GENERAL CONCLUSION
It is very remarkable, as has been already observed, that the
buildings of those who most strongly object to the principle of
symbolism, do in effect contain as striking an exemplification of it
as it would be possible to find.
Let us look at a Protestant place of worship. It is choked up and
concealed by surrounding shops and houses, for religion, nowadays,
must give way to business and pleasure: it stands north and south, for
all idea of fellow-feeling with the Church Catholic is looked on as
mere trifling, or worse: the front which faces the High Street is of
stone, because the uniformity of the street so required it: or (which
is more likely) of stucco, which answers as well, and is cheaper: the
sides, however, are of brick, because no one can see them: there is at
the entrance a large vestibule, to allow people to stand while their
carriages are being called up, and to enter into conversation on the
news of the day, or the merits of the preacher: it also serves the
purpose of making the church warmer, and contains the doors and
staircases to the galleries. On entering, the pulpit occupies the
central position, and towards it every seat is directed: for preaching
is the great object of the Christian ministry: galleries run all round
the building, because hearing is the great object of a Christian
congregation: {cxxix} the altar stands under the organ gallery, as
being of no use, except once a month: there are a few free seats in
out-of-the-way places, where no one could hear, and no pews would be
hired, and therefore no money is lost by making the places free: and
whether the few poor people who occupy them can hear or not, what
matters it? The font, a cast-iron vase on a marble pillar, stands
within the altar rails; because it there takes up no room: the reading
pew is under the pulpit, and faces the congregation; because the
prayers are to be read to them and not addressed to God. Look at this
place on Sunday or Thursday evening. Carriages crash up through the
cast-iron gates, and, amidst the wrangling and oaths of rival
coachmen, deposit their loads at the portico: people come, dressed out
in the full fashion of the day, to occupy their luxurious pew, to lay
their smelling-bottles and prayer-books on its desk, and reclining on
its soft cushions, to confess themselves--if they are in
time--miserable sinners: to see the poor and infirm standing in the
narrow passages, and close their pew doors against them, lest
themselves should be contaminated, or their cushions spoilt, at the
same time beseeching God to give their fellow-creatures the comfort
which they refuse to bestow: the Royal Arms occupy a conspicuous
position; for it is a chapel of the Establishment: there are neat
cast-iron pillars to hold up the galleries, and still neater pillars
in the galleries to hold up the roof; thereby typifying that the whole
existence of the building depends on the good-will of the
congregation: the roof is flat, with an elegant cornice, and serves
principally to support a gas-lighted chandelier: and the
administration of this chapel is carried on by clerk, organist,
beadle, and certain bonnetless pew-openers.
{cxxx}
We need not point out how strongly all this symbolises the spiritual
pride, the luxury, the self-sufficiency, the bigotry of the
congregations of too many a pew-rented Episcopal chapel.
In contrast to this, let us close with a general view of the symbolism
of a Catholic church.
Far away, and long ere we catch our first view of the city itself, the
three spires of its cathedral, rising high above its din and turmoil,
preach to us of the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity. As we approach,
the transepts, striking out cross-wise, tell of the Atonement: the
Communion of Saints is set forth by the chapels clustering round choir
and nave: the mystical weathercock bids us to watch and pray and
endure hardness: the hideous forms that seem hurrying from the eaves
speak the misery of those who are cast out of the Church: spire,
pinnacle, and finial, the upward curl of the sculptured foliage, the
upward spring of the flying buttress, the sharp rise of the window
arch, the high-thrown pitch of the roof, all these, overpowering the
horizontal tendency of string course and parapet, teach us, that
vanquishing earthly desires, we also should ascend in heart and mind.
Lessons of holy wisdom are written in the delicate tracery of the
windows: the unity of many members is shadowed forth by the multiplex
arcade: the duty of letting our light shine before men, by the pierced
and flowered parapet that crowns the whole.
We enter. The triple breadth of nave and aisles, the triple height of
pier arch, triforium, and clerestory, the triple length of choir,
transepts, and nave, again set forth the Holy Trinity. And what
besides is there that does not tell of our Blessed Saviour? that does
not point out 'Him first' in the two-fold western door: 'Him last' in
the distant altar: 'Him midst' in the great rood: 'Him without end' in
the monogram carved on boss and corbal, in the Holy Lamb, in the Lion
of the tribe of Judah, in the Mystic Fish? Close by us is the font;
{cxxxi} for by regeneration we enter the Church: it is deep and
capacious; for we are buried in baptism with Christ: it is of stone;
for He is the Rock: and its spiry cover teaches us, if we be indeed
risen from its waters with Him, to seek those things that are above.
Before us, in long drawn vista, are the massy piers, which are the
Apostles and Prophets: they are each of many members, for many are the
graces in every saint: there is delicate foliage round the head of
all; for all were plentiful in good works. Beneath our feet are the
badges of worldly pomp and glory, the charges of kings and nobles and
knights: all in the presence of God as dross and worthlessness. Over
us swells the vast 'valley' of the high-pitched roof: from the
crossing and interlacing of its curious rafters hang fadeless flowers
and fruits which are not of earth: from its hammer-beams project
wreaths and stars, such as adorn heavenly beings: in its centre stands
the Lamb as it had been slain: from around Him the Celestial Host,
cherubim and seraphim, thrones, principalities, and powers, look down
peacefully on the worshippers below. Harpers there are among them
harping with their harps: for one is the song of the Church in earth
and in heaven. Through the walls wind the narrow cloister galleries:
emblems of the path by which holy hermits and anchorites, whose
conflicts were known only to their God, have reached their home. And
we are compassed about with a mighty cloud of witnesses: the rich deep
glass of the windows teems with saintly forms, each in its own fair
niche, all invested with the same holy repose: there is the glorious
company of the apostles: the goodly fellowship of the prophets: the
noble army of martyrs: the shining band of the confessors: the
jubilant chorus of the virgins: there are kings who have long since
changed an earthly for an heavenly crown: and bishops who have given
in a glad account to the Shepherd and Bishop of souls. {cxxxii} But on
none of these things do we rest; piers, arch behind arch, windows,
light behind light, arcades, shaft behind shaft, the roof, bay behind
bay, the saints around us, the heavenly hierarchy above with dignity
of pre-eminence still increasing eastward, each and all, lead on eye
and soul and thought to the image of the crucified Saviour as
displayed in the great east window. Gazing steadfastly on that, we
pass up the nave, that is through the Church Militant, till we reach
the rood screen, the barrier between it and the Church Triumphant, and
therein shadowing forth the death of the faithful. High above it
hangs, on His triumphal cross, the image of Him Who by His death hath
overcome death; on it are portrayed saints and martyrs, His warriors,
who fighting under their Lord have entered into rest and inherit a
tearless eternity. They are to be our examples, and the seven lamps
above them typify those graces of the Spirit, by Whom alone we can
tread in their steps. The screen itself glows with gold and crimson:
with gold, for they have on their heads golden crowns: with crimson,
for they passed the Red Sea of martyrdom to obtain them. And through
the delicate net-work, and the unfolding holy doors, we catch faint
glimpses of the chancel beyond. There are the massy stalls; for in
heaven is everlasting rest: there are the sedilia, emblems of the
seats of the elders round the throne: there is the piscina; for they
have washed their robes and made them white: and there, heart and soul
and life of all, the altar with its unquenched lights, and golden
carvings, and mystic steps, and sparkling jewels: even Christ Himself,
by Whose only merits we find admission to our heavenly inheritance.
