CHAPTER XV_The art of music, Vol. 04 (of 14)

THE LIGHTER VEIN

Sources of American popular music--Its past and present

phases--American comic opera: Reginald de Koven; Victor

Herbert; John Philip Sousa; other writers of light

opera--The decline of light opera and the present state of

theatrical music.

It cannot be too often reiterated that, however highly developed an

art a nation's music may become, it inevitably springs from the germ

of popular expression that voices itself in the simple songs of its

masses, the folk-music. In this lies the essence of its being and

to this it owes its vitality. America's history has been such as to

deprive her in a great measure of a folk-music in the true sense of the

word. Many causes have contributed to this; the decidedly non-idyllic

character of its early phases and the suppressing hand of Puritanism

were undoubtedly potent factors, but the fundamental reason lies in

the absence of a national consciousness, which is necessarily lacking

in a country of mixed peoples developing a borrowed civilization. Now

that America is able to boast the beginnings of a sophisticated art,

it is beginning to be more deplored that there is not present the rich

vein of folk-music to lend to our native art that vital and distinctive

touch that should give it its place among the nation's music.

The course of our national life has brought, however, from time

to time, certain moments when there has emanated from the people a

voice more distinctly local in its suggestions, not entirely lacking

the influence of a borrowed expression, but blending with it a

certain flavor of its own and thereby creating a sort of music in the

folk-manner. Such were the songs of Stephen Foster, and such were the

patriotic songs of the Civil War times, and in these two contributions

to our native music we have the most genuinely and deeply emotional

expressions that have yet sprung from Americans of European origin.

Previous to the appearance of these, the complexion of our music had

been almost entirely English, consisting as it did of patriotic or

sentimental songs either actually imported from England or locally

written songs which copied the English models so slavishly as to lose

all distinction.

The negro element began at an early epoch to bear an influence on our

expressions. As the one keenly suffering people in our midst, leading a

life of elemental toil and possessing richly endowed musical natures,

the negro, with his intensely emotional expression, was bound to make

himself heard and felt throughout the land, and his songs entered

largely into the fibre of our own expression. But even the most ardent

supporter of the practice of employing the negro element as a basis for

American music must admit that there is much of the exotic about it,

and that by its employment alone our native art will never attain to

that desideratum of the American composer, a nationalistic feeling.

It has already been remarked in commenting on this subject how Dvořák

in handling this negro element remained unequivocally Slavic in idiom,

and it has been noted, also, with what scant success our own composers

have pursued the same efforts toward concocting what would seem an

indigenous art. That such a nationalistic art, when it does finally

evolve, will contain a strong strain of these various influences is

undoubtedly the case, but the tinge of real local atmosphere which

will constitute its nationalism will be an intangible quality not

existing in any defined formula. It will not possess salient external

features which our own composers may seize upon, but it will be

charged with a consciousness that shall be inherent in the composers

themselves and shall find unconscious voicing in their melodies. It

is not unreasonable to suppose that it is from what we generally

designate as our 'popular music' that such an art will emanate; from

the street, the theatre, the dance hall, and more particularly from

the sentimentalities of the popular songs which periodically hold

the affections of such a vast public. Ephemeral as is the mass of

this music that annually sweeps over our country, each phase of it

leaves its mark, some deeper than others, but all contributing to the

upbuilding of the national character of our music.

Let us turn our attention to a brief survey of some of these phases of

the popular music, both past and present.

Generally speaking, the bulk of this music may be classified into the

two form-divisions which distinguish the main orders of all musical

art--the dance and the song form, the rhythmic and the lyric. While

the latter predominated in the popular music of past decades, the

present-day tendencies give greater importance to the dance and even

the larger part of our popular songs are set to the more enlivening

rhythms of the prevailing dance measures. We have seen that the

'minstrel show' provided the medium whereby the first purveyors of

popular music reached the public. It was through the means of this

popular entertainment that many of the early favorites reached fame.

With the rise of the vaudeville or 'variety show' the character of

popular music underwent a considerable change. The introduction of the

comic song brought a new element into its nature and then came that

slough of sentimentalism which was to remove from our popular music the

naïve but sincere appeal of the old ballads and replace them with the

more sophisticated but vulgar frivolities.

