It might well be urged against the method employed in these pages that,
although we undertook to speak of the last American frontier, all that
we really thus far have done has been to describe a series of frontiers
from the Missouri westward. In part this is true. But it was precisely
in this large, loose, and irregular fashion that we actually arrived at
our last frontier. Certainly our westbound civilization never advanced
by any steady or regular process. It would be a singularly illuminating
map--and one which I wish we might show--which would depict in different
colors the great occupied areas of the West, with the earliest dates of
their final and permanent occupation. Such a map as this would show us
that the last frontier of America was overleaped and left behind not
once but a score of times.
The land between the Missouri and the Rockies, along the Great Plains
and the high foothills, was crossed over and forgotten by the men who
were forging on into farther countries in search of lands where fortune
was swift and easy. California, Oregon, all the early farming and
timbering lands of the distant Northwest--these lay far beyond the
Plains; and as we have noted, they were sought for, even before gold was
dreamed of upon the Pacific Slope.
So here, somewhere between the Missouri and the Rockies, lay our last
frontier, wavering, receding, advancing, gaining and losing, changing
a little more every decade--and at last so rapidly changed as to be
outworn and abolished in one swift decade all its own.
This unsettled land so long held in small repute by the early Americans,
was, as we have pointed out, the buffalo-range and the country of the
Horse Indians--the Plains tribes who lived upon the buffalo. For a long
time it was this Indian population which held back the white settlements
of Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado. But as men
began to work farther and farther westward in search of homes in Oregon,
or in quest of gold in California or Idaho or Montana, the Indian
question came to be a serious one.
To the Army, soon after the Civil War, fell the task of exterminating,
or at least evicting, the savage tribes over all this unvalued and
unknown Middle West. This was a process not altogether simple. For
a considerable time the Indians themselves were able to offer very
effective resistance to the enterprise. They were accustomed to living
upon that country, and did not need to bring in their own supplies;
hence the Army fought them at a certain disadvantage. In sooth, the Army
had to learn to become half Indian before it could fight the Indians on
anything like even terms. We seem not so much to have coveted the lands
in the first Indian-fighting days; we fought rather for the trails than
for the soil. The Indians themselves had lived there all their lives,
had conquered their environment, and were happy in it. They made a
bitter fight; nor are they to be blamed for doing so.
The greatest of our Indian wars have taken place since our own Civil
War; and perhaps the most notable of all the battles are those which
were fought on the old cow range--in the land of our last frontier. We
do not lack abundant records of this time of our history. Soon after the
Civil War the railroads began edging out into the plains. They brought,
besides many new settlers, an abundance of chroniclers and historians
and writers of hectic fiction or supposed fact. A multitude of books
came out at this time of our history, most of which were accepted
as truth. That was the time when we set up as Wild West heroes rough
skin-clad hunters and so-called scouts, each of whom was allowed to tell
his own story and to have it accepted at par. As a matter of fact, at
about the time the Army had succeeded in subduing the last of the Indian
tribes on the buffalo-range, the most of our Wild West history, at least
so far as concerned the boldest adventure, was a thing of the past.
It was easy to write of a past which every one now was too new, too
ignorant, or too busy critically to remember.
Even as early as 1866, Colonel Marcy, an experienced army officer and
Indian-fighter, took the attitude of writing about a vanishing phase of
American life. In his "Army Life on the Border," he says:
"I have been persuaded by many friends that the contents of the book
which is herewith presented to the public are not without value as
records of a fast-vanishing age, and as truthful sketches of men of
various races whose memory will shortly depend only on romance, unless
some one who knew them shall undertake to leave outlines of their
peculiar characteristics.... I am persuaded that excuse may be found
in the simple fact that all these peoples of my description--men,
conditions of life, races of aboriginal inhabitants and adventurous
hunters and pioneers--are passing away. A few years more and the prairie
will be transformed into farms. The mountain ravines will be the abodes
of busy manufacturers, and the gigantic power of American civilization
will have taken possession of the land from the great river of the West
to the very shores of the Pacific.... The world is fast filling up.
