THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS
IN THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY
AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc.
_Late Assistant Mistress at the Ladies’ College, Cheltenham; Lecturer
at the Cambridge Training College for Women Teachers_
AND
H. MILLICENT HUGHES
_Lecturer on Education and Head of Training Department, University
College South Wales and Monmouthshire_
[Illustration]
London
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO
NEW YORK: MACMILLAN & CO
1894
BUTLER & TANNER,
THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
FROME, AND LONDON.
PREFACE
In view of the growing interest in secondary education in England,
and the important educational problems demanding solution, the
Gilchrist Trustees decided, in the early part of 1893, to send five
women teachers to America for the purpose of studying and reporting
upon Secondary Schools for Girls and Training Colleges for Women in
different parts of the States. The Trustees made their intention
widely known, and invited the governing bodies of the various women’s
colleges and associations of teachers to submit to them names of
persons specially qualified. Out of the list of able and experienced
women teachers thus furnished to them, the Trustees, after careful
consideration of the qualifications of the numerous candidates,
selected the following five: Miss Bramwell, B.Sc., Lecturer at the
Cambridge Training College; Miss Burstall, B.A., Mistress at the
North London Collegiate School for Girls; Miss Hughes, Lecturer on
Education at University College, Cardiff; Miss Page, Head-Mistress of
the Skinners’ Company’s School for Girls, Stamford Hill, N.; and Miss
Zimmern, Mistress at the High School for Girls, Tunbridge Wells. They
were awarded travelling scholarships of one hundred pounds each to
enable them to spend two months in the United States in prosecuting
their enquiries. The five scholars visited America in the summer of
1893, and submitted to the Trustees carefully prepared Reports, two of
which--viz., those by Miss Bramwell and Miss Hughes--are presented to
the public in this volume. The Trustees have aided in the publication
of these Reports because they believe that a knowledge of the
educational systems and experiments which have been tried in America
cannot fail to be of interest and value to those engaged in teaching in
the United Kingdom.
R. D. ROBERTS,
_Secretary to the Gilchrist Trustees_.
GILCHRIST EDUCATIONAL TRUST,
17, VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, S.W.
1894.
NOTE BY THE AUTHORS
In publishing the following reports, which we are enabled to do through
the courtesy and generosity of the Gilchrist Trustees, it may not be
altogether out of place to submit a few prefatory remarks. When the
five Scholars were appointed to visit American Schools and Colleges in
the summer of 1893, it was found advisable, in view of the magnitude of
the task, to somewhat divide the responsibility. Three of the number
undertook to visit and report upon institutions offering the means
of general education, while we desired to especially investigate the
provision made in the United States for the Training of Teachers.
As our interests thus lay in one direction, the Trustees further
approved of our suggestion that we should travel and work together,
and this plan we found most helpful and satisfactory. It will be seen
that we have covered exactly the same field, but we have thought it
desirable to write separate reports, without mutual consultation,
rather than to embody the results of our work in a joint account.
AMY B. BRAMWELL.
