted to free Adeline of yards of fabric to make her more competitive
with male swimmers. Nevertheless, Adeline Trapp did not know that the
English suits existed, nor did she know where she could find one. She
spent many hours going from one American manufacturer to another trying
on men's knitted suits. She found that they were all cut too low at the
neck and armholes and did not cover enough of the legs to preclude
criticism. At this point a friend who worked for a stocking manufacturer
offered to get her a suitable costume from England. This costume, a
knitted, gray cotton suit--whether originally for a man or woman in
England is not known--was the one Adeline wore when she swam Hell Gate.
Although more than thirty men attempted the swim, the fact that a woman
accomplished the feat made newspaper headlines. Following this event,
Miss Trapp received a terse letter from the Brooklyn School Board
stating that they thought it improper for an educator of Brooklyn
children to appear in public so scantily dressed in a one-piece swimming
costume. For her future swims Adeline Trapp was careful to have someone
carry a blanket to throw over her as she emerged from the water.[53]
[53] Telephone interview with Adeline Trapp Mulhenberg, May 1966.
In 1910, Annette Kellerman arrived in the United States from Australia
by way of England. For her fancy diving exhibitions she wore sleeveless
one-piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe--a
costume she had probably adopted in England.
The decade from 1910 to 1920 was a crucial period in the history of
bathing and swimming costume. Popular attitudes were changing in favor
of the woman who swam but, as frequently occurs in social reforms, there
was a cultural lag between public opinion and the policies of
institutions. The Red Cross, which began its excellent water safety
program in 1914, taught women to swim but did not admit women as Life
Saving Corps members until 1920. Symbolic of the conflict between old
and new attitudes were the relative roles of bathing and swimming
costume during this period. As Annette Kellerman described them:
There are two kinds ... those that are adapted for use in water,
and those that are unfit for use except on dry land. If you are
going to swim, wear a water bathingsuit. But if you are merely
going to play on the beach, and pose for the camera fiends, you
may safely wear the dry land variety.... I am certain that there
isn't a single reason under the sun why everybody should not
wear lightweight suits. Anyone who persuades you to wear the
heavy skirty kind is endangering your life.[54]
[54] ANNETTE KELLERMAN, _How to Swim_ (New York: George H. Doran
Company, 1918), p. 47.
Chic women's magazines, however, were still reluctant to admit in their
fashion pages that a more utilitarian costume existed. The June 1, 1917
issue of _Vogue_ reported that there were two kinds of bathing suits: a
loose straight suit and those on surplice lines, "... which hold their
place by virtue of being so very becoming."[55]
[55] _Vogue_ (June 1, 1917), vol. 49, no. 11, p. 85.
The most popular of these, the surplice, was not a novelty of the season
but a continuation of 19th century bathing suit styles. Fashion
illustrations show that the hemline of the skirt was approaching the
middle of the knee, with the bloomers remaining hidden. There was also a
revival of the style that permitted the bloomers to show several inches
below the skirt. In this case the bloomers reached the knee and the
skirt was several inches shorter. Both versions were shown with short
sleeves or cap sleeves, or sleeveless; "V" necklines with collars and
square necklines were widely used. The more fashionable creations were
made of silk taffeta or "surf satin," while the majority were made of
"mohair," wool jersey, worsted, or closely woven cotton. Black and navy
blue were unquestionably the favorite colors.
The loose straight suit, which evidently gained its inspiration from the
chemise frock of the period, had no waistline and hung straight from the
shoulders (fig. 15); a belt or sash was frequently looped below the
natural waistline on the hips. The chemise-type of bathing suit differed
from the surplice only in having no fitted waist and requiring less
fabric.
[Illustration: Figure 15.--BLACK SILK BATHING DRESS, 1923.
(Smithsonian photo P-65412.)]
In the June 15, 1917 issue, _Vogue_ modified its position of two weeks
earlier to acknowledge that there was a third style of costume worn in
the water. Again, the descriptions of the surplice and chemise-type
bathing suits were accompanied by numerous illustrations. No drawings,
however, were published to show the knitted jersey suit that was
described as "... usually sleeveless, quite short and fairly straight
..." and "... intended for the woman who swims expertly."[56]
[56] Ibid. (June 15, 1917), vol. 49, no. 12, p. 67.
As late as the early 1920s, the fashion pages of _Harper's Bazar_ and
_Vogue_ were concentrated on the bathing suits, aiming at readers
involved in the social life of the seaside resorts--lounging about the
beach with occasional splashing in the water. The growing numbers of
women who wanted swimming suits, however, had only to turn to the
advertising sections of these same magazines to find that even in 1915
such shops as Bonwit Teller & Co. and B. Altman & Co. were advertising
knitted swimming suits.