I trust I am not in error when I venture to place some value, however
small, on everything which goes to form the truthful history of a
condition of men incident to the advances of civilization over the
continent--a condition which forms peculiar types of character, breeds
remarkable developments of human nature--a condition also which can
hardly again exist on this or any other continent, and which has,
therefore, a special value in the sum of human history."
Such words as the foregoing bespeak a large and dignified point of
view. No one who follows Marcy's pages can close them with anything but
respect and admiration. It is in books such as this, then, that we may
find something about the last stages of the clearing of the frontier.
Even in Marcy's times the question of our Government's Indian policy
was a mooted one. He himself as an Army officer looked at the matter
philosophically, but his estimate of conditions was exact. Long ago as
he wrote, his conclusions were such as might have been given forty years
later.
"The limits of their accustomed range are rapidly contracting, and their
means of subsistence undergoing a corresponding diminution. The white
man is advancing with rapid strides upon all sides of them, and they
are forced to give way to his encroachments. The time is not far distant
when the buffalo will become extinct, and they will then be compelled
to adopt some other mode of life than the chase for a subsistence.... No
man will quietly submit to starvation when food is within his reach, and
if he cannot obtain it honestly he will steal it or take it by
force. If, therefore, we do not induce them to engage in agricultural
avocations we shall in a few years have before us the alternative of
exterminating them or fighting them perpetually. That they are destined
ultimately to extinction does not in my mind admit of a doubt. For the
reasons above mentioned it may at first be necessary for our government
to assert its authority over them by a prompt and vigorous exercise of
the military arm.... The tendency of the policy I have indicated will be
to assemble these people in communities where they will be more readily
controlled; and I predict from it the most gratifying results."
Another well-informed army officer, Colonel Richard Dodge, himself a
hunter, a trailer, and a rider able to compete with the savages in their
own fields, penetrated to the heart of the Indian problem when he wrote:
"The conception of Indian character is almost impossible to a man who
has passed the greater portion of his life surrounded by the influences
of a cultivated, refined, and moral society.... The truth is simply too
shocking, and the revolted mind takes refuge in disbelief as the less
painful horn of the dilemma. As a first step toward an understanding of
his character we must get at his standpoint of morality. As a child he
is not brought up.... From the dawn of intelligence his own will is his
law. There is no right and no wrong to him.... No dread of punishment
restrains him from any act that boyish fun or fury may prompt. No
lessons inculcating the beauty and sure reward of goodness or the
hideousness and certain punishment of vice are ever wasted on him. The
men by whom he is surrounded, and to whom he looks as models for
his future life, are great and renowned just in proportion to their
ferocity, to the scalps they have taken, or the thefts they have
committed. His earliest boyish memory is probably a dance of rejoicing
over the scalps of strangers, all of whom he is taught to regard as
enemies. The lessons of his mother awaken only a desire to take his
place as soon as possible in fight and foray. The instruction of his
father is only such as is calculated to fit him best to act a prominent
part in the chase, in theft, and in murder.... Virtue, morality,
generosity, honor, are words not only absolutely without significance to
him, but are not accurately translatable into any Indian language on the
Plains."
These are sterner, less kindly, less philosophic words than Marcy's,
but they keenly outline the duty of the Army on the frontier. We made
treaties with the Indians and broke them. In turn men such as these
ignorant savages might well be expected to break their treaties also;
and they did. Unhappily our Indian policy at that time was one of
mingled ferocity and wheedling. The Indians did not understand us any
more than we did them. When we withdrew some of the old frontier posts
from the old hunting-range, the action was construed by the tribesmen as
an admission that we feared them, and they acted upon that idea. In one
point of view they had right with them, for now we were moving out into
the last of the great buffalo country. Their war was one of desperation,
whereas ours was one of conquest, no better and no worse than all the
wars of conquest by which the strong have taken the possessions of the
weak.