H. MILLICENT HUGHES.
CONTENTS
PAGE
_New York_
Educational Institutions 1
Press Fair 2
_Poughkeepsie_
Vassar College 2-3
_Philadelphia_
Schools and Institutes 3-4
_Bryn Mawr_ 4
_West Chester and Millersville_ 5
_Connecticut_
New Haven, New Britain, Willimantic 6
_Massachusetts_
Springfield 6
Boston--
Perkins Institute for the Blind 7
Harvard 9
Women’s Annex (Fay House) 10
Institute of Technology 11
Wellesley 11
Quincy 11
Milton (co-education) 12
Concord 14
_Syracuse_
University 14
_Ann Arbor_
Michigan State University 14
Commencement 15
_Benton Harbour_ 16
_Chicago_
University 16
World’s Fair 17
Educational Congresses 18
University settlement 19
_Chautauqua_ 19
_Cornell_
Ithaca 19
_REPORT 1._
I. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
Organization 23
Advantages offered to Students 23
Co-education. Relative numbers of men and women Students 24
Early Normal Schools 25
The early character still maintained 26
Academic character illustrated by the courses of study--
(_a_) In Massachusetts 26
(_b_) In New York 27
Arguments given for retaining their academic character 28
A. _Academic Studies_
Importance given to Science Teaching 30
Laboratories and Museums--
(_a_) At Bridgewater, Mass. 31
(_b_) At Willimantic, Conn. 32
Manual Training 32
Libraries and Apparatus at Willimantic, Conn. 33
Plant Study at Worcester, Mass. 34
The “Recitation” Method 34
Importance given to illustration by means of concrete objects 36
Study of many Sciences by concentrative methods 37
B. _Professional Work_
Pedagogical subjects studied late in the Course 39
Psychology and History of Education in the schools of
Connecticut 40
Psychology and Child-Study at Worcester, Mass. 41
“Methods” as a subject of study 42
“Methods” in the Model Schools 44
Unification of study 45
C. _Practice in Teaching_
General plan of Practice-Work--
(_a_) In Pennsylvania 48
(_b_) In New York 49
(_c_) In Connecticut 50
Importance attached to Model Schools 51
Special plan of Practice-Work at Worcester, Mass. 51
D. _Examinations_
State Examination and “Graduation” 52
E. _Supply of Teachers_
Number of Normal School Students teaching in the Common
Schools 53
Small number of Normal School Students who become
Secondary Teachers 54
II. CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS.
Effects of local management 56
A. _City Normal Schools_
Conditions of admission 57
Functions of Normal and High School combined 58
Examinations 60
B. _City Training Schools_
Emphasis of the practical side 61
Substitute Service 62
Boston Normal School 62
Courses in Massachusetts 64
Courses at New Haven, Conn. 65
Psychological Experiments at New Haven 65
Criticism lessons at New Haven 66
Reports of work of Students at New Haven 69
C. _City Training Classes_
The teaching of reading at Quincy, Mass. 70
Courses in New York State 72
Inadequacy of Training Class Courses for qualifying for
responsible work 73
Practice of allowing beginners to teach in the lowest
grades 74
Importance attached to “Methods” of the Primary School 75
III. UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY.
A. _Departments of State Universities_
Importance to the State of the Professional preparation
of Teachers 78
Courses in Pedagogy proper, and “Teachers’ Courses” 78
University of Michigan 79
University of Illinois 80
University of Missouri 81
General Features of State Universities 83
B. _Departments of Universities in the Eastern States_
Teachers’ College, New York City 86
(_a_) Courses of Work 87
(_b_) Teacher’s Diploma 88
(_c_) Purely professional character of work 89
(_d_) Psychology 90
(_e_) History of Education 91
(_f_) Methods of Science 92
(_g_) Practice department 93
School of Pedagogy of the University of the City of New York--
(_a_) Pedagogical Degrees 97
(_b_) Courses of Study 97
Cornell University 99
Syracuse University 99
Harvard University--
(_a_) Students’ Inspection of Schools 100
(_b_) Teachers’ Courses 101
(_c_) Connection with Secondary Schools 101
Clark University--
(_a_) Character of work 102
(_b_) Courses of work 102
(_c_) Psychological Research 103
IV. SUMMER SCHOOLS.
Benton Harbour, Mich. 105
Englewood, Chicago 108
(_a_) Science 108
(_b_) Blackboard Drawing 110
Chautauqua 111
Cornell University, Summer School 111
_REPORT II._
_Introduction_
The problem of “Training” in England and America 116
Representative States 117
State Systems of Education 118
Bureau of Education 118
East and West 118
Institutions for the Training of Teachers 120
_Normal Schools_
State, City, and Private Normal Schools 120
Academic _versus_ Professional Studies 121
Comparison with English Elementary Training Colleges 122
Lack of uniformity in standard of admission and length of
course 123
STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS.
_Pennsylvania_ 124
Courses laid down by the School Law 124
Final examinations and graduation 126
State Certificates for untrained teachers 127
Grants to Normal students and graduates 128
Millersville Normal School 129
West Chester Normal School 130
_Connecticut_ 131
Conditions of admission 132
Provision for Theoretical and Practical Work 132
Final examinations and graduation 133
New Britain 133
The Printing Press in the School 133
Practice School at South Manchester 134
Willimantic 134
_New York State_
Statistics of State Normal Schools 135
Conditions of admission 136-138
Courses and diplomas 139
Albany 139
Oswego 140
Special Training Course 142
Laboratory method of teaching History 143
_Massachusetts_ 144
The founding of State Normal Schools 145
Design of Schools 145
Courses 146
Statistics of Normal Schools 147
Framingham 148
Westfield 149
“Topics” 149
Sand-moulding 150
Bridgewater 150
Worcester 150
Child-study 151
Apprenticeship 152
Platform exercises 153
Children’s Class 153
Training the “time sense” 154
Normal Art School 154
_Michigan_ 155
Ypsilante Normal School 155
Courses of study 155
Pedagogic degrees 156
_Illinois_ 156
State Normal Universities 157
Cook County Normal School 157
Conditions of admission 158
Graduation and post-graduate courses 159
The Practice School and its use 160-161
Theory of concentration 162-165
CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS.
Organization 165
_Philadelphia_ 165
Girls’ Normal School Course 166
School of Pedagogy 166
_New York_ 168
Normal School 168
_Boston_ 168
Normal School 168
Substitute service 168
Course of study 169-170
CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS.
Organization 171
_New Haven_ 171
Welch Training School 171
Notes of Lessons 171
_Springfield_ 172
Training School 172
Leading features of Training School 173
List of Training Schools in Massachusetts 174
TRAINING CLASSES. 174
Table of Training Classes, Massachusetts 175
PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES.