The sentimental song has, however, never entirely disappeared from

the popular répertoire; it has, indeed, persistently maintained a

considerable place in the affections of every period. Even the younger

of our own generation can recall the phase of popular taste that

existed just before the inauguration of a new order in the appearance

of 'ragtime.' Almost all of the then popular melodies consisted of

songs replete with the so-called 'heart quality.' The mild eroticism

of 'Sweet Marie' and 'The Sweetest Story ever Told' shared the popular

favor with the patriotically sentimental 'Comrades' and 'Just Break

the News to Mother,' songs in which the memory of the war lingered

and which were prompted by the success of the military drama. While

the popularity of these songs has been great, the public has been

indifferent to the composers, and they have had to be content with an

almost anonymous fame. Some of the men who represent this past decade

of the sentimental song are: Charles K. Harris, whose greatest success

was 'After the Ball'; Charles Graham, Felix McGlennon, H. W. Petrie,

and Paul Dresser.

The reappearance of the negro-element in the form of the 'coon song'

marks an important epoch in the evolution of our popular music. The

'coon song' presents to us the light-hearted side of the negro; the

pathos of the slave is never presented in these later negro songs--only

the 'darky's' picturesqueness, his quasi-humorous vagabondage, and, in

the more vulgarized types, his frenzied ribaldry.

The coon song has passed through a number of development stages. The

first examples, such as 'Kentucky Babe' and 'Little Alabama Coon,' were

of a naïve variety which contained but the merest suggestion of the

real negro element. There has been a subsequently wider utilization of

the syncopated rhythms which constitute the popularities of 'ragtime'

and present-day examples, such as 'Waitin' for the Robert E. Lee,'

represent a rather complicated and decidedly more characteristic type

than do the coon songs of preceding seasons.

Following the success of the coon song there was an exploitation of the

'Indian' song. These songs were even less genuine in origin than their

antecedents. The Indian element was often obtained by the employment of

a sort of garbled Oriental ragtime or of a disguised Celtic idiom, and

only the titles revealed these compositions as Indian. 'Hiawatha' and

'Tammany' were among the first of these songs, and they were followed

by a large number of imitations.

Besides these two principal classes of popular music employing a local

color in its idiom, countless experiments have been made with other

varieties. The Oriental has been much used and the refrain of the

once popular 'Streets of Cairo' has served as the 'leitmotif' of a

thousand and one pieces partaking of a pseudo-Orientalism. The Irish

song has had a persistent vogue; it has several representative types;

the sentimental 'Annie Rooney' and 'Maggie Murphy' of earlier days have

been succeeded by the more boisterous 'Bedelia' and the perennial 'Mr.

Dooley.' There is usually a saving grace of humor in these Hibernian

offerings which palliates even their most patent vulgarity.

The vogue of the more recent popular music has been dictated by the

various dance fads which have lately seized the public fancy. First

the 'turkey trot' and 'barn dance' brought forth such originalities

as 'Alexander's Rag Time Band' and 'Everybody's Doin' It,' these to

be followed by an avalanche of various 'glides' and 'rags.' The music

of the dances and dance songs is unique in its blending of certain

negro qualities of rhythm and melody with a strange indeterminate

sense of something Slavic or Oriental in their abandon. The last

aspect of popular dance music is that furnished by the importation of

the 'tango,' maxixe and other Latin American dances. Most of the more

popular tunes to which these steps are danced are pronouncedly Spanish

and have in most cases been imported with the dances themselves.

An ingenious procedure on the part of the popular composer has been

to weave into the verse or refrain of a song a few measures of some

well-known popular classic. One of the first and perhaps the best known

example is the use of Mendelssohn's 'Spring Song' in the refrain of the

song so disrespectfully called 'That Mendelssohn Rag.' Following this

there have appeared many such appropriations and nearly the entire list

of the popular melodies of the standard classics has been thus utilized.