Verily, as we think on the oneness of its design, we may say:
_Jerusalem edificatur ut civitas cujus participatio ejus in idipsum_.
{cxxxiii}
POSTSCRIPTUM
On concluding their work, which from circumstances that need not be
specified has been a year in the press, the writers must apologise for
the numerous typographical errors which have been allowed to remain.
Their separation from each other, and distance from the printer, must
plead in excuse.
They take this opportunity of expressing their thanks to the Reverend
Dr. Mill, Christian Advocate of the University of Cambridge, and to F.
A. Paley, Esq., M.A., of S. John's College, Cambridge, Honorary
Secretary of the Cambridge Camden Society, for their advice and
assistance.
It remains to say that some doubt has been felt by persons who have
read the Introductory Essay in proofs, whether the writers have given
Mr. Pugin sufficient credit for several passages in his works which
seem to _involve_ the principle now contended for. We had thought that
no misapprehension could be feared on this head. It was enough to know
that the principle in question, even though _felt_ (as we indeed
allowed) by this architect, had not been _expressed in terms_. In
short, we took this fact for our ground: that whereas Mr. Pugin's book
professed to assert the _true principles_ of Christian architecture,
yet reality, according to his definition, was not at least so
accurately a 'true principle' as sacramentality. The principles
themselves, as enunciated by Mr. Pugin, apply as well to any secular
building as to a church: they are true for _construction_, but not
adequate in themselves to form a rule for ecclesiastical design.
Kemerton, _August_ 16, 1843.
{cxxxiv}
The following very curious passage ought to have come in at page
lxxvii of the Introductory Essay, but was not accessible at the time.
It is an extract from the 'Fardle of Facions' printed A.D. 1555.
FROM THE 'FARDLE OF FACIONS,' PRINTED 1555
Oratories, temples, or places of praier (whiche we calle churches)
might not to be built without the good will of the bishoppe of the
diocese. And when the timbre was redy to be framed, and the foundacion
digged, it behoved them to sende for the bishoppe, to hallowe the
firste corner stone of the foundacion, and to make the signe of the
Crosse thereupon, and to laie it, and directe it juste easte and west.
And then might the masons sette upon the stone, but not afore. This
churche did they use to builde after the facion of a crosse, and not
unlike the shape of a manne. The channcelle (in the whiche is
conteined the highe altare and the quiere) directe fulle in the easte,
representeth the heade, and therefore ought to be somewhat rounde, and
muche shorter than the body of the churche. And yet upon respect that
the heade is the place for the eyes, it ought to be of more lighte,
and to bee seperate with a particion, in the steade of a necke, from
the bodye of the churche. This particion the Latine calleth cancelli,
and out of that cometh our terme channcelle. On eche side of this
channcelle peradventure (for so fitteth it beste) should stand a
turret; as it were for two ears, and in these the belles to be hanged,
to calle the people to service, by daie and by night. Undre one of
these turretts is there commonly a vaulte, whose doore openeth into
the quiere, and in this are laid up the hallowed vesselles and
ornamentes, and other utensils of the churche. We call it a vestrie.
{cxxxv} The other parte oughte to be fitted, that having as it were on
eche side an arme, the reste maye resemble the bodye with the fete
stretched in breadthe, and in lengthe. On eche side of the bodye the
pillers to stande, upon whose coronettes or heades the vaulte or rophe
of the churche maye reste. And to the foote beneth aulters to be
joyned. Those aulters to be orderly alway covered with two aulter
clothes, and garnished with the crosse of Christe, or some little
cofre of reliques. At eche ende a candelsticke, and a booke towarde
the middes. The walls to be painted without and within, and diversely
paineted. That they also should have in every parishe a faire round
stone, made hollowe and fitte to holde water, in the whiche the water
consecrate for baptisme maye be kept for the christening of children.
Upon the right hand of the highe aulter that ther should be an
almorie, either cutte into the walle, or framed upon it, in the whiche
they woulde have the sacrament of the Lorde's bodye, the holy oyle for
the sicke, and chrismatorie, alwaie to be locked. Furthermore they
would that ther should be a pullpite in the middes of the churche,
wherein the prieste maye stonde upon Sondaies and holidays to teache
the people those things that it behoveth them to knowe. The channcelle
to serve only for the priests and clerks; the rest of the temporalle
multitude to be in the bodye of the churche, seperate notwithstanding,
the men on the righte side, and the women on the left.
----------
{1}
_Here beginneth the First Book of_ GULIELMUS
DURANDUS _his_ RATIONALE _of the_ DIVINE OFFICES.
THE PROEME
Importance and Difficulty of the Study of Symbolism--Necessity of its
Cultivation by Priests--Consideration of Unlearned Priests--Mystical
and Moral Meaning of the Law--Four-fold Sense of Scripture: the
Historical, the Allegoric, the Tropologic, the Anagogic--Different
Ceremonies used by Different Churches--Name of Rationale, whence
derived--Division of the Work.
1. All things, as many as pertain to offices and matters
ecclesiastical, be full of divine significations and mysteries, and
overflow with a celestial sweetness; if so be that a man be diligent
in his study of them, and know how to draw 'honey from the rock, and
oil from the hardest stone.' [Footnote 79] But who 'knoweth the
ordinances of heaven, or can fix the reasons thereof upon the earth?'
[Footnote 80] For he that prieth into their majesty, is overwhelmed by
the glory of them. Of a truth 'the well is deep, and I have nothing to
draw with': [Footnote 81] unless He giveth it unto me Who 'giveth to
all men liberally, and upbraideth not': [Footnote 82] so that 'while
I journey through the mountains' [Footnote 83] I may 'draw water with
joy out of the wells of salvation.' [Footnote 84] {2} Wherefore,
albeit of the things handed down from our forefathers, capable we are
not to explain all, yet if among them there be anything which is done
without reason, it should forthwith be put away. 'Wherefore I,
William, by the alone tender mercy of God, Bishop of the Holy Church
which is in Mende,' [Footnote 85] will knock diligently at the door,
if so be that 'the key of David' [Footnote 86] will open unto me:
that the King may 'bring me in to His treasury,' [Footnote 87] and
show unto me the heavenly pattern which was showed unto Moses in the
Mount: so that I may learn those things which pertain to rites
ecclesiastical, whereof they teach and what they signify: and that I
may be able plainly to reveal and make manifest the reasons of them,
by His help, 'Who hath ordained strength out of the mouth of babes and
sucklings': [Footnote 88] 'Whose spirit bloweth where it listeth,'
[Footnote 89 ] dividing to 'each severally as it will' [Footnote 90]
to the praise and glory of the Trinity.