Our Army at the close of the Civil War and at the beginning of the wars
with the Plains tribes was in better condition than it has ever been
since that day. It was made up of the soundest and best-seasoned
soldiers that ever fought under our flag; and at that time it
represented a greater proportion of our fighting strength than it
ever has before or since. In 1860 the Regular Army, not counting the
volunteer forces, was 16,000. In 1870 it was 37,000--one soldier to each
one thousand of our population.
Against this force, pioneers of the vaster advancing army of peaceful
settlers now surging West, there was arrayed practically all the
population of fighting tribes such as the Sioux, the two bands of the
Cheyennes, the Piegans, the Assiniboines, the Arapahoes, the Kiowas, the
Comanches, and the Apaches. These were the leaders of many other tribes
in savage campaigns which set the land aflame from the Rio Grande to our
northern line. The Sioux and Cheyennes were more especially the leaders,
and they always did what they could to enlist the aid of the less
warlike tribes such as the Crows, the Snakes, the Bannacks, the
Utes--indeed all of the savage or semi-civilized tribes which had hung
on the flanks of the traffic of the westbound trail.
The Sioux, then at the height of their power, were distinguished by many
warlike qualities. They fought hard and were quick to seize upon any
signs of weakness in their enemies. When we, in the course of our Civil
War, had withdrawn some of the upper posts, the Sioux edged in at once
and pressed back the whites quite to the eastern confines of the Plains.
When we were locked in the death grip of internecine war in 1862, they
rose in one savage wave of rebellion of their own and massacred with the
most horrible ferocity not less than six hundred and forty-four whites
in Minnesota and South Dakota. When General Sibley went out among them
on his later punitive campaign he had his hands full for many a long and
weary day.
Events following the close of the Civil War did not mend matters in
the Indian situation. The railroads had large land grants given to
them along their lines, and they began to offer these lands for sale to
settlers. Soldier scrip entitling the holder to locate on public lands
now began to float about. Some of the engineers, even some of the
laborers, upon the railroads, seeing how really feasible was the
settlement of these Plains, began to edge out and to set up their homes,
usually not far from the railway lines. All this increase in the numbers
of the white population not only infuriated the Indians the more, but
gave them the better chance to inflict damage upon our people. Our Army
therefore became very little more than a vast body of police, and it was
always afoot with the purpose of punishing these offending tribesmen,
who knew nothing of the higher laws of war and who committed atrocities
that have never been equalled in history; unless it be by one of the
belligerents of the Great War in Europe, with whom we are at this
writing engaged--once more in the interest of a sane and human
civilization. The last great struggle for the occupation of the frontier
was on. It involved the ownership of the last of our open lands; and
hence may be called the war of our last frontier.
The settler who pushed West continued to be the man who shared his time
between his rifle and his plough. The numerous buffalo were butchered
with an endless avidity by the men who now appeared upon the range. As
the great herds regularly migrated southward with each winter's snows,
they were met by the settlers along the lower railway lines and in a
brutal commerce were killed in thousands and in millions. The Indians
saw this sudden and appalling shrinkage of their means of livelihood.
It meant death to them. To their minds, especially when they thought we
feared them, there was but one answer to all this--the whites must all
be killed.
Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, Roman Nose, American Horse, Black Kettle--these
were names of great Indian generals who proved their ability to fight.
At times they brought into the open country, which as yet remained
unoccupied by the great pastoral movement from the south, as many as
five thousand mounted warriors in one body, and they were well armed
and well supplied with ammunition. Those were the days when the Indian
agents were carrying on their lists twice as many Indians as actually
existed--and receiving twice as many supplies as really were issued to
the tribes. The curse of politics was ours even at that time, and it
cost us then, as now, unestimated millions of our nation's dearest
treasures. As to the reservations which the Indians were urged to
occupy, they left them when they liked. In the end, when they were
beaten, all they were asked to do was to return to these reservations
and be fed.
There were fought in the West from 1869 to 1875 more than two hundred
pitched actions between the Army and the Indians. In most cases the
white men were heavily outnumbered. The account which the Army gave of
itself on scores of unremembered minor fields--which meant life or death
to all engaged--would make one of the best pages of our history, could
it be written today. The enlisted men of the frontier Army were riding
and shooting men, able to live as the Indians did and able to beat them
at their own game. They were led by Army officers whose type has never
been improved upon in any later stage of our Army itself, or of any army
in the world.