Viewed as a whole, the popular music of to-day presents an expression

far in advance of that of even a few years ago. Some of it contains

subtleties of harmonic and rhythmic design that would have been caviar

to the public of yesterday. It is to be regretted that this advance in

form has been made at the sacrifice of the more ingenious spirit of the

early popular music, and that the tone of most of our popular music

to-day is so uniformly vulgar.

There is a middle world of music that touches, on its one side, the

more elevated regions of art, while, on the other, it does not lose its

hold on the larger world of popular taste. This is the world of comic

opera--using the term in its general sense of a stage piece with music

of a lighter variety.

The American public was early taught to appreciate this form of

artistic amusement; the history of opera in this country shows a

continuous record of the production of such works in all the larger

cities. Important agencies in the popularizing of comic opera were the

early performances of the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas, the brilliant

seasons of French and Viennese opera at the Casino Theatre in New York,

and the excellent services of the Bostonians in presenting ideally some

of the most charming of the standard répertoire, besides revealing the

merit of our native composers, in giving with success some of the first

American comic operas to reach public hearing.

Up to the time of the Bostonians' championship of the American light

opera composer there has been but an occasional performance of some

work of local interest. Julius Eichberg is generally accredited with

being America's first comic opera composer, his fame resting largely

on a popular work entitled 'The Doctor of Alcantara' that was produced

in Boston in 1862. Eichberg could be called an American composer only

in that an American city happened to be the scene of his activities.

There is nothing about his work to give it any special significance as

American.

In fact, as we look over the entire product of our light opera

composers, we are forced again to deplore the lack of a distinctive

vein or local sense that would put the national seal on America's many

and notable achievements in this field. Even England, whose cultivated

art is almost as devoid of a national feeling as is America's, has,

in the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas, works of a truly national

significance. Mr. Krehbiel has observed that George Ade has the

requisite equipment of an American Gilbert, but that as yet there has

not been found the composer who could be his Sullivan.

To assert convincingly America's claims to having contributed largely

and valuably to the world's comic operas we have only to put forward

these names: Reginald de Koven, Victor Herbert, and John Philip

Sousa. The first name in this group is of one who is perhaps more

closely identified with the comic opera stage than any other living

composer. Reginald de Koven was born in 1861 at Middletown, Conn.

After graduating at Oxford University in 1880 he began his career as

a musician by studying in several European cities. The studies which

were to bear the greatest fruit were those pursued under that master

of comic opera, Suppé. On returning to America Mr. de Koven resided

for some years in Chicago, where he did musical journalism and wrote

the experimental scores that preceded his first and greatest success,

'Robin Hood.' Mr. de Koven's career since coming into the fame to which

this work has brought him has been too familiar to need recounting. He

is as well known for his songs as for his operas and his place in the

lists of American lyricists is noted in Chapter XII.

If any of our younger composers of comic opera are possessed of an

artistic ideal, doubtless in nine out of ten cases it is to write an

opera that shall combine the sterling worth of good music with telling

popular qualities in the measure that 'Robin Hood' does it. It is too

late a day to write either a description or analysis of a work every

page of which is familiar to the great majority of our music-loving

public. It alone, of all the successes of past years, survives in the

popular affection; and it is reassuring to those who fear an ultimate

total depravity of taste that his work of charming grace and color can

still hold the boards. 'Robin Hood' was the third opera which de Koven

wrote. It was produced in 1890 by the Bostonians. Its success was not

at first marked, but it did not take long for it to find its place, and

it is estimated that the work now has over three thousand performances

to its credit.

De Koven in this appealing work has successfully simulated the hale

and hearty style of the English ballad and the idyllic simplicity of

the country dance and pastoral scene. With these qualities he has

combined the richer warmth of a glowing romantic melodiousness and a

graceful and lilting gaiety after methods of the Viennese and French

schools. Vocally stirring and effective in both its solo parts and

ensembles, colorful if not brilliant in its orchestration, 'Robin Hood'

is a masterpiece of its _genre_. Withal de Koven is always natural and

spontaneously straightforward--traits that have laid him open to the

accusation of persistent plagiarism. Mr. de Koven does at times employ

themes that suggest other works, but this is true of many another

composer whose integrity is unquestioned, and there is much truth in

Mr. Hughes' designation of de Koven as 'the best abused composer in

America.'