[Footnote 79: Deut. xxxii, 13.]
[Footnote 80: Job xxxviii, 33]
[Footnote 81: S. John iv, 11.]
[Footnote 82: S. James i, 5.]
[Footnote 83: Psalm ciii. Vulgate.]
[Footnote 84: Isaiah xii, 3. ]
[Footnote 85: A city of France, and capital of the department of
Lozére, situated on an eminence near the Lot: before the Revolution,
the See of a Bishop. The number of inhabitants is about
5000.'--Cruttwell's _Gazetteer_, s.v.]
[Footnote 86: Apocalypse iii, 7.]
[Footnote 87: Cant, ii, 4.]
[Footnote 88: Psalm viii, 2. See also Wisdom x, 21.]
[Footnote 89: S. John iii, 8. ]
[Footnote 90: I Cor. xii, II.]
2. Sacraments we have received to be signs or figures, not in
themselves virtues, but the significations of virtues, by which men
are taught as by letters. Now of signs there be that are natural, and
there be that are positive: concerning which, and also of the nature
of a Sacrament, we shall speak hereafter.
{3}
3. Therefore the priests and the bishops to whom 'it is given to know
the mysteries of the kingdom of God,' [Footnote 91] as He saith in
Luke, and who be the stewards and dispensers of sacred things, ought
both to understand the sacred mysteries, and to shine in the virtues
which they signify: so that by their light others may be illuminated:
otherwise 'they be blind leaders of the blind.' [Footnote 92] As
saith the Prophet, 'Let their eyes be darkened, that they see not.'
[Footnote 93] But, woe therefore is me! in these days they apprehend
but little of those things which day by day they handle and perform,
what they signify, and wherefore they were instituted: so that the
saying of the Prophet seemeth to be fulfilled, 'As is the people, so
is the priest.' [Footnote 94] For when they bear the bread of
Prothesis [Footnote 95] to the Lord's Table and the Mysteries, they
understand not its signification more than brute beasts which carry
bread for the use of others. Of which ignorance they shall give
account in the day of vengeance and wrath. 'When the cedars of
Paradise shall tremble, what shall the bush of the desert do?'
[Footnote 96] For to them is that saying of the Prophet, 'They have
not known My ways: so I swear in my wrath, if they shall enter into My
rest.' [Footnote 97]
[Footnote 91: S. Luke viii, 10.]
[Footnote 92: S. Matthew xv, 14.]
[Footnote 93: Psalm lxix, 23.]
[Footnote 94: Isaiah xxiv, 2.]
[Footnote 95: Here is a distinct reference to the Prothesis: the
more valuable because in writers of the Middle Ages it does not hold
so prominent a place as we might have expected: and the table of
Prothesis appears not to have occupied a certainly defined situation
in Catholic churches. There is also a reference to Lev. xxi, 8, and
the showbread.]
[Footnote 96: S. Luke xxii, 3.]
[Footnote 97: Psalm xcv, 11.]
4. Now the professors of the arts liberal, and of all other arts, seek
how they may clothe, support, and adorn with causes and hidden reasons
those things which be nakedly and without ornament therein set forth;
painters moreover, and mechanics and handicraftsmen of what {4} sort
soever, study in every variety of their works to render and to have at
hand probable reasons thereof. So, also, unseemly is it to the
magistrate to be ignorant of this world's laws; and to the pleader to
know nothing of the law, wherein he is exercised.
5. But although learning be necessary unto priests for the sake of
doctrine: yet must not scholastics think slightingly of unlettered
priests; according to that saying in Exodus, 'Thou shalt not revile
the gods.' [Footnote 98] Whence, saith S. Augustine, they shall not
deride if they hear the priests and ministers of the Church, either
invoking God with barbarisms and solecisms, or not understanding and
misdividing the words which they pronounce. Not but that such things
are to be corrected; but they must firstly be tolerated of the more
learned. But that which priests ought to learn, shall be said below.
[Footnote 98: Exodus xxii, 28.]
6. Furthermore, the symbolism which existeth in things and offices
ecclesiastical, is often not seen, both because figures have departed,
and now it is the time of truth; and also because we ought not to
judaise. But, albeit those types of which the truth is made manifest
have departed, yet even to this time manifold truth is concealed,
which we see not; wherefore the Church useth figures. For so by white
vestments we understand the beauty in which our souls shall be
arrayed, or the glory of our immortality, which we cannot manifestly
behold: and in the Mass, by the oblation on the altar, [Footnote 99]
the Passion of Christ is represented, that it be held in the memory
more faithfully and more firmly.
[Footnote 99: The prayer of oblation is as follows--'Suscipe,
Sancta Trinitas, hanc oblationem quam Tibi offerimus _ob memoriam
Passionis_, resurrectionis et ascensionis Jesu Christi Domini
nostri,' etc.]
{5}
7. Furthermore, of the things which be commanded in the law, some be
moral, and others mystical. They be moral which inform the morals, and
are to be understood in the simple tenour of the words: 'Love God:
honour thy father: thou shalt do no murder,' and such like. Mystical
be such as are typical: where something is set forth beyond the
literal meaning. Of these, some be sacramental, and some ceremonial.
Sacramental be such as may be accounted for, why thus they were
ordered: such as circumcision, and the observance of the Sabbath, and
the like. Ceremonial be they for which no reason can be given. Such
be, 'Thou shalt not plough with an ox and an ass together:' [Footnote
100] Thou shalt not wear a garment of linen and woollen mixed.'
[Footnote 101]
[Footnote 100: Deut. xxii, 10.]
[Footnote 101: Deut. xxii, 11.]
8. Now in things that are moral commands, the law hath received no
change: but in things sacramental and ceremonial its outward form is
altered: yet not one of the mystical significations is done away: for
the law is not done away. Though the 'priesthood being changed, there
is made of necessity a change likewise of the law.' [Footnote 102]
[Footnote 102: Hebrews vii, 12.]