Theoretical side of training emphasized 176
_Harvard_ 177
Lectures on Education 177
Inspection and supervision of Schools 178
_Cornell_ 178
Elective courses in Philosophy course 178
Seminaries 179
_Michigan_
Professional Training for Teachers 179
Reasons for providing the same (extract from Calendar) 179-180
Teacher’s diploma and certificate 181
_Illinois_
Course in Pedagogy counting towards a degree 182
_Indiana_
Courses in Department of Pedagogies 183
_University of City of New York_ 183
Regular Students and Auditors 183
Courses of Study 183
Requirements for the Doctorate in Pedagogy 184
_University of Iowa_ 185
_Teachers’ Training College, affiliated with Columbia College_ 185
Course of study leading to degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy 186
Certificates 187
School of Observation and Practice 188
Extension and publishing work 188
_Clark University at Worcester_ 189
Research work 189
Educational Department 190
Pedagogical Seminary 192
Twofold aim of Educational Department 192
TEACHER’S INSTITUTES.
Character of Work 194
Various kinds of Institutes 195
SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES.
Benton Harbour 196
Chautauqua 196
Summer course at Cornell 196
Summer Course at Clark University 197
The Prang System 198
The Training of Teachers in the United States
GENERAL SKETCH OF THE AMERICAN TOUR
Our educational quest began in the city of New York, on May 29th, 1893.
Having interviewed the City Superintendent, Mr. J. Jasper, who gave
valuable information as to what was most worth seeing in connection
with the educational life of the city, we proceeded to the Normal
College of the city of New York. The session was just closing, but we
were able to see some classes in physical training and cookery, and
to gain some insight into the methods employed in other subjects. Two
or three days were most profitably spent at the Teachers’ Training
College, a sketch of the work of which is given elsewhere. A hasty
visit to Columbia College, with its annex for women,--Barnard
College,--a still more cursory glance at the University of the city of
New York (our information concerning which we were fortunately able
to supplement at Chicago), with an afternoon spent at the Press Fair,
was all we were able to accomplish at New York. The Press Fair proved
to be a most interesting exhibit of specimens of the work in the public
schools of New York. The methods of teaching various subjects were set
forth, and we were especially struck, as again later at the education
exhibit of the World’s Fair, by the apparatus and illustrations made by
the children themselves.
The power of “_making_,” whether of maps (drawn, painted, modelled),
models (in clay, putty, paper, wood), pictorial illustrations of
lessons (history, geography, literature, natural science, and even
mathematics) appears to be much more encouraged in America than in
England. We made friends with several of the school children at the
Press Fair, who proved most eager and interesting guides, naturally
anxious to fully explain what had been sent from their own special
schools.
Decoration Day (May 30th), on which New York had a holiday, we
determined to spend at Vassar College. A pleasant railway journey
up the banks of the Hudson River brought us to the little town of
Poughkeepsie, two miles to the east of which is Vassar College. Here
we were most cordially received, and spent the day in seeing over
the various buildings connected with it, and hearing lectures. This
college was founded in 1861 by Mr. Matthew Vassar, who provided the
grounds and buildings, together with a sustentation fund of about
£50,000. He desired, to use his own words, “to found and perpetuate an
institution which should accomplish for young women what our colleges
are accomplishing for young men.”
It led the way in opening the advantages of a liberal education to
women, and holds a place in the first rank of women’s colleges in
America. It is undenominational, but, according to the wish of its
founder, daily prayers are held in the chapel, and all classes meet
on Sunday for the study of the Scriptures. In order to emphasize the
dignity of manual labour, each student is expected to undertake a small
share in the household work of the College, at least, at some period of
her college career. The ordinary course is for four years leading to
the degree of A.B. These four years are known respectively as Freshman,
Sophomore, Junior, and Senior. A further course of two years leads
to the degree of A.M., and special courses are also provided. There
are, moreover, in connection with the college, schools of music and
painting, the latter possessing a very fine collection of casts. There
is a uniform annual fee of £80 (400 dollars) for board and tuition. The
students’ rooms are usually arranged in groups of three sleeping rooms
opening on to a common study. Just before our visit the students had
given a most successful performance of the “Antigone.”
From New York we went to Philadelphia, where the city superintendent,
Dr. Edward Brooks, kindly explained the city system of education. He is
keenly alive to the importance of the training of teachers, and ample
provision for the same is made in the city. For the training of men
teachers, a School of Pedagogy (the scheme for which was drawn up by
Dr. Brooks) has lately been opened in connection with the Boys’ Central
High School. The Girls’ Normal School has had to serve the double
purpose of high school and place of training for women teachers, but
Dr. Brooks has long urged the necessity of separating the two, and at
this time the new building for the Girls’ High School is being erected.
Kindergarten training is also not neglected, and on our first evening
in Philadelphia we attended the commencement exercises of Mrs. van
Kirk’s Kindergarten Training School, at which the graduates read essays
on various educational topics, sang songs and acted a little scene, in
which the virtues of the Kindergarten were set forth. The next day we
were able to visit the school itself, and we found that, not content
with providing the ordinary graduating course, Mrs. van Kirk has
arranged for one that is post-graduate.