Since the success of 'Robin Hood' Mr. de Koven has been in the

unfortunate position of a man attempting to repeat a success along

similar lines. Once only has he made any near approach to it and that

in his seventh opera, 'Rob Roy' (produced in 1894). There is in this

score much of the same freshness that characterizes 'Robin Hood,' and

its melodies are not too reminiscent of the earlier works. The same

cannot be said of many of de Koven's other operas, for in his less

inspired moments the composer's heartiness becomes a rather too square

pomposity and his lighter moments often descend to a banality unworthy

of his best style. The following are among the other operas of de

Koven, with the dates of their productions: 'The Begum' (1887), 'Don

Quixote' (1889), 'The Fencing Master' (1892), 'The Knickerbockers'

(1893), 'The Algerian' (1893), 'The Tsigane' (1895), 'The Mandarin'

(1896), 'The Paris Doll' (1897), 'The Highwayman' (1897).

* * * * *

Victor Herbert in his comic operas has contrived to write in a vein

somewhat more varied than de Koven. While he has never achieved a

success to equal that of 'Robin Hood,' his operas taken as a whole

exhibit a more sustained power of invention and inspiration than those

of de Koven. Herbert's style is more marked by piquancy and lightness,

but he is not lacking in a melodic sense both charming and natural.

Herbert's style has undergone an evolution since his entrance into

the comic opera field. His earlier works, such as 'The Wizard of

the Nile,' 'The Serenade,' and 'The Idol's Eye,' are very simple in

structure, while in some of his later works he employs an ambitious

scheme that the laity are wont to identify with 'grand' opera. Some of

Herbert's later scores are: 'The Red Mill,' 'Mlle. Modiste,' 'Algeria,'

and 'Sweethearts.' Mr. Herbert was born in Ireland in 1859, was

musically educated in Germany, and came to America at about the age

of twenty-seven as solo 'cellist to the Metropolitan Opera House. His

'Americanism' is, therefore, acquired.

John Philip Sousa's fame, as is well known, is not primarily that of

an opera composer. As the 'march king' Mr. Sousa's fame is as unique

as it is deserved. Sousa is of German-Spanish descent. He was born

in Washington in 1859. His career has been one of rich practical

experience and opportunity, leading to an engagement as the leader

of the United States Marine Band. In 1892 he organized the band

which bears his own name and that organization has, perhaps, a more

world-wide fame than any other feature of our musical life.

Mr. Sousa has been often held up as the most representative of

American composers, an estimate that is not without considerable

truth. An analogy has been made between the Strauss waltzes and the

Sousa marches: the latter have not perhaps so much art as the former,

but they are all admirable pieces of composition, solid in harmonic

structure, and stirring in their melodic directness. 'The Washington

Post,' 'The Liberty Bell,' 'The High School Cadets,' and 'King Cotton'

have each, in turn, inspired the land with their martial vigor,

while 'The Stars and Stripes Forever' has become permanent in the

people's affections, being, indeed, a national anthem more eloquent in

Americanism than many of the tunes that bear the official seal as such.

Sousa has written several comic operas. One only of these, 'El

Capitan,' has met with success. It contains much music of an agreeable

brilliancy and gracefulness, notably one of the best examples of

the composer's marches. There is lacking, however, in Sousa's music

a quality very essential to the rounding out of a successful opera

score. We refer to the more sensuous melodic line which lends color

to the sustained portions of a work. Later operas of Sousa include:

'The Bride Elect,' 'The Charlatan,' 'Chris and the Wonderful Lamp,'

and 'The Glass Blowers,' and it may be added that Mr. Sousa has made

several incursions into the field of more serious music, having written

a symphonic poem and several other works for orchestra.

One of the most prolific composers of American light opera was Julian

Edwards (1855-1910). Mr. Edwards' list of about twenty operas includes

the names of several that have had remarkable success. 'Brian Boru' and

'Dolly Varden' are more than names to many. In 1904 Mr. Edwards wrote

the opera 'Love's Lottery,' which served as the vehicle whereby Mme.