There are certain great battles which may at least receive notice,
although it would be impossible to mention more than a few of the
encounters of the great Indian wars on the buffalo-range at about the
time of the buffalo's disappearance. The Fetterman Massacre in 1866,
near Fort Phil Kearney, a post located at the edge of the Big Horn
Mountains, was a blow which the Army never has forgotten. "In a place
of fifty feet square lay the bodies of Colonel Fetterman, Captain Brown,
and sixty-five enlisted men. Each man was stripped naked and hacked and
scalped, the skulls beaten in with war clubs and the bodies gashed with
knives almost beyond recognition, with other ghastly mutilations that
the civilized pen hesitates to record."
This tragedy brought the Indian problem before the country as never
before. The hand of the Western rancher and trader was implacably
against the tribesmen of the plains; the city-dweller of the East,
with hazy notions of the Indian character, was disposed to urge lenient
methods upon those responsible for governmental policy. While the Sioux
and Cheyenne wars dragged on, Congress created, by act of July 20, 1867,
a peace commission of four civilians and three army officers to deal
with the hostile tribes. For more than a year, with scant sympathy from
the military members, this commission endeavored to remove the causes of
friction by amicable conference with the Indian chiefs. The attitude of
the Army is reflected in a letter of General Sherman to his brother.
"We have now selected and provided reservations for all, off the great
roads. All who cling to their old hunting-grounds are hostile and will
remain so till killed off. We will have a sort of predatory war for
years--every now and then be shocked by the indiscriminate murder of
travelers and settlers, but the country is so large, and the advantage
of the Indians so great, that we cannot make a single war and end it.
From the nature of things we must take chances and clean out Indians as
we encounter them."
Segregation of the Indian tribes upon reservations seemed to the
commission the only solution of the vexing problem. Various treaties
were made and others were projected looking toward the removal of
the tribesmen from the highways of continental travel. The result was
misgiving and increased unrest among the Indians.
In midsummer of 1868 forays occurred at many points along the border of
the Indian Territory. General Sheridan, who now commanded the Department
of the Missouri, believed that a general war was imminent. He determined
to teach the southern tribesmen a lesson they would not forget. In the
dead of winter our troops marched against the Cheyennes, then in their
encampments below the Kansas line. The Indians did not believe that
white men could march in weather forty below zero, during which they
themselves sat in their tepees around their fires; but our cavalrymen
did march in such weather, and under conditions such as our cavalry
perhaps could not endure today. Among these troops was the Seventh
Cavalry, Custer's Regiment, formed after the Civil War, and it was led
by Lieutenant-Colonel George A. Custer himself, that gallant officer
whose name was to go into further and more melancholy history of the
Plains.
Custer marched until he got in touch with the trails of the Cheyennes,
whom he knew to belong to Black Kettle's band. He did not at the time
know that below them, in the same valley of the Washita, were also the
winter encampments of the Kiowas, the Comanches, the Arapahoes, and even
a few Apaches. He attacked at dawn of a bleak winter morning, November
27, 1868, after taking the precaution of surrounding the camp, and
killed Black Kettle, and another chief, Little Rock, and over a hundred
of their warriors. Many women and children also were killed in this
attack. The result was one which sank deep into the Indian mind. They
began to respect the men who could outmarch them and outlive them on
the range. Surely, they thought, these were not the same men who had
abandoned Forts Phil Kearney, C. F. Smith, and Reno. There had been
some mistake about this matter. The Indians began to think it over. The
result was a pacifying of all the country south of the Platte. The lower
Indians began to come in and give themselves up to the reservation life.