In June 1916, _Delineator_ solved the dilemma of bathing versus swimming
costume in an intriguing article written to sell a pattern for a bathing
costume. In description and presentation of illustrations, the article
emphasized a costume with "all the features essential to a practical
swimming-suit."[57] The blouse and bloomers were attached at the waist
in this garment which had a square neckline and no skirt or sleeves.
Made up in wool jersey, this would have been a practical swimming
costume for the period. But this was not the only style available from
this one pattern. The following variations were included: a sailor
collar on a "V" neckline; a high-standing collar, long sleeves; and a
detachable skirt with the fullness either pleated or gathered into a
waistband, to be worn long to the knees or just short enough to show
several inches of the bloomer. In this way _Delineator_ succeeded in
satisfying nearly every degree of conservatism--an amazing
accomplishment.
[57] "For the Modern Mermaid," _Delineator_ (June 1916), vol. 38, no.
6, p. 52.
The spring edition of _Sears, Roebuck and Co. Catalog_ for 1916 offered
a one-piece, or "California-style," knitted worsted bathing suit with
the underpiece sewn to a skirt. This costume was less elaborate than the
other dresses shown, although it was still knee length. The 1918 spring
catalog showed two one-piece knitted outfits suitable for swimming in
striking contrast to the surplice bathing dresses that were also
offered. By 1920 all of the bathing costumes illustrated in the _Sears,
Roebuck and Co. Catalog_ were of the more abbreviated and functional
type.
In 1918 Annette Kellerman recommended that serious swimmers wear
close-fitting swimming tights or the two-piece suits commonly worn by
men. Being quick to admit that this costume would not be tolerated at
all beaches, she told dedicated swimmers to
... get one-piece tights anyway and wear over the tights the
lightest garment you can get. It should be a loose sleeveless
garment hung from the shoulders. Never have a tight waist band.
It is a hindrance. Also on beaches where stockings are enforced
your one-piece undergarment should have feet, so that the
separate stocking and its attendant garter is abolished.[58]
[58] Loc. cit. (footnote 54).
[Illustration: Figure 16.--ONE-PIECE SWIMMING SUIT OF KNITTED WOOL, c.
1918. (Smithsonian photo P-65413.)]
Knitted swimming suits found in advertisements of the period were either
one-piece or two-piece; the trunks were attached or separate, but they
always extended a few inches below the brief skirt. Although this
costume could be considered sleeveless, in some examples the suit was
built up under the arm--a concession to the demands of modesty (fig.
16). The scooped or "V" neckline with no collar was relatively high; in
order to put on or remove the suit it was unbuttoned at one shoulder.
It was this type of swimming costume which evolved into the garment that
dominated the fashion pages of the mid-1920s.
Changes in costume brought about by the acceptance of swimming also
affected leg covering. By 1920 fashion pages showed stockings that
reached only to the calf and many advertisements for the abbreviated
knitted bathing suits presented the lower leg covered with only the high
laced bathing shoe (fig. 17) or, in a few cases, bare. Bathing slippers
were black satin or black or white canvas held on the feet by ribbon
criss-crossed up the leg to tie at mid-calf. Shoes were of satin or
canvas, laced in the front to mid-calf.
There was a wide variety of colorful rubber caps; some were gathered on
a band or with a ruffle while others were closely fitted with brims.
Also popular was a close-fitting rubber cap with a colorful scarf tied
around it; swimmers did without the scarf.
Despite the distinction between the two types of bathing apparel, the
beach cloak continued to be used by both the serious swimmer and those
who stayed safely in the shallows. Some bathing wraps had large collars
and were only mid-calf in length. Colorful beach hats, beach parasols,
bags, and blankets were used, particularly by the bather who seldom got
wet.
The acceptance of swimming as a feminine activity provided an impetus
for the use of the knitted swimming suit; but standards of modesty had
to change before this suit could gain wide acceptance. Bathing dresses
of the 19th century had been designed to cover, conceal, and obscure not
only the torso but the limbs as well. The swimming suit that was gaining
acceptance in the early 1920s not only revealed the arms and a good part
of the legs, but actually dared to follow the lines of the torso.
Contemporary descriptions, that seem amusingly cautious today, included
such statements as "... all Annette Kellerman Bathing Attire is
distinguished by an incomparable, daring beauty of fit that always
remains refined."[59] Even less cautious was a statement that these
bathing suits were "famous ... for their perfect fit and exquisite,
plastic beauty of line."[60]
[59] _Harper's Bazar_ (June 1920), vol. 55, no. 6, p. 138.
[60] Ibid. (June 1921), 54th year, no. 2504, p. 101.