Schumann-Heink entered the comic opera field.

Ludwig Englander and Gustav Luders are other names endeared to

American comic opera lovers. Both are of foreign birth, however.

The operas of the latter include 'King Dodo,' 'Grand Mogul,' and

'The Prince of Pilsen,' all works which, though neither marked by

originality nor over-refined, contained enough of musical vitality to

have won a place in the public esteem.

Less known writers who have from time to time added their quota to the

country's enlivening and tuneful music include: G. Thorne, whose opera,

'A Maid of Plymouth,' was one of the first in the répertoire of the

Bostonians; Henry Waller, the composer of 'Olgallalas,' which was also

produced by the Bostonians; Carl Pflueger, who wrote '1492,' given by

the Boston Cadets, an amateur organization, in one of their excellent

productions; and Barnet, whose 'Jack and the Beanstalk' was also sung

at one of the Cadets' 'shows.'

Several of the more serious composers have essayed the comic opera,

not always successfully. George W. Chadwick's 'Tabasco,' first

produced by the Boston Cadets, had a fair success when subsequently

given professionally, but Edgar Stillman-Kelley's 'Puritania' and

Henry Hadley's 'Nancy Brown' were decided failures. One of the recent

successes was Deems Taylor's 'The Echo,' originally written as a

college 'show' but achieving a long run on New York's Broadway.

Viewed in the light of present-day conditions and compared with

the class of works that constitute the large part of modern musical

stage-works, most of the foregoing operas may be classed as hopelessly

old-fashioned and _passé_. The decline of comic opera commenced with

the ascendency of the English 'musical comedy.' There are, it is

true, many works of the latter order that contain pages of music far

better than what is to be found in many of the more strictly operatic

works. Such works as 'Florodora' and 'The Geisha,' as well as many

later ones, have had much charm and refinement. It is the tendency

of these works to abolish the romantic strain of the old-fashioned

opera that constitutes its baneful influence. The play and the music

have become gradually more and more divorced and to-day the musical

portions of such a work have little or no bearing on the action or the

scene, but consist almost entirely of topical songs introduced in much

the same irrelevant manner in which they are so ingeniously brought

into a vaudeville 'act.' Paraphrasing Voltaire, the majority of this

degenerate class is neither musical nor comic.

This is the direction followed by our lighter musical plays of most

recent times. It is to be regretted that the grace and refinement that

marks many of the English musical comedies is so entirely lacking

in the American imitations of the same class. A note of vulgarity

insinuates itself unfailingly into the bulk of our contemporaneous

popular music. Flagrant examples of the ultimate type of musical play

above described are those of George M. Cohan, in whose inspiration some

have seen the first manifestation of the American 'genius.' The titles

of some of Mr. Cohan's plays, such as 'Yankee Doodle Boy,' 'Little

Johnny Jones,' and 'George Washington, Jr.,' reveal the jingoistic

qualities of his inspirations. The musical numbers of these works

are expressed in terms more or less Mr. Cohan's own. He has utilized

'ragtime' largely and in the rhythmical excitement of his songs lies

their strongest appeal. Other authors whose works follow generally

either the Americanized form of the English musical comedy or the

more distinctly native form of Mr. Cohan's 'musical shows' are: Jean

Schwartz, Silvio Hein, Gus Edwards, Manuel Klein, Raymond Hubbel, and

Robert H. Bowers.

It is to be hoped that there will be a return to the more legitimate

forms of lighter operas and that a revival of taste for the more

refined forms of stage work may soon offer again to the American

composer opportunities to demonstrate the very suitable field which

this branch of the art offers to his talent. An optimistic observer of

present conditions may see in the unqualified vulgarity of our popular

music to-day only the token of a vitality which, when softened by the

refining touch of the next decade, shall result in an expression of

individual charm.

B. L.

LITERATURE FOR VOLUME IV

_In English_

WILLIAM F. ALLEN: Slave Songs of the United States (1867).