A delightful visit to the Drexel Institute, which provides for the
technical instruction of the city, a glance at one of the largest
Friends’ Schools, and an unavailing attempt to see over the James
Forten Manual Training School, was all we had time for in Philadelphia.
Ten miles from Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania railroad, one reaches
the Old Welsh settlement of Bryn Mawr, with its college for women,
which bears the same name. Several halls and laboratory buildings,
standing in fifty acres of ground, make an imposing show. Of all the
colleges that we visited, Bryn Mawr appeared the most English, and it
needed the sight of a preserved specimen of a wicked-looking snake,
which had been killed in the grounds, to convince us that we were
really on American soil.
Perhaps the fact that the Professor of Mathematics, Miss Scott, and
three of the Fellows have come there from Girton helped to build up the
illusion.
It is a college without rules; even attendance at lectures is not
compulsory, but as failure to pass at the yearly examinations brings
with it a request to withdraw from the college, there is every
inducement to attend regularly. The same freedom is extended to the
choice of studies. Instead of the four years’ course with the more
or less definitely prescribed work for each class which we found at
Vassar, Bryn Mawr has adopted the newer plan of the group system, which
allows more opportunity for specialization. A distinctive feature of
the college is the attention paid to post-graduate work, original
research being especially encouraged. The students have adopted caps
and gowns, which, however, are only worn within college precincts.
Acting on the suggestion of Dr. Brooks, we determined to visit the
two chief normal schools of the state of Pennsylvania--West Chester
and Millersville. The little tree-shaded town of West Chester was
a pleasant change from the heat of Philadelphia. It is a most
distinctively Quaker settlement; even the landlord of the little inn
at which we stayed was a Friend, and wished to know if “thee was
travelling all by theeself.” The normal school is a little way out, but
easily reached by means of the electric cars, which are to be found in
even the smallest American towns.
It was interesting to us as the first co-educational normal school that
we had seen. The dining and lecture rooms are used in common, but the
dormitory accommodation is in two separate wings.
From West Chester we went to the normal school at Millersville, near
Lancaster. Returning north through New York, we first stopped at New
Haven, Connecticut, a most picturesque place, famous as being the
location of Yale College.
Superintendent Curtis most kindly supplied us with information about
the State of Connecticut and its normal schools. He also took us to see
the Welch Training School in New Haven, which, however, is elsewhere
described.
From New Haven we went to Hartford (visiting the normal school of New
Britain on the way), and from thence to Willimantic, South Manchester,
and Springfield, Massachusetts. At Springfield the Training School,
and an interview with Superintendent Balliet, gave ample material for
thought. The work carried on by Mr. Balliet in the city strikingly
exemplifies what a superintendent may do for the cause of education.
Not only does he give weekly lectures on applied psychology and
kindred subjects, but he has paid special attention to the elaborating
of methods of teaching such subjects as arithmetic and geometry,
geography, English language, etc., on which he has published
pamphlets, setting forth the results of his thought and experience.
It should be noted that, as in America schools when inspected are not
judged by results, but by the methods used, and the general teaching
efficiency, it comes about that the question of methods holds a more
important place in educational thought than in England. More time,
therefore, is devoted to their study in normal and training schools,
and a superintendent has a wide field of influence in the matter of
methods in the city or district over which he presides.
From Springfield the normal school at Westfield was visited, and from
thence we went on to Albany to see the State Normal College and City
Training School.
Boston offered a wide choice in matters of educational interest.
The Perkins Institute and Kindergarten for the blind well repaid a
visit. The former, associated with the name of Laura Bridgman, has
now in Helen Keller and Annie Thomas two wonderful examples of what
education may do even for those who lack what at first may seem the
necessary basis for all instruction--the senses of sight and hearing.
Helen Keller was not there at the time of our visit, but we just
saw her later at Chicago. When she entered the Institute she, being
blind, deaf, and consequently speechless, lived in a state of almost
complete isolation, but now, through the careful training of her
marvellously acute sense of touch, she can take a very full share in
the life of the world. She moves about quite fearlessly, recognising
people by a touch of the hand, speaking easily (even sometimes in
public), although, of course, those speaking to her must use the
hand-language,[1] or let her put her fingers on their lips. She is
acquainted with a good deal of the best in literature, and writes
most poetically. Indeed, from her letters it is difficult to suppose
that she has never seen or heard anything. Her life seems a very
happy one in spite of all, and she makes friends everywhere. Annie
Thomas was at the Institute, however, at the time of our visit. She,
like Helen Keller, has only the sense of touch by means of which to
gain knowledge of the world, but she too has learned to talk, write,
sew, etc. She acted as guide to us over the building, leading us from
room to room, and drawing our attention to various things, including
specimens of her own work. Younger than Helen Keller, she is very
fond of dressing dolls, and felt our dresses all over, to try to get
new ideas in dressmaking. She appears to have a good memory, and can
recognise people after a long lapse of time by just touching their
hands. We asked her through her teacher if she remembered the visit of
an Englishman, who some years before had been there and had given her
a little ring; she remembered at once, and talked about him. In the
Kindergarten we saw two other such children--Willie Robin and Tommy
Stringer. The first, a little girl, is a pretty child, and seemingly
very intelligent. It was wonderful to see all the little blind children
playing Kindergarten games, but when this child came forward and joined
in playing cat and mouse, with an evident keen sense of the fun, and
even sang the songs with the others, finding out what was being sung
by touching the throat of the child next to her, we realized what
education had done for her. The little boy, Tommy Stringer (who was
admitted mainly through the efforts of Helen Keller, who, having heard
of him, did not rest until she had secured his admission), is only
at the beginning of his training, and cannot yet do much. Of course
the first work of establishing a system of communication with these
children is the most arduous, and patient indeed must be the teachers
who devote themselves to it.