9. Now, in Holy Scriptures there be divers senses: as historic,
allegoric, tropologic, and anagogic. Whence, according to Boethius,
all divine authority ariseth from a sense either historical or
allegorical or from both. And according to S. Hierom, we ought to
study Holy Scriptures in three ways:--firstly, according to the
letter; secondly, after the allegory, that is, the spiritual meaning;
thirdly, according to the blessedness of the future.
{6}
History is _things signified by words:_ as when a plain relation is
made how certain events took place: as when the children of Israel,
after their deliverance from Egypt, made a tabernacle to the Lord. And
history is derived from [Greek text], which is to gesticulate:
[Footnote 103] whence gesticulators (that is, players) are called
_histriones_.
[Footnote 103: Here is a notable instance of Durandus's
misderivations, of which we have spoken in the Introduction.]
10. Allegory is when one thing is said and another meant: as when by
one deed another is intended: which other thing, if it be visible, the
whole is simply an allegory, if invisible and heavenly, an _anagoge_.
Also an allegory is when one state of things is described by another:
as when the patience of Christ, and the sacraments of the Church are
set forth by mystical words or deeds. As in that place: 'There shall
come forth a rod of the stem of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of
his roots:' [Footnote 104] which is in plain language. The Virgin
Mary shall be born of the family of David, who was the son of Jesse.
[This is an example of mysticism in words.] Truth is also set forth by
mystic deeds: as the children of Israel's freedom from Egyptian
slavery, wrought by the blood of a lamb, signifieth that the Church is
freed by the Passion of Christ from demoniacal servitude. [Footnote
105] The word allegory is derived from the Greek _allon_, which means
_foreign_, and _gore_, which is _sense_; that is, a _foreign sense_.
[Footnote 104: Isaiah xi, 1.]
[Footnote 105: See Appendix I.]
{7}
11. _Tropology_ is an injunction unto morality: or a moral speech,
either with a symbolical or an obvious bearing, devised to evince and
instruct our behaviour. _Symbolical_; as where he saith, 'Let thy
garments be always white: and let the oil of thy head never fail.'
[Footnote 106] That is, let all thy works be pure, and charity never
fail from thy mind. And again, It is fit that David should slay the
Goliath within us: that is, that humbleness may subdue our pride.
_Obvious_ as in that saying, 'Deal thy bread to the hungry.'
[Footnote 107] And in that text: 'Let us not love in word, neither in
tongue: but in deed and truth.' [Footnote 108] Now tropology hath
his name from _tropos_, a turning, and _logos_, which is a discourse.
[Footnote 106: Ecclesiastes ix, 8. ]
[Footnote 107: Isaiah lviii, 7.]
[Footnote 108: 1 S. John iii, 18.]
12. Anagoge is so called from _ana_, which is upwards, and _goge_, a
leading: as it were an upward leading. Whence the anagogic sense is
that which leadeth from the visible to the invisible: as light, made
the first day, signifieth a thing invisible, namely the angelic nature
which was made in the beginning. _Anagoge_, therefore, is that sense
which leadeth the mind upwards to heavenly things: that is to the
Trinity and the orders of angels, and speaketh concerning future
rewards, and the future life which is in the heaven: and it useth both
obvious and mystical expressions; obvious, as in that saying, 'Blessed
are the pure in heart: for they shall see God:' [Footnote 109]
mystical, as that, 'Blessed are they that have made white their robes:
that they may have right unto the tree of life, and enter in through
the gate into the city.' [Footnote 110] Which signifieth, Blessed
are they who make pure their thoughts, that they may have a right to
see 'God, who is the way, the truth, and the life:' [Footnote 111]
and after the example of the fathers, enter into the kingdom of
heaven.
[Footnote 109: S. Matthew v, 8.]
[Footnote 110: Apocalypse vii, 14.]
[Footnote 111: S. John xiv, 6.]
{8}
In like manner, Jerusalem is understood historically of that earthly
city whither pilgrims journey; allegorically, of the Church Militant;
tropologically, of every faithful soul; anagogically, of the celestial
Jerusalem, which is our country. [Footnote 112] Of these things, more
examples may be seen in the lessons for Holy Saturday. [Footnote 113]
But in this work many senses are applied: and speedy changes are made
from one to another, as the diligent reader will perceive.
[Footnote 112: How beautifully, observes a writer in the _British
Critic_, do old ecclesiastical writers use _patria_ and _domus_ of
our celestial country, and our everlasting home!]
[Footnote 113: Reference is here apparently made to the fifth
chapter of the book, of Lamentations, which appears as the 3rd
lesson at Matins.]
13. For as none is prohibited from using divers grounds of exception
and manners of defence, so neither are they forbidden to employ divers
expositions in the praise of God, so that faith be not injured.
14. Notice must also be taken of the variety of rites used in the
divine worship. For nearly every Church hath her own observances, and
attacheth to them a full meaning of her own: neither is it thought
blameworthy or absurd to worship with various chants, or modulations
of the voice, nor yet with different observances: when the Church
Triumphant herself is surrounded, [Footnote 114] according to the
Prophet, with the like diversity, and in the administration of the
sacraments themselves a variety of customs is tolerated, and that
rightly.
[Footnote 114: The author appears to refer here to the XLV Psalm,
'Eructavit cor meum.']
{9}
15. Whence, according to Austin of ecclesiastical institutions in the
divine office, some we have received from Holy Scriptures: some from
the traditions or writings of the apostles, being confirmed by their
successors: some, moreover, of which, however, the institution is
unknown, are confirmed by custom and approved by use: and to them
equal observance is due as to the others.
16. Let not, then, the reader be angry if he perchance read in this
work of observances which he never saw in his own church: or does not
read of some that are there in use. For we endeavour not to go through
the particular rites of particular places, but those which be more
common and usual: because we labour to set forth that doctrine which
is of universal, and not that which is of particular bearing, nor
would it be possible for us to examine the particular rites of every
church. Therefore we have determined, for the health of our soul and
the benefit of the readers, to set forth and to arrange the secret
mysteries of divine offices in a clear state, to the best of our power
and to inculcate and thoroughly to explain that which appears
necessary for ecclesiastics, towards the understanding of the daily
service: even as it is well known that, when in a different condition
of life, we did faithfully in our _Mirror of Magistrates_ do the like
for the use of those who were employed in secular courts.
{10}
17. But it must diligently be noted that in the divine offices
themselves [Footnote 115] many ceremonies there be of usual
employment which have, from their institution, respect neither to a
moral nor mystical signification. Of these, some are known to have
arisen of necessity: some of congruity: some of the difference of the
Old and New Testament; some of convenience; and some for the mere
honour and reverence of the offices themselves: whence saith blessed
Austin, so many things are varied by the different customs of divers
place, that seldom or never can those causes be discovered which men
followed in constituting them.