W. G. ARMSTRONG: A Record of Opera in Philadelphia (Phila.,

1884).

RUDOLPH ARONSON: Theatrical and Musical Memories (New York,

1913; Boston, 1913).

W. J. BALTZELL: Music in American Cities (The Musician, vol.

18, No. 6, pp. 369-373; No. 9, pp. 587-590).

HENRY CLAY BARNABEE: Reminiscences of Henry Clay Barnabee;

ed. by Geo. L. Varney (Boston, 1913).

FREDERICK R. BURTON: American Primitive Music (New York,

1909).

Cabin and Plantation Songs as Sung by the Hampton Students

(New York, 1874).

LOUIS C. ELSON: The National Music of America and Its

Sources (Boston, 1900).

LOUIS C. ELSON: The History of American Music (New York,

1904).

ARTHUR FARWELL: New York's Municipal Music (Review of

Reviews, Vol. 44, pp. 451-458).

ARTHUR FARWELL: Folksongs of the West and South, Negro,

Cowboy, and Spanish-Californian, Harmonized (Newton Center,

Mass., 1905).

D. B. FISHER: The Story of New Orleans' Rise as a Music

Center (In Musical America, Vol. 19, No. 19, pp. 3-5).

HENRY F. GILBERT: The American Composer (Musical Quarterly,

Vol 1, pp. 169-180).

HENRY F. GILBERT: Nationalism in Music (The International,

New York, Dec., 1913).

LAWRENCE GILMAN: Edward MacDowell (New York, 1909).

PHILIP H. GOEPP, ed.: Annals of Music in Philadelphia

(Phila., 1896).

OCTAVIA HENSEL: Life and Letters of Louis M. Gottschalk

(Boston, 1870).

History of the American Stage, 1773-1870 (New York, 1870).

RICHARD HOFFMAN: Some Musical Recollections (New York, 1910).

RUPERT HUGHES: American Composers (Boston, 1914).

J. N. IRELAND: Record of the New York Stage (New York,

1866-67).

F. O. JONES: Handbook of American Music and Musicians

(Buffalo, 1887).

H. E. KREHBIEL: Indian Melodies; Interesting Experiments

with Their Settings, etc.; Ojibway Songs (1902).

H. E. KREHBIEL: Afro-American Folksongs (New York, 1914).

H. E. KREHBIEL: Chapters of Opera (New York, 1909).

MAX MARETZEK: Crotchets and Quavers (New York, 1855).

J. B. T. MARSH: The Story of the Jubilee Singers with their

Songs (Boston, 1880).

LOWELL MASON: Musical Letters from Abroad (New York, 1854).

WILLIAM MASON: Memories of a Musical Life (New York, 1901).

W. S. B. MATTHEWS: A Hundred Years of Music in America

(Chicago, 1889).

MUSICAL COURIER (Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 27-29): Musical

Statistics of San Francisco from 1849-1898.

MUSICAL COURIER (Vol. 47, No. 10, p. 8): The French Opera in

New Orleans.

L. O'CONNELL: Music in Mayflower Days (The Musician, Vol.

11, No. 9, p. 435).

J. L. ONDERDONCK: Colonial Patriotism in Song (Amer. Hist.

C. C. PERKINS and J. S. DWIGHT: History of the Handel and

Haydn Society of Boston (Boston, 1883-93).

FREDERIC LOUIS RITTER: Music in America (New York, 1883).

THOMAS RYAN: Recollections of an Old Musician (New York,

1883).

T. F. SEWARD: The Story of the Jubilee Singers with Their

Songs (London, 1897).

O. G. SONNECK: Early Concert Life in America (Leipzig, 1907).

O. G. SONNECK: Early Opera in America (New York, 1915).

O. G. SONNECK: Francis Hopkinson and James Lyon (Washington,

D. C.).

O. G. SONNECK: Report on 'The Star-Spangled Banner,' 'Hail

Columbia,' 'Yankee Doodle' (Washington, D. C., 1909).

VANCE THOMPSON: The Life of Ethelbert Nevin (Boston, 1913).