Several times we crossed the river Charles to Cambridge, for no visit
to America would have been complete without some time spent in seeing
the leading University of the country. It seemed curious to find that
women were still excluded from the lectures, although in the Women’s
Annex they are allowed to work as if for a degree. It seemed strange
that such a state of things could exist in a land which boasts itself
of freedom and of the position given to women. Indeed, it really
appears that the eastern States of America are behind England in the
matter of offering equal educational advantages to men and women. There
are, of course, the great Women’s Colleges of Bryn Mawr, Wellesley,
Vassar and Smith, which offer splendid opportunities for work, but
their courses lead to degrees which are for women only, and which will,
for that reason alone, never be considered as of such importance as
those which are also granted to men.
The Harvard Annex for Women has been opened at Fay House, Cambridge.
Professors and lecturers from the University give their lectures over
again at the Annex for the benefit of the women students, who can
thus go through the course for a degree, which, however, they may not
receive, having to be content with a certificate. We were able to be
there on Class Day, on which the students invite their friends to an
“at home” in honour of the women graduates. At first all assembled in
the library to listen to appropriate speeches, then they dispersed into
the lecture rooms to talk to their friends, an arrangement which gave
the English visitors opportunity to meet the various professors and
lecturers. The women’s Class Day, however, fades into insignificance
by the side of the men’s, which is the gala day of Cambridge. The
morning is devoted to speeches by the students and professors, and in
the afternoon and evening the seniors (those who graduate) have the
opportunity of giving teas and “spreads,” to which they invite their
friends. On the Tree of Liberty is hung the famous wreath, the flowers
of which are scrambled for at a given signal, and dancing and other
entertainments bring the day to a close. Commencement Day, at which the
actual degrees are conferred, is held some days later.
From Boston we visited another famous college for women--Wellesley,
which takes rank and is conducted on similar lines to those of Vassar
and Bryn Mawr. It is quite out in the country, and has beautiful
buildings and grounds of its own.
The Institute of Technology well repaid a visit. It is a most imposing
institution, every opportunity being afforded in it for work of all
kinds, chiefly, it is true, for scientific work (the laboratories and
various departments being most splendidly equipped with apparatus),
but almost any subject can be studied there. There are special courses
arranged for those who are actually engaged in teaching. We also
visited the Boston Normal and Rice Training School, Normal Art School,
and the Latin High School. From Boston, we went to see the State Normal
Schools at Framingham, Bridgewater Providence (Rhode Island), and the
other Training Schools at Fall River and Pawtucket.
The fame of the Quincy Schools, near Boston, attracted us thither, and
we spent a delightful morning listening to lessons in the primary and
grammar grades of one of the best. It was of course a mixed school, and
every class had a large room to itself with a continuous blackboard,
all round the walls, of which constant use was made either by teacher
or scholars. These blackboards are an essential part of school-room
furniture in America, and without them a great deal of the teaching
could not be carried on. The teacher begins at one end of the board
facing the class, and can work right along the side of the room, thus
being able to leave all her drawings, etc., unerased during the lesson.
She can also send any or all of the children to the blackboard at once
to work sums, write or draw. It was at Quincy that Colonel Parker (now
at Cook County Normal School) began his work as school superintendent,
and through him the Quincy methods of teaching attained an almost
world-wide fame.
The little town of Milton, a few miles out of Boston, among the Blue
Mountains, was also a place of interest. We there visited the Milton
Academy, an endowed school, chartered as far back as 1798, and opened
in 1807. It is a school for boys and girls, although there is only a
boarding-house for boys. The Academy much resembles an English High
School, in that it provides education for children between the ages of
eight and eighteen, and has an upper and lower school. It is really a
preparatory school for Harvard, the courses in the upper school being
determined by the requirements for the Harvard entrance examination.