[Footnote 115: This passage is worth noting, as showing that our
Author does not proceed with the determination of making a meaning
where he could not find one: but that he is willing to leave much,
explained only in the principles of necessity, or convenience, or
reverence.]
18. This work is described as a Rationale. For as in the 'breastplate
of judgment' [Footnote 116] which the Jewish high priest wore was
written manifestation and truth, so here the reasons of the variations
in divine offices and their truths are set forth and manifested: which
the prelates and priests of churches ought faithfully to preserve in
the shrine of their breasts: and as in the breastplate there was a
stone by the splendour of which the children of Israel knew that God
was well pleased with them: so also the pious reader who hath been
taught the mysteries of the divine offices from the clearness of this
work will know that God is favourably disposed towards us, unless we
rashly incur His indignation by our offence and fault. The breastplate
was woven of four colours and of gold: and here, as we said before,
the principles on which are founded the variations in ecclesiastical
offices, take the hues of four senses, the historic, the allegoric,
the tropologic, and the anagogic, with faith as the [Footnote 117]
groundwork.
[Footnote 116: Vulg. In Rationali Judicii. Exodus xxviii, 3.]
[Footnote 117: Such appears the meaning of this beautiful
comparison. The words are rather obscure, _quatuor sensibus fide
media colorantur_.]
{11}
19. It is divided into eight parts: which we shall go through, by the
Lord's favour, in order. The first treateth of churches, and
ecclesiastical places and ornaments: and of consecrations and
sacraments. The second of the members of the Church, and their duties:
the third of sacerdotal and other vestments: the fourth of the Mass,
and of the things therein performed: the fifth of the other divine
offices: the sixth of the Sundays and holydays, and feasts specially
pertaining to our Lord: the seventh of Saints' days, and the feast of
the dedication of a church, and the office of the dead; the eighth of
the method of computing time, and the calendar.
{12}
_Tradatus Gulielmi Durandi de ecclesia et ecclesiasticis locis et
sacramentis et ornamentis et de consecrationibus incipit feliciter._
CHAPTER I
OF A CHURCH AND ITS PARTS
Two-fold Meaning of the Word--Different Synonyms for the Term--Form of
a Church--Of the Tabernacle--The Foundation, how to be laid--To Point
East, and Why--The Spiritual Church, how Built up--Of Cement--What
Arms the Spiritual Church Employeth--Of the Materials of the
Tabernacle--Of Shittim Wood--Analogy of a Church with the Human
Body--Of what the Spiritual Church consisteth--Of its Foundations--Of
the Walls--Of the Choir--Of Apses--Of the Cloister Court--Of the
Towers--Of the Cock--Of the Pinnacles--Of the Windows--Of the Lattice
Work--Of the Doors--Of the Piers--Of the Beams--Of the Roof--Of the
Stalls--Of the Pulpit--Of the Rood Loft--Of the Hours--Of the
Sanctuary--Of the Sacristy--Of the Roof Tiles--Of the Lights--Of the
Crosses--Of the Cloister--Of the Bishop's Throne--Why we go together
to Church--Of the Separation of the Women from the Men--Of the
Covering of Women's Heads--Of Speech in Church--Of Immunity for
Malefactors--Why Churches may be rebuilt in other Places.
1. First of all, let us consider a church [Footnote 118] and its
parts. The word church hath two meanings: the one, a material
building, wherein the divine offices are celebrated: the other, a
spiritual fabric, which is the collection of the faithful. The Church,
_that_ is the people forming it, is assembled by its ministers, and
collected together into {13} one place by 'Him who maketh men to be of
one mind in an house.' [Footnote 119]For as the material church is
constructed from the joining together of various stones, so is the
spiritual Church by that of various men.
[Footnote 118: It has been found advisable to print the word church
in the following pages with a great or a small initial letter,
according as 'The Blessed Company of all Faithful People,' or the
material building, were intended.]
[Footnote 119: Psalm lxviii (_Exsurgat Deus_), 6.]
2. The Greek _ecclesia_ is in Latin translated by convocation because
it calleth men to itself: the which title doth better befit the
spiritual than the material church.
The material typifieth the spiritual Church: as shall be explained
when we treat of its consecration. [Footnote 120] Again, the Church
is called Catholic, that is universal, because it hath been set up in,
or spread over, all the world, because the whole multitude of the
faithful ought to be in one congregation, or because in the Church is
laid up the doctrine necessary for the instruction of all.
[Footnote 120: See below, chapter vi.]
3. It is also called in Greek _synagoga_, in Latin _congregatio_,
which was the name chosen by the Jews for their places of worship: for
to them the term synagogue more appropriately belongeth, though it be
also applied to a church. But the Apostles never call a church by this
title, perhaps for the sake of distinction.
4. The Church Militant is also called _Sion_: because, amidst its
wanderings, it expecteth the promise of a heavenly rest: for Sion
signifieth _expectation_. But the Church Triumphant, our future home,
the land of peace, is called Jerusalem: for Jerusalem signifieth _the
vision of peace_. [Footnote 121]
[Footnote 121: So the hymn in the Parisian Breviary, for the
dedication of a church:
Urbs beata, vera pacis
Visio, Jerusalem.]
Also, the church is called the _House of God_: also, sometimes, [Greek
text], that is, the _Lord's House_. At others _basilica_ (in Latin, a
royal palace), for the abodes of earthly kings are thus termed: and
how much more fittingly our houses of prayer, the dwelling-places of
the King of Kings! Again, it is called _temple_, from _tectum amplum,_
{14} where sacrifices are offered to God: and sometimes the
_tabernacle of God_, because this present life is a journey, and a
progress to a lasting country: and a tabernacle is an hostelrie:
[Footnote 122] as will be explained when we speak of the dedication
[Footnote 123] of a church. And why it is called the _Ark of the
Testimony_, we shall say in the ensuing chapter, under the title
Altars. Sometimes it is called _Martyrium_, when raised in honour of
any martyr; sometimes _capella_ [Footnote 124] (chapel), (see under
the head Priest in the second part); sometimes _coenobium_, at others
_sacrificium_; sometimes _sacellum_; sometimes _the house of prayer_:
sometimes _monastery_: sometimes _oratory_. Generally, however, any
place set apart for prayers is called an oratory. Again, the church is
called the _Body of Christ_ sometimes a _virgin_, as the Apostle
saith, 'that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ':
[Footnote 125] sometimes a _bride_, because Christ hath betrothed her
to Himself, as saith the Gospel: 'he that hath the bride is the
bridegroom': [Footnote 126] sometimes a _mother_, for daily in
baptism she beareth sons to God: sometimes a _daughter_, according to
that saying of the Prophet, 'Instead of thy fathers thou shalt have
children': [Footnote 127] sometimes a _widow_, because 'she sitteth
solitary through her afflictions, and, like Rachel, will not be
comforted.' Sometimes she is set forth under the emblem of an
_harlot_, because she is called out of many nations, and because she
closeth not her bosom against any that return to her.