The growing numbers of women who wore the new styles of bathing dress
were a cause of concern to self-appointed guardians of decency. In 1917
the convention of the American Association of Park Superintendents at
New Orleans adopted a series of bathing regulations for city beaches
which dealt with the problems of the changing bathing suit. In general
these regulations specified that "... No all-white or flesh-colored
suits are permitted or suits that expose the chest lower than a line
drawn on a level with the arm pits."[61] In regard to ladies' bathing
suits these men agreed that
Blouse and bloomer suits may be worn with or without stockings,
provided the blouse has quarter-arm sleeves or close-fitting arm
holes, and provided the bloomers are full and not shorter than
four inches above the knee.[62]
[61] "Bathing Regulations for City Beaches," _American City_ (May
1917), vol. 16, no. 5, p. 537.
[62] Loc. cit. (footnote 61).
Regulations for knitted suits were similar, with the added caution that
the skirt hem could be no more than two inches above the lower edge of
the trunks. As late as 1923 these regulations were in effect at public
beaches in Cleveland and Chicago.
By 1923 a permanent change was occurring in the design of beach apparel.
The chemise-style bathing dress of black taffeta or satin still appeared
in the fashion magazines (fig. 15), but by 1929 it had disappeared. The
result of the struggle between the fancy bathing suit and the plain
knitted suit became obvious even in the popular magazines of the period.
In the opening paragraphs of a short story, Shirley, the villainess,
donned a smart bathing suit of puffy black taffeta, with a
patent-leather belt and a scarlet scarf, and baked in the shadow of a
big umbrella. Margaret, the heroine, in a plain knitted suit and black
cap was intent only upon diving, plunging, and splashing for her own
enjoyment. In another story a young lady, who came out of the sea
wearing a "... bathing suit so scanty it seemed a mere gesture flung
carelessly to the proprieties ..." described herself as a modern young
woman.[63]
[63] JANE PRIDE, "Pick-up," _Delineator_ (May 1927), vol. 110, no. 5,
p. 15.
In the early twenties advertisements capitalized on the functional
characteristics of swimming suits. A 1923 advertisement declared:
No! No! Not a bathing suit! No! The Wil Wite is a swimming suit.
The difference is great--very great. A bathing suit is something
in which to "Sun" oneself and wear on the beach. A swimming suit
is a garment made expressly for those who swim. It is free from
frills and furbelows. It follows the form with the same
sincerity that a neat silk stocking clings to a trim ankle. It
fits when dry or wet ... it is a real swimming suit.[64]
[64] _Harper's Bazar_ (June 1923), 56th year, no. 2528, p. 5.
The knitted swimming suit which achieved dominance over the bathing suit
in the 1920s was similar to its earlier version except that both the
armhole and the neckline were lower. This made it possible to put on the
suit without unbuttoning one of the straps at the shoulder--a feature
that was omitted in this newer style. Sometimes a sash was looped
loosely around the waist; a geometrically shaped monogram provided a
smart decoration. The affluent swimmer could distinguish herself from
the masses by wearing silk jersey. During the last half of this decade
women coquettishly adopted a man's swimming suit, consisting of a
striped sleeveless jersey shirt with dark colored trunks and a white
belt.
[Illustration: Figure 17.--BATHING SHOES, 1910. (Smithsonian photo
P-65417.)]
Perhaps the last stand for the bathing dress was the appearance of the
"dressmaker suit" toward the end of the 1920s and on into the early
1930s. The neck and shoulder line copied those of currently fashionable
evening dresses, with a parallel treatment of the skirt, which was
shortened to end just below the hips. This suit was worn by women
reluctant to brave the revealingly unadorned but popular swimming suit.
A depilatory advertisement took advantage of the increasing
"stockingless vogue" and explained that "Women who love swimming for the
sake of the sport, find stockings a great hindrance to their
enjoyment."[65] By the end of the twenties, the stocking for bathing
and swimming had become an article of the past.
[65] _Delineator_ (June 1923), vol. 102, no. 6, p. 95.
Although women were accepted in athletics and had achieved a generally
wider role in public life, white, untanned skin was still the ideal in
the 1920s. Thus sunproof creams, beach coats, and beach umbrellas were
still important.
According to the well-known "trickle-down" theory of fashion, styles of
dress first become fashionable among the socially elite and wealthy and
are then, in time, emulated by those at lower socio-economic levels. The
knitted swimming suit, however, entered the fashion pages by a different
route. It had its insignificant start with the skirtless bifurcated
garments of the late 1860s. Going against popular opinion, some women
did swim. They violated prevalent standards of modesty by continuing to
wear a functional suit. Gradually the demand grew. A plain, utilitarian
garment was needed; pressure increased. Thus, by the 1920s the swimming
suit prevailed, complimenting the image of the newly emancipated "modern
woman."