We asked the head-master as to the practical working of co-education
in a school of that kind. He appeared to believe in it, and gave
us an excellent opportunity of learning how the boys and girls
themselves regarded it. The upper school had to write for ten minutes
on some given subject, and on this morning the one announced was
“co-education.” We were afterwards allowed to look at the papers, and
were very much interested by them. About half the pupils expressed no
definite opinion at all--many saying that as they had never been to a
school on any other plan, they could not judge of the relative merits
of mixed or separate schools. The rest, however, had fully made up
their minds, some for and some against. Those who defended the system
did so on the grounds of the higher standard of work resulting from
the rivalry between the boys and girls, and of the good influence each
had on the other--the girls making the boys gentler, while the boys’
admiration of courage tended to render the girls braver. The objections
brought against it were, however, almost more interesting. Several boys
objected, because they said they had to work harder than in schools for
boys only, while some of the girls who did not want to take the Harvard
entrance examination disliked the course of study rendered necessary
by it, and would have preferred to take other subjects. According
to one boy, “girls have so much more time than boys (not playing so
many games), and therefore can easily get their lessons perfect”; and
another bewailed the fact that when optional extra work was given out
by the teacher, “the girls always did it, and so got more marks.” A
more valid objection, perhaps, was that the school had no reputation
for athletics, or outdoor games, as the girls took no interest in
them. How far this was really true in this particular case, we could
not judge; but wherever we went, we were struck with the fact that
American girls do not play or get enough exercise in the open air. This
dislike to outdoor exercise and fondness for hot rooms (their rooms
are kept ten to fifteen degrees higher in temperature than we consider
healthy in England) are probably the chief causes of the delicacy and
excitability of American women.
One day was spent at Concord, so long the home of Emerson, Hawthorne
and Thoreau, where one realized as never before what their lives and
writings have meant as educating influences in America. The life
of Concord seems to be in the past, and it appears as if quietly
awaiting the return of those great presences which made it famous.
The house once occupied by the Alcotts is now in the possession of
Commissioner Harris, of Washington (Head of the Bureau of Education),
who spends a part of each year there. The Concord schools are good,
and a new scheme, by which all children within a radius of ten miles
are collected in conveyances and brought in to school, has just been
adopted. This plan does away with the necessity for district schools,
which are rarely efficient.
From Boston we started westward, and first stopped at Syracuse. This
is the seat of a Co-educational University, placed on the top of the
highest hill, the view from which is very fine. Besides the ordinary
departments, it has one for music and one for painting, which have both
been carefully organized. There is also an observatory.
By way of Oswego, Niagara and Detroit, we reached Ann Arbor, the seat
of the Michigan State University, which is the centre of the life
of the town. It is co-educational and non-residential, the students
boarding with the people of the place. It appeared that nearly every
house took in students, usually only to lodge, but other houses opened
their doors at meal times, and it was a curious sight to see students
and others wending their ways three times a day to certain houses where
they had arranged for meals.
The University has many departments, including those of law, medicine
and dentistry. Two graduates of the last were Englishwomen, who are now
practising in Chicago.
We were fortunate enough to arrive there in time for Commencement Day,
when we saw several hundred students receive degrees. They went up on
to the platform in batches of twenty or thirty at a time, and were then
handed their diplomas. Neither the graduates nor the professors wore
any academic dress. Just below the platform, tables were arranged which
were covered with bunches and baskets of flowers and presents. These
were placed there by the friends of the students, and each bore the
name of the one for whom it was intended. At one point in the ceremony
these were handed round. An address is usually given by some well-known
speaker--this year by Dr. Charles Warner.
This University is the crown of the Michigan State system of education,
and its advantages are equally open to men and to women. All connected
with it seemed to approve of its being co-educational. Great freedom is
allowed to all students, but he or she who will not work, and wastes
time and opportunities, has to leave. Graduation time is also that
chosen for the meeting together of old students of the University.
The students who graduate together are known as the “class” of the
year in which they take their degrees--such as the “class of 1870,”
or of “1890.” The members of the various classes try to keep in touch
with each other all their lives, and like to meet at the University at
Commencement time. Several classes, in some of which the members were
all grey-headed, had thus met together to talk over old times.
From Ann Arbor we went to see a Summer School, at Benton Harbour, a
watering-place on Lake Michigan. The school was mostly attended by
teachers from the country, who wished to use part of their holidays in
preparing for one of the Teachers’ State Examinations.
Here we spent the “glorious fourth,” being roused by fireworks at three
in the morning, and obliged to tread the streets most carefully by day
to avoid stepping on the fire-crackers which lay about everywhere.
Crossing the lake by steamer (a three or four hours’ passage, in
which we were quite out of sight of land), we reached Chicago. There
we stayed at the new University, which, of course, was not then in
session. The dormitories were let out to those who came for the
Educational Congresses. Our first sight of it was not inspiriting,
for we arrived at night, and the half-finished buildings, placed at
intervals on what must at no distant date have been a swamp, looked
cheerless and forlorn. Things looked better in the morning sunshine;
and we then found that there was every promise of its being a large
and handsome University. It is co-educational, like Michigan,
and has, moreover, three women on the staff--one as Dean, one as
Assistant-Professor of English, and one as Lecturer in Spanish. It is
residential, some of the dormitories being built for women and some for
men.