[Footnote 122: Compare Cicero de Senect. xxiii. Et ex vita ita
discedo tanquam ex hospitio, non tanquam ex domo: commorandi enim
Natura diversorium nobis, non habitandi dedit.]
[Footnote 123: Chapter vi, sect. 5, ad fin.]
[Footnote 124: Durandus, II. 10. 8. 'In many places, priests be
called chaplains. For of old the Kings of France, when they went
forth to war, carried with them the Cope of Blessed Martin, which
was kept in a certain tent (where Mass was said), and from the cope
(cappa) the tent was called chapel (capella).'
We may observe that chapel was used in former times with much
greater latitude than now. An additional aisle or chantry was so
called. So in Haddenham, Cambridgeshire, on a brass in the north
aisle, _Orate pro Aniniabus fundatorum hujus Capellae_: that is, the
aisle itself.]
[Footnote 125: 2 Cor. xi, 2.]
[Footnote 126: S. John iii, 29.]
[Footnote 127: Psalm xlv (_Eructavit cor meum_), 16.]
{15}
Sometimes she is called a city, because of the communion of her holy
citizens, being defended by the munitions of the Scriptures, whereby
heretics are kept off: having stones and beams of divers kinds,
because the merits of the saints are of divers kinds also, as shall be
said below. Whatever the Jewish Church received by the law, that doth
the Christian Church receive, and with large increase by grace, from
Christ whose bride she is. The setting up of an oratory, or church, is
not new. For the Lord commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, that he should
make a tabernacle of curiously wrought materials. This was divided by
a veil into two parts: the outer, called the holy place, where the
people attended the sacrifices: the inner, the holy of holies, where
the priests and Levites ministered before the Lord (see the Preface to
the Fourth Book and also Appendix A).
5. This tabernacle having decayed through age, the Lord commanded that
a temple should be built, which Solomon accomplished with wonderful
skill: this also had two parts, like the tabernacle. From both of
these, namely, from the tabernacle and the temple, doth our material
church take its form. In its outer portion, the laity offer their
prayers, and hear the Word. In the sanctuary, the clergy pray, preach,
offer praises and prayers.
6. The tabernacle, built as it was amidst the journeyings of the
Israelites, is sometimes taken as a type of the world which 'passeth
away, and the lust thereof' [Footnote 128] Whence it was formed with
curtains of four colours, as the world is composed of four elements.
'God,' said the Prophet, 'is in His tabernacle': [Footnote 129] God
is in this world, as in a temple dyed scarlet by the blood of Christ.
[Footnote 128: S. John ii, 17.]
[Footnote 129: Psalm xi (_In Domino confido_), 4.]
{16}
The tabernacle is, however, more especially symbolical of the Church
Militant, which hath 'here no continuing city, but seeketh one to
come.' [Footnote 130] Therefore is it called a tabernacle, for
tabernacles or tents belong to soldiers: and this saying, God is in
his tabernacle, meaneth, God is among the faithful collected together
in His name. The outer part of the tabernacle, where the people
sacrificed, is the active life, wherein men give themselves up to the
love of their neighbour: the interior, wherein the Levites ministered,
is the contemplative life, where a band of religious men devote
themselves to the love and contemplation of God. The tabernacle gave
place to the temple: because after the warfare cometh the triumph.
[Footnote 130: Hebrews xiii, 14.]
7. Now a church is to be built on this fashion: The foundation being
prepared, according to that saying, 'It fell not, for it was founded
upon a rock,' [Footnote 131] the bishop, or a priest [Footnote 132]
as the bishop's deputy, must sprinkle it with holy water, to banish
the foul forms of evil spirits, and lay the first stone, whereon a
cross must be engraved. [Footnote 133]
[Footnote 131: S. Matthew vii, 25. In general illustration of the
foregoing sections the reader is referred to the first chapter of
the eighth book of Bingham's 'Antiquities.']
[Footnote 132: In the account of the dedication of S. Michael the
Archangel, in the Isle of Guernsey, preserved in the 'Black Book of
the Bishop of Coutances,' it appears that the ceremony was performed
by a priest though it is believed that such has seldom been the case
in the Anglican Church. But see chapter vi, section 2. ]
[Footnote 133: A cross was not only inscribed on the foundation
stone, but a cross was placed where the church was to be: and this
in the Eastern Church; where the _Stauropegia_ was a ceremony of
much importance.]
8. The foundation must be so contrived, as that the head of the church
may point due east (see Appendix B); that is, to that point of the
heavens, wherein the sun ariseth at the equinoxes; to signify, that
the Church Militant must [Footnote 134] behave herself with
moderation, both in prosperity and adversity: and not towards that
point where the sun ariseth at the solstices, which is the practice of
some.
[Footnote 134: This passage is valuable as proving that in the
country of our Bishop nothing was known of a practice undoubtedly
prevalent in England; the direction of a church to that part of the
sky in which the sun arose on the Feast of the Patron Saint.]
{17}
But if the walls of Jerusalem, 'which is built as a city that is at
unity with itself,' [Footnote 135] were, by the Prophet's command,
raised by the Jews, with how much greater zeal should we raise the
walls of our churches! For the material church, wherein the people
assemble to set forth God's holy praise, symboliseth that Holy Church
which is built in heaven of living stones.
[Footnote 135: Psalm cxxii (_Laetatus sum_), 3. ]
9. This is that House of the Lord, built with all strength, 'upon the
foundations of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being
the chief cornerstone. [Footnote 136] Her [Footnote 137]
foundations are in the holy mountains.' The walls built upon these are
the Jews and Gentiles; who come from the four parts of the world unto
Christ, and who have believed, believe, or shall believe on Him.
[Footnote 136: Eph. ii, 20.]
[Footnote 137: Psalm lxxxvii (_Fundamenta ejus_), I. ]
The faithful predestinated to eternal life, are the stones in the
structure of this wall which shall continually be built up unto the
world's end. And one stone is added to another, when masters in the
Church teach and confirm and strengthen those who are put under them:
and whosoever in Holy Church undertaketh painful labours from
brotherly love, he as it were beareth up the weight of stones which
have been placed above him. Those stones which are of larger size, and
polished, or squared, and placed on the outside and at the angles of
the building, are men of holier life than others, who by their merits
and prayers retain weaker brethren in Holy Church.