One of the hardest of pitched battles ever fought with an Indian tribe
occurred in September, 1868, on the Arickaree or South Fork of the
Republican River, where General "Sandy" Forsyth, and his scouts, for
nine days fought over six hundred Cheyennes and Arapahoes. These savages
had been committing atrocities upon the settlers of the Saline, the
Solomon, and the Republican valleys, and were known to have killed some
sixty-four men and women at the time General Sheridan resolved to punish
them. Forsyth had no chance to get a command of troops, but he
was allowed to enlist fifty scouts, all "first-class, hardened
frontiersmen," and with this body of fighting men he carried out the
most dramatic battle perhaps ever waged on the Plains.
Forsyth ran into the trail of two or three large Indian villages, but
none the less he followed on until he came to the valley of the South
Fork. Here the Cheyennes under the redoubtable Roman Nose surrounded
him on the 17th of September. The small band of scouts took refuge on a
brushy island some sixty yards from shore, and hastily dug themselves in
under fire.
They stood at bay outnumbered ten to one, with small prospect of escape,
for the little island offered no protection of itself, and was in
pointblank range from the banks of the river. All their horses soon were
shot down, and the men lay in the rifle pits with no hope of escape.
Roman Nose, enraged at the resistance put up by Forsyth's men, led a
band of some four hundred of his warriors in the most desperate charge
that has been recorded in all our Indian fighting annals. It was rarely
that the Indian would charge at all; but these tribesmen, stripped naked
for the encounter, and led at first by that giant warrior, who came
on shouting his defiance, charged in full view not only once but three
times in one day, and got within a hundred feet of the foot of the
island where the scouts were lying.
According to Forsyth's report, the Indians came on in regular ranks like
the cavalry of the white men, more than four hundred strong. They were
met by the fire of repeating carbines and revolvers, and they stood for
the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth fire of repeating weapons,
and still charged in! Roman Nose was killed at last within touch of the
rifle pits against which he was leading his men. The second charge
was less desperate, for the savages lost heart after the loss of their
leader. The third one, delivered towards the evening of that same day,
was desultory. By that time the bed of the shallow stream was well
filled with fallen horses and dead warriors.
Forsyth ordered meat cut from the bodies of his dead horses and buried
in the wet sand so that it might keep as long as possible. Lieutenant
Beecher, his chief of scouts, was killed, as also were Surgeon Mooers,
and Scouts Smith, Chalmers, Wilson, Farley, and Day. Seventeen others
of the party were wounded, some severely. Forsyth himself was shot three
times, once in the head. His left leg was broken below the knee, and
his right thigh was ripped up by a rifle ball, which caused him extreme
pain. Later he cut the bullet out of his own leg, and was relieved from
some part of the pain. After his rescue, when his broken leg was set it
did not suit him, and he had the leg broken twice in the hospital and
reset until it knitted properly.
Forsyth's men lay under fire under a blazing sun in their holes on the
sandbar for nine days. But the savages never dislodged them, and at last
they made off, their women and children beating the death drums, and the
entire village mourning the unreturning brave. On the second day of the
fighting Forsyth had got out messengers at extreme risk, and at length
the party was rescued by a detachment of the Tenth Cavalry. The Indians
later said that they had in all over six hundred warriors in this fight.
Their losses, though variously estimated, were undoubtedly heavy.
It was encounters such as this which gradually were teaching the Indians
that they could not beat the white men, so that after a time they began
to yield to the inevitable.
What is known as the Baker Massacre was the turning-point in the
half-century of warfare with the Blackfeet, the savage tribe which
had preyed upon the men of the fur trade in a long-continued series of
robberies and murders. On January 22, 1870, Major E. M. Baker, led by
half-breeds who knew the country, surprised the Piegans in their winter
camp on the Marias River, just below the border. He, like Custer,
attacked at dawn, opening the encounter with a general fire into the
tepees. He killed a hundred and seventy-three of the Piegans, including
very many women and children, as was unhappily the case so often in
these surprise attacks. It was deplorable warfare. But it ended the
resistance of the savage Blackfeet. They have been disposed for peace
from that day to this.