The World’s Fair was held in the parks adjoining the University.
It would take too long to describe, but one building must be
mentioned--that of the Liberal Arts, the top floor of which was
entirely given up to educational exhibits. Nearly every country was
represented, from Japan--which really appears to be far advanced in
the making of teaching apparatus--to the exhibit of our own London
School Board, which was exceedingly well arranged, and attracted much
attention. The United States had naturally the lion’s share of the
space--each State having a section allotted to it. In each section
places were given to the Universities, Normal Schools, Public and
Private Schools, and other Institutions. Specimens of work, exercise
books, apparatus, were all shown. Several States had taken great pains
to make the exhibit complete. Some had collected valuable statistics
and placed them on revolving screens, some had published pamphlets
describing certain branches of educational work in the State; and
some greatly heightened the value of the exhibits by placing some
one in charge who was competent to explain them. Some exhibits were,
of course, much more valuable than others--the States of Indiana,
Massachusetts, Minnesota and New York appeared perhaps the most
complete.
From these exhibits, and especially from those in charge of them, we
learned much, and were able to supplement the knowledge we had gained
by visiting the various schools.
Two Educational Congresses were held, the first under the Women’s
Branch of the World Congress Auxiliary, began on July 17th, and the
other, held under the charge of the National Educational Association,
began on July 23rd.
Under each there were many sections, those for the first being Higher
Education, University Extension, College and University Students,
College Fraternities, Kindergarten Manual and Art Education, Social
Settlements, Chautauquean Education, Stenography, Teaching of the Deaf
and of the Blind.
For the second: Higher, Secondary, Elementary and Kindergarten
Education, School Supervision, Training of Teachers’ Art, Vocal Music,
Technological, Industrial and Manual Business and Physical Education,
Rational Psychology and Experimental Psychology in Education. On the
whole the Congresses were disappointing, with perhaps the exception
of that on Experimental Psychology; but the people we met there were
so interesting as to quite make up for any loss in the Congresses
themselves.
All our spare time we spent at the Cook County Normal Summer School,
Colonel Parker having given us free passes to all lectures. There we
met teachers from all parts of the States and from Canada.
We also visited the University Settlement in one of the poorest parts
of Chicago. It is known as Hull House, and is conducted on much the
same lines as Toynbee Hall.
From Chicago we went to Chautauqua, the huge encampment by the side of
Lake Chautauqua, in New York State. Here for several months in the year
people gather (no longer in log huts, but in hotels and boarding-houses
erected for the purpose) to attend the summer school, or the religious
meetings, or simply to enjoy the social life and popular lectures,
concerts, etc., which make the time pass quickly for them. Not only,
however, in the summer does Chautauqua exercise its influence. An
elaborate system of reading circles and education by correspondence has
been established, and connects one summer meeting with another. It does
educational work among those who are reached in no other way, and its
influence is felt not only throughout the States and America generally,
but even in Europe and far Japan.
We returned to New York through Ithaca, where we stopped to see Cornell
University. A University Summer School was being held, and we were able
to attend some lectures, and interviewed one or two professors.
A breakdown of the train by which we were to leave Ithaca delayed
our journey, so we arrived in New York too late to see any more
institutions, and sailed from thence feeling sad at the thought that
such a delightful tour was ended; but glad, too, at the remembrance of
the many friends we had made, and feeling that America would be no more
to us a land of strangers.
MILLICENT HUGHES.
REPORT I
BY AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc.
In making my report of observations in one department of the
Educational System of the United States, I am anxious to point out, at
the very outset, that the nature of that System (its complexity, its
many modifications, and the vast extent it covers) renders the work of
drawing general conclusions from the data supplied by the observations
of one person a task of extreme difficulty. The difficulty is further
increased by the fact that my personal observations were limited to
the North-Eastern States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island,
New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illinois. These States, although
covering only a small portion of the whole field of observation, differ
so greatly as regards conditions and organization that they exhibit
results widely opposed, and furnish facts from which it is not easy to
generalize.
I had, however, many and valuable opportunities of supplementing
personal observations by a further study of educational matters in the
exhibit of the Educational Department of the World’s Fair, and by
attending the Educational Congresses held in Chicago in July, 1893.
The meetings held during the Educational Congress were, in themselves,
disappointing. Nevertheless they enabled me to meet educationalists
and teachers of all kinds from all parts of the United States, and
to learn, by personal interviews, facts which it would have been
impossible to gain by merely visiting educational institutions. I found
throughout my visit that personal interviews were an important means of
supplementing the observation of work actually done in the schools. In
some departments, the most valuable information I gained was acquired
in this way, this being especially true in connection with the Training
of Secondary Teachers in the Eastern States, where the subject,
although widely discussed, is only just beginning to have any practical
outcome.
In reporting on the Training of Teachers in the United States, I have
chiefly confined myself to the work done in:--
i. State Normal Schools.
ii. City Normal and Training Schools.
iii. Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and Colleges.