10. The cement, without which there can be no stability of the walls,
is made of lime, sand, and water. The lime is fervent charity, which
joineth to itself the sand, that is, undertakings for the temporal
welfare of our brethren: {18} because true charity taketh care of the
widow and the aged, and the infant, and the infirm: and they who have
it study to work with their hands, that they may possess wherewith to
benefit them. Now the lime and the sand are bound together in the wall
by an admixture of water. But water is an emblem of the Spirit. And as
without cement the stones cannot cohere, so neither can men be built
up in the heavenly Jerusalem without charity, which the Holy Ghost
worketh in them. All the stones are polished and squared--that is,
holy and pure, and are built by the hands of the Great Workman into an
abiding place in the Church: whereof some are borne, and bear nothing,
as the weaker members: some are both borne and bear, as those of
moderate strength: and some bear, and are borne of none save Christ,
the corner-stone, as they that are perfect. All are bound together by
one spirit of charity, as though fastened with cement; and those
living stones are knit together in the bond of peace. Christ was our
wall in His conversation: and our outer wall in His Passion.
11. When the Jews were rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, their
enemies strove hard to let the works: so that 'they built with one
hand, and held their weapons of war in the other.' And round us too do
enemies gather, while we are building the walls of our Church: our own
sins, or ungodly men, willing to hinder our success. Whence, while we
build our walls, that is, while we add virtue to virtue, we must fight
with the enemy, and grasp our weapons firmly: we must 'take the helmet
of salvation, the shield of faith, the breastplate of righteousness:
and for our sword the word of God,' [Footnote 138] that we may defend
ourselves against them: and God's priest shall be unto us in Christ's
stead, to teach us by his lessons, and defend us by his prayers.
[Footnote 138: Eph. vi, 16, 17.]
{19}
12. Furthermore, of what the tabernacle was made the Lord hath told
us, saying unto Moses, 'Take the first fruits,'--that is, the most
precious gifts--'of the children of Israel: but from him alone who
willingly offereth gold, and silver, and brass, and precious stones,
and purple and linen twice dyed'; namely cloth of the colours of blue,
purple, and scarlet: and of biss, which is a kind of Egyptian linen
white and soft: 'and goat's hair, and rams' skins dyed red,' which we
call Parthian, because the Parthians first dyed them thus, 'and purple
skins and shittim wood' (shittim is the name of a mountain, and also
of a tree: its leaves are like the white thorn, and to be injured
neither by fire nor by decay): 'and oil for the lights, frankincense,
and ointment of a sweet savour, onyx stones, and sard-onyxes, and
jewels: and let them make Me a house, that I may dwell in the midst of
them: and that they may not weary themselves in returning to this
mountain.' [Footnote 139]
[Footnote 139: Exodus xxv, 2.]
14. The arrangement of a material church resembleth that of the human
body: the chancel, or place where the altar is, representeth the head:
the transepts, the hands and arms, and the remainder--towards the
west--the rest of the body. The sacrifice of the altar denoteth the
vows of the heart. Furthermore, according to Richard de Sancto
Victore, the arrangement of a church typifieth the three states in the
Church: of virgins, of the continent, of the married. {20} The
sanctuary [Footnote 140] is smaller than the chancel, and this than
the nave: because the virgins are fewer in number [Footnote 141] than
the continent, and these than the married. And the sanctuary is more
holy than the chancel: and the chancel than the nave: because the
order of virgins is more worthy than that of the continent, and the
continent more worthy than the married.
[Footnote 140: The sanctuary of course means that eastermost
division in churches consisting of three parts, which still remains
in many Norman buildings, and of which Kilpeck, in Herefordshire,
may be taken as a type. These churches are generally apsidal: but
there are instances to the contrary, as Bishopstone, in Sussex. A
view of the sanctum sanctorum and chancel arches in this church is
given in the Cambridge Camden Society's 'Illustrations of Monumental
Brasses,' part iv.]
[Footnote 141: This passage is somewhat obscure; but the difference
between the virgins and the continent appears to be this: by the
former are meant those who have taken vows of celibacy; by the
latter, those who practise it, without, however, having bound
themselves to it by vow.]
15. Furthermore, the church consisteth of four walls, that is, is
built on the doctrine of the Four Evangelists; and hath length,
breadth, and height: the height representeth courage, the length
fortitude, which patiently endureth till it attaineth its heavenly
home; the breadth is charity, which, with long suffering, loveth its
friends in God, and its foes for God; and again, its height is the
hope of future retribution, which despiseth prosperity and adversity,
hoping 'to see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living.'
[Footnote 142]
[Footnote 142: Psalm xxvii (_Dominus illuminatio_), 13.]
16. Again, in the temple of God, the foundation is faith, which is
conversant with unseen things: the roof, charity, 'which covereth a
multitude of sins.' [Footnote 143] The door, obedience, of which the
Lord saith, 'If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments.'
[Footnote 144] The pavement, humility, of which the Psalmist saith,
'My soul cleaveth to the pavement.' [Footnote 145]
[Footnote 143: I S. Peter iv, 8.]
[Footnote 144: S. Matthew xix, 17.]
[Footnote 145: Psalm cxix (_Adhaesit pavimento_), 25.]
17. The four side-walls, the four cardinal virtues, justice,
fortitude, temperance, prudence. Hence the Apocalypse saith, 'The city
lieth four-square.' [Footnote 146] The windows are hospitality with
cheerfulness, and tenderness with charity.
[Footnote 146: Rev. xxi, 16.]
{21}
Concerning this house saith the Lord, 'We will come unto him, and make
our abode with him.' [Footnote 147] But some churches are built in
the shape of a cross, to signify, that we are crucified to the world,
and should tread in the steps of the Crucified, according to that
saying, 'If any man will come after Me, let him deny himself and take
up his cross, and follow Me.' [Footnote 148] Some also are built in
the form of a circle: [Footnote 149] to signify that the Church hath
been extended throughout the circle of the world, as saith the
Psalmist: 'And their words unto the end of the world.' [Footnote
150] Or because from the circle of this world, we reach forth to that
crown of eternity which shall encircle our brows.
[Footnote 147: S. John xiv, 23.]
[Footnote 148: S. Matthew xvi, 18.]
[Footnote 149: This of course refers to the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, the prototype of these buildings. There are four, as it
is well known, in England yet standing, and two in ruins--namely,
Temple Aslackby, in Lincolnshire, and the church in Ludlow Castle.]
[Footnote 150: Psalm xix (_Caeli enarrant_), 4.]
18. The choir is so called from the harmony of the clergy in their
chanting, or from the multitude collected at the divine offices. The
word _chorus_ is derived from _chorea_, or from _corona_. For in early
times they stood like a crown round the altar, and thus sung the
Psalms in one body: but Flavianus and Theodorus taught the antiphonal
method of chanting, having received it from S. Ignatius, who himself
learnt it by inspiration. The two choirs then typify the angels, and
the spirits of just men, while they cheerfully and mutually excite
each other in this holy exercise. Others derive _chorus_ from
_concord_, which consisteth of charity; because he who hath not
charity, cannot sing with the spirit. But what this choir signifieth,
and why the greatest in it sit last, shall be explained in the fourth
book. [Footnote 151] And observe, that when one sings, it is called
in Greek a _monody_, in Latin _tycinium_. When two sing, it is called
_bicinium_; when many, a _chorus_.