JULIEN TIERSOT: Folk Music of Canada and the United States

(New York).

CHARLEY WHITE: Negro Minstrelsy's Origin (Diary of the late

Charley White, N. Y. Sun, April 20, 1902).

_In German_

ALBERT FRIEDENTHAL: Musik, Tanz und Dichtung bei den Kreolen

Amerika's (Berlin, 1913).

J. C. GRIGGS: Studien über die Musik in Amerika (Leipzig,

1894).

A. LASER: Musikleben in Amerika (Die Musik, Vol. 4, pp.

244-246).

E. HANSLICK: Aus dem Tagebuch eines Musikers (Berlin, 1892).

MAURICE HALPERSON: Symphonie-Musik in New York (Allgemeine

Musikzeitung, Vol. 39, Nos. 32-33).

H. MOSENTHAL: Geschichte des Vereins 'Deutscher Liederkranz'

in New York (New York, 1897).

_In French_

HENRI HERZ: Mes Voyages en Amérique, (1866).

JACQUES OFFENBACH: Notes d'un musicien en voyage (Paris,

1877).

JULIEN TIERSOT: La musique chez les peuples indigènes de

l'Amérique (Notes d'ethnographie musicale) (Paris, 1910).

INDEX FOR VOLUME IV

N. B.--_Figures in italics indicate major references._

Abbey, Henry E., 136f, 142f.

Abbott, Emma, 160f, 168.

à Becket, Thomas, 326.

Aborigines. See Primitive music; also Indians.

Aborn, Milton and Sargent, 155ff, 173.

Abt, Franz, quot., 309f.

Ade, George, 457.

Adgate, Andrew, 73, 87, 235.

Ainsworth, Henry, 19.

Albany (N. Y.), early concerts in, 68.

Alda, Frances, 153.

Allen, Paul, 449.

Allen, William Francis (quoted on negro music), 289, 295, 301, 304.

Alvary, Max, 140, 145, 147.

Amato, Pasquale, 153.

'America' (national anthem), 324.

American Institute of Applied Music, 255.

American Opera Company (of 1885), 140f.

Americanism. See Nationalism.

Anderson, Arthur Olaf, 400.

Andrews, Mark, 358f.

Annapolis (Md.), 80f, 108.

Anschütz, Carl, 132ff.

Anthems. See Church music.

Antognini, 125.

Appreciation (musical) in America, etc., iv-ff.

'Archers (The),' first American opera, 112.

Arditi, Luigi, 126f, 135, 171.

Aretinian Society (of Boston), 98.

Aronson, Rudolph, 144, 177f.

Arne, (Dr.) Thomas, 39, 69f.

Arnold, Maurice, 346f, 433.

Ash, Gilfert, organ-builder, 64.

Aston, Tony, 105ff.

Astor Place Opera House, 128f.

Avery, Stanley R., 400.

Ayres, Frederick, 415ff.

Baermann, Carl, 250.

Bailey, Daniel, 29ff.

Bailey, William, 29.

Baker, Benjamin F., 222.

Balfe's 'Bohemian Girl,' in New York, 126.

Ballad opera in America, 104ff. See also English opera.

Ballantine, Edward, 442.

Baltimore, early musical activities in, 41f, 81f, 87, 101, 234.

Bangor (Me.), music festivals, 223.

Banjo, primitive and modern, 296.

Bardin, Edward, 65.

Barnabee, Henry Clay, 175, 177.

Barrère, Georges, 205.

Barrère Ensemble, 205.

Bartlett, Homer N., 383f.

Battell, Robbins, 224.

'Battle Hymn of the Republic,' 329.

Bauer, Clara, 250f.

Beach, John, 390f.

Beach, [Mrs.] H. H. A., 342.

Beale, Frederick Fleming, 401.

Beethoven, in early American concerts, 95, 97;

influence of in America, 360f.

Beethoven festival (in New York), 186.

Bentley, John, 72.

Bergmann, Carl, 131f, 183, 185, 189, 203, 208, 209.

Bergh, Arthur, 391ff.

Bertucca (Signora), 128.

Berwald, W., 358f.