The terrible revenge which the Sioux and Cheyennes took in the battle
which annihilated Custer and his men on the Little Big Horn in the
summer of 1876; the Homeric running fight made by Chief Joseph of the
Nez Perces--a flight which baffled our best generals and their men for
a hundred and ten days over more than fourteen hundred miles of
wilderness--these are events so well known that it seems needless to
do more than to refer to them. The Nez Perces in turn went down forever
when Joseph came out and surrendered, saying, "From where the sun now
stands I fight against the white man no more forever." His surrender to
fate did not lack its dignity. Indeed, a mournful interest attached
to the inevitable destiny of all these savage leaders, who, no doubt,
according to their standards, were doing what men should do and all that
men could do.
The main difficulty in administering full punishment to such bands was
that after a defeat they scattered, so that they could not be overtaken
in any detailed fashion. After the Custer fight many of the tribe went
north of the Canadian line and remained there for some time. The writer
himself has seen along the Qu'Appelle River in Saskatchewan some of the
wheels taken out of the watches of Custer's men. The savages broke them
up and used the wheels for jewelry. They even offered the Canadians for
trade boots, hats, and clothing taken from the bodies of Custer's men.
The Modoc war against the warriors of Captain Jack in 1873 was waged in
the lava beds of Oregon, and it had the distinction of being one of
the first Indian wars to be well reported in the newspapers. We heard a
great deal of the long and trying campaigns waged by the Army in revenge
for the murder of General Canby in his council tent. We got small glory
out of that war, perhaps, but at last we hanged the ringleader of the
murderers; and the extreme Northwest remained free from that time on.
Far in the dry Southwest, where home-building man did not as yet essay
a general occupation of the soil, the blood-thirsty Apache long waged
a warfare which tried the mettle of our Army as perhaps no other tribes
ever have done. The Spaniards had fought these Apaches for nearly three
hundred years, and had not beaten them. They offered three hundred
dollars each for Apache scalps, and took a certain number of them.
But they left all the remaining braves sworn to an eternal enmity. The
Apaches became mountain outlaws, whose blood-mad thirst for revenge
never died. No tribe ever fought more bitterly. Hemmed in and
surrounded, with no hope of escape, in some instances they perished
literally to the last man. General George Crook finished the work of
cleaning up the Apache outlaws only by use of the trailers of their own
people who sided with the whites for pay. Without the Pima scouts he
never could have run down the Apaches as he did. Perhaps these were
the hardest of all the Plains Indians to find and to fight. But in 1872
Crook subdued them and concentrated them in reservations in Arizona.
Ten years later, under Geronimo, a tribe of the Apaches broke loose and
yielded to General Crook only after a prolonged war. Once again they
raided New Mexico and Arizona in 1885-6. This was the last raid of
Geronimo. He was forced by General Miles to surrender and, together with
his chief warriors, was deported to Fort Pickens in Florida.
In all these savage pitched battles and bloody skirmishes, the surprises
and murderous assaults all over the old range, there were hundreds of
settlers killed, hundreds also of our army men, including some splendid
officers. In the Custer fight alone, on the Little Big Horn, the Army
lost Custer himself, thirteen commissioned officers, and two hundred
and fifty-six enlisted men killed, with two officers and fifty-one men
wounded; a total of three hundred and twenty-three killed and wounded in
one battle. Custer had in his full column about seven hundred men. The
number of the Indians has been variously estimated. They had perhaps
five thousand men in their villages when they met Custer in this,
the most historic and most ghastly battle of the Plains. It would be
bootless to revive any of the old discussions regarding Custer and his
rash courage. Whether in error or in wisdom, he died, and gallantly. He
and his men helped clear the frontier for those who were to follow, and
the task took its toll.
Thus, slowly but steadily, even though handicapped by a vacillating
governmental policy regarding the Indians, we muddled through these
great Indian wars of the frontier, our soldiers doing their work
splendidly and uncomplainingly, such work as no other body of civilized
troops has ever been asked to do or could have done if asked. At the
close of the Civil War we ourselves were a nation of fighting men. We
were fit and we were prepared. The average of our warlike qualities
never has been so high as then. The frontier produced its own
pathfinders, its own saviors, its own fighting men.
So now the frontier lay ready, waiting for the man with the plough. The
dawn of that last day was at hand.