It will be seen that I make constant references to methods of Science
taught in the training schools, and adopted in their connected model
schools. This is due to the fact that my observations were made with
especial regard to that branch of training. I have not reported on
the training of Kindergarten teachers, for although the question of
Kindergarten instruction is one of great interest and importance at
present in America, I had little opportunity of seeing and judging the
methods employed in the preparation of teachers in that department.
I wish to record my grateful thanks to those who so readily helped me
in my work; and to express my appreciation of the great kindness and
hospitality shown everywhere throughout my visit. I should also like to
take this opportunity of thanking the Gilchrist Trustees, through whose
liberality I have been enabled to gain much that will be very valuable
to myself, and possibly something that may be of interest or help to
other teachers.
_STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS._
The State Normal Schools are schools supported wholly by a particular
State, to provide trained teachers for the public schools of that
State. They are under the management of State Boards of Education,
which determine the length of the Normal School Course, and arrange
the studies. Much discretionary power is, however, given to the
principals or presidents of the respective schools. Instruction is
usually free to those who pledge themselves to teach in the State,
and, as a further inducement, students attending non-resident schools
are allowed to come in by train at reduced fares, or lodge and board
in houses near the school at a very low rate. Students of resident
schools have rooms and board in the school building, or in separate
smaller halls, or “dormitories,” at a rate of 150-180 dollars a year.
To very needy students the State makes extra grants. Most of the
Normal Schools are co-educational institutions; but a few admit only
women. In the co-educational schools, the men and women have classes
and meals in common, and reside in different parts of one building, or
in adjacent buildings. It is a noticeable fact, however, that in most
of the co-educational Normal Schools the women students outnumber the
men. In the two Pennsylvanian Schools I visited--those at Westchester
and Millersville--the discrepancy between the numbers of men and women
students was not so great as in the Normal Schools of Massachusetts,
Connecticut, and New York, which devote themselves more strictly to
professional training, _i.e._ to pedagogical instruction and teaching
practice. Having enquired as to the cause of the greater number of
women students, I was told it was due to the fact that teaching, as a
profession, offers few attractions to men in the United States, and
that in those few Normal Schools where the attendance of men and women
students is almost equal the courses are such as to allow of their
being used by the men as preparatory courses for college. Such an
explanation seems to be corroborated by the relative numbers of men and
women teachers in many of the States. In Massachusetts, the number of
teachers is 10,965, and of these only 992 are men. In Illinois, there
are 23,033 teachers in the Common Schools, and among them only 7,091
men. In New York, of the 32,161 teachers in the State schools, 26,869
are women.
The first Normal Schools were established in Massachusetts in 1839. The
particular needs which these early schools were intended to satisfy,
and their early aims, have influenced the courses of instruction and
lines of work of most of the Normal Schools since established, whether
in Massachusetts, or in other States. The purpose of the early schools
at Lexington and Barre was to provide more competent teachers for the
lower grades of schools, and their course of training embraced:--
i. The subjects of an ordinary school curriculum, known as “academic
studies,” as distinguished from pedagogical or “professional studies.”
ii. Instruction in the Art of Teaching and Governing.
iii. Practice in Teaching in the Common Schools.
The standard of admission to these early Normal Schools was low, and at
that time, opportunities for any thorough study outside universities
were few, especially in the case of women. Accordingly their theory
of training gave the greatest importance to “a careful review of the
branches of knowledge required to be taught in schools.” The first
business of a Normal School was said, by Horace Mann, to consist “in
reviewing, and thoroughly and critically mastering the rudiments of
elementary branches of knowledge.” And although conditions have changed
much since 1839, most of the Normal Schools of the United States still
pursue the lines of work adopted by Massachusetts. Standards of
admission have been raised, courses of study have been correspondingly
extended, but the Normal Schools, with a few exceptions, still remain
more or less efficient schools for the teaching of ordinary subjects,
and devote half the course, and in many cases even more, to academic
work. It is thus a distinctive feature of Normal School work to
pursue school subjects side by side with professional, or pedagogical
subjects. But there seems a general tendency to emphasize the academic
part, at the expense of the professional. Examples of the courses
of study for Massachusetts and New York, two of the foremost of the
Eastern States in educational matters, will indicate this.
Normal Schools of Massachusetts.
_Two Years’ Course_:
Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry.
Book-keeping.
Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry.
Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Geology.
Mineralogy, Geography.
Language, Reading, Orthography.
Etymology, Grammar, Rhetoric.
Literature, Composition.
Penmanship, Drawing, Vocal Music.
Gymnastics.
Psychology, Science of Education, Art of Teaching.
School Organization, History of Education.
Civil Polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, History and
School Laws of Massachusetts.
_Four Years’ Course_:
Subjects required in the Two Years’ Course, with the addition of:--
Advanced Algebra and Geometry, Trigonometry, Surveying.
Advanced Chemistry, Physics and Botany.
Drawing, English Literature, General History.
Latin, French, German or Greek.