Bethlehem (Pa.), choral music in, 214, 233f.

Billings, William, 39, _49ff_, 61;

as singing teacher, 98;

original compositions of, 234f;

patriotic songs of, 322.

Bird, Arthur, 402.

Bispham, David, 147.

Bliss, P. P., 245.

Bohemian Club of San Francisco, 228f, 396ff.

'Bohemian Girl' (Balfe), 126.

Bori, Lucrezia, 155.

Boston, early musical activities, 31ff, 236ff, 240ff;

early public concerts, 56ff, 83;

early musical societies, 98ff;

early opera, 109f;

opera, 172f;

orchestral organizations, 188ff;

chamber music in, 203f;

choral societies, 206ff;

music festivals, 223;

'Boston group' of composers, 335ff.

Boston Conservatory, 250.

Boston Symphony Orchestra, 190.

Bostonians (light opera troupe), 176f;

their influence on comic opera, 457.

Bottesini, 127.

Boudousquie, and New Orleans opera, 161ff.

Bradbury, William B., 222, 244f.

Brahms, influence of, in America, 348, 362.

Brahms festival, 186.

Brand, Michael, 193f.

Brandt, Marianne, 138, 140.

Branscombe, Gena, 438f.

Brattle, Thomas, 19.

Bremner, James, 69, 85.

Brewer, John Hyatt, 358.

Brignoli, 132.

Bristow, George F., 334;

(quoted) 182.

Broadhurst (Miss), 74f, 111.

Brockway, Howard, 382f.

Brooklyn (N. Y.), choral societies of, 213.

Brooklyn Philharmonic Society, 185.

Brounoff, Platon, 450.

Brown, A. L., quoted, 102.

Brown, William, 66f, 72.

Buck, Dudley, 345f.

Bull, Ole, in America, 130f.

Bullard, Frederick Field, 353.

Bunyan, John, quoted, 12.

Burleigh, Cecil, 401.

Burleigh, Harry, 443.

Burrian, Carl, 155.

Burton, Frederick R., 347.

Busch, Carl, 394f.

Byrd, William, 4.

Cable, George W., 307f.

Cadman, Charles Wakefield, 425ff.

Calvé, Emma, 144, 146, 151.

Campanari, Giuseppe, 147.

Campanini, Cleofonte (opera conductor), 152f, 171f.

Campanini, Italo, 133, 135f, 141.

Campbell-Tipton, 422ff.

Canada, conservatories of, 259ff.

Canadian folk-song, 313.

Capron, Henri, 66, 72.

Caradori-Allan (Mme.), 124.

Carey, Henry, 324.

'Carmen,' in New York, 135, 155.

Carnegie, Andrew, 211.

Carnegie Hall (New York), 211.

Carpenter, John Alden, 427f.

Carr, Benjamin, 112.

Carroll, Marcus H., 354.

Caruso, Enrico, 149, 155.

Casino Theatre (New York), 177f.

Catholic Church. See Church music; also Palestrina.

Cavalieri, Lina, 151, 153.

'Cavalleria Rusticana' (Mascagni), in New York, 143.

Century Opera Company (New York), 155ff.

Chadwick, George W., 248f, 311, _337f_, 357, 462.

Chamber music ensembles, in the United States, 201ff.

Chappell, on music in the 17th century, 6.

Charleston (S. C.), early concerts in, 9, 40ff, _76ff_, 83;

early musical societies of, 86f;

early opera, 106, 108, 111.

Cheney, Moses E., 244.

Chicago, opera in, 169ff;

orchestral organizations of, 191ff;

chamber music organizations in, 205;

choral societies of, 216f;

musical conventions in, 222, 244;

music festivals in, 223.

Chicago Conservatory, 254f.

Chicago Musical College, 253f.

Chicago-Philadelphia Opera Company, 169, 171f.

Chittenden, Kate S., 255.

Chopin, influence of, in America, 361, 419f.

Choral music, in early Boston, 60, 73, 88;

in Bethlehem (Pa.), 214, 233f.

Choral societies, community choruses, xix;

early American, 84ff;

American, 206ff.