[Footnote 151: We may observe that Prynne perverts the fact, that
the westernmost seats in the choir are the most honourable, to a
depreciation of the Catholic custom of the position of the altar.
See his 'Pacific Examination,' s.v.]
{22}
19. The exedra is an apsis, separated a little from a temple or
palace; so called because it projecteth a little from the wall (in
Greek [Greek text]), and signifieth the lay portion of the faithful
joined to Christ and the Church. The crypts, or subterranean caves,
which we find in some churches, are hermits who are devoted to a
solitary life.
20. The open court signifieth Christ, by Whom an entrance is
administered into the heavenly Jerusalem: this is also called porch,
from _porta_, a gate, or because it is _aperta_, open.
21. The towers are the preachers and prelates of the Church, which are
her bulwark and defence. Whence the bridegroom in the Canticles saith
to the bride, 'Thy neck is like the tower of David builded for an
armoury.' [Footnote 152] The pinnacles of the towers signify the
life or the mind of a prelate which aspireth heavenwards.
[Footnote 152: Canticles iv, 4.]
22. The cock at the summit of the church is a type of preachers. For
the cock, ever watchful even in the depth of night, giveth notice how
the hours pass, wakeneth the sleepers, predicteth the approach of day,
but first exciteth himself to crow by striking his sides with his
wings. There is a mystery conveyed in each of these particulars. The
night is this world: the sleepers are the children of this world who
are asleep in their sins. The cock is the preacher, who preacheth
boldly, and exciteth the sleepers to cast away the works of darkness,
exclaiming, 'Woe to them that sleep! Awake thou that sleepest!
[Footnote 153] And these foretell the approach of day when they speak
of the Day of Judgment, and the glory that shall be revealed: and like
prudent {23} messengers, before they teach others, arouse themselves
from the sleep of sin by mortifying their bodies. Whence the Apostle,
'I keep under my body.' [Footnote 154] And as the weathercock faceth
the wind, they turn themselves boldly to meet the rebellious by
threats and arguments: lest they should be guilty, 'when the wolf
cometh, of leaving the sheep and fleeing.' [Footnote 155] The iron
rod, whereon the cock sitteth, representeth the discourse of the
preacher, that he speaketh not of man but of God: according to that
saying, 'If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of God.'
[Footnote 156] But in that the iron rod is placed above the cross, on
the summit of the church, it signifieth that Holy Scripture is now
consummated and confirmed. Whence saith our Lord in His Passion, 'It
is finished': and that title is written indelibly over Him.
[Footnote 153: Eph. v, 14.]
[Footnote 154: 1 Cor. ix, 27.]
[Footnote 155: S. John x, 12.]
[Footnote 156: I S. Peter iv, 11.]
23. The cone, that is the summit of the church, of great height, and
of round shape, signifieth how perfectly and inviolably the Catholic
faith must be held: which faith except a man do keep whole and
undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.
24. The glass windows in a church are Holy Scriptures, which expel the
wind and the rain, that is all things hurtful, but transmit the light
of the true Sun, that is, God, into the hearts of the faithful. These
are wider [Footnote 157] within than without, because the mystical
sense is the more ample, and precedeth the literal meaning. Also, by
the windows the senses of the body are signified: which ought to be
shut to the vanities of this world, and open to receive with all
freedom spiritual gifts.
[Footnote 157: This passage is particularly to be observed, for the
reason given in the Introduction.]
25. By the lattice work [Footnote 158] of the windows, we understand
the prophets or other obscure teachers of the Church Militant: in
which windows there are often two shafts, signifying the two precepts
of charity, or because the apostles were sent out to preach two and
two.
[Footnote 158: See Appendix I.]
{24}
26. The door of the church is Christ: according to that saying in the
Gospel, 'I am the door.' [Footnote 159] The apostles are also called
doors.
[Footnote 159: S. John x, 9.]
27. The piers of the church are bishops and doctors: who specially
sustain the Church of God by their doctrine. These, from the majesty
and clearness of their divine message, are called silver, according to
that in the Song of Songs, 'He made silver columns.' [Footnote 160]
Whence also Moses at the entering in of the tabernacle, placed five
columns, and four before the oracle, that is, the holy of holies.
Although the piers are more in number than seven, yet they are called
seven, according to that saying, 'Wisdom hath builded her house, she
hath hewn out her seven pillars': [Footnote 161] because bishops
ought to be filled with the sevenfold influences of the Holy Ghost:
[Footnote 162] and SS. James and John, as the Apostle testifieth,
'seemed to be pillars.' [Footnote 163] The bases of the columns are
the apostolic bishops, [Footnote 164] who support the frame of the
whole church. The capitals of the piers are the opinions of the
bishops and doctors. For as the members are directed and moved by the
head, so are our words and works governed by their mind. The ornaments
of the capitals are the words of Sacred Scripture, to the meditation
and observance of which we are bound.
[Footnote 160: Canticles viii, 9.]
[Footnote 161: Prov. viii, I.]
[Footnote 162: Compare the _Veni Creator_:
Thou the anointing Spirit art,
Who dost Thy sevenfold gifts impart.]
[Footnote 163: Gal ii, 9.]
[Footnote 164: That is, it may be supposed, bishops of those sees
which were founded by the apostles themselves, e.g. Rome, Crete,
Ephesus.]
28. The pavement of the church is the foundation of our faith. But in
the spiritual Church, the pavement is the poor, of Christ: the poor in
spirit, who humble themselves in all thing: wherefore on account of
their {25} humility they are likened to the pavement. Again, the
pavement, which is trodden under foot, representeth the multitude, by
whose labours the Church is sustained.
29. The beams [Footnote 165] which join together the church are the
princes of this world or the preachers who defend the unity of the
Church, the one by deed, the other by argument.
[Footnote 165: _Beams_. That is, probably, tie-beams: here is
another reference to the architectural arrangements of Early English
date.]
30. The stalls in the church signify the contemplative, in whom God
dwelleth without hindrance, who, from their high dignity and the glory
of eternal life, are compared to gold. Whence He saith in the
Canticles, 'He made a golden seat.' [Footnote 166]
[Footnote 166: See Appendix I.]
31. The beams in the church are preachers, who spiritually sustain it.
The vaulting also, or ceiling, representeth preachers, who adorn and
strengthen it, concerning whom, seeing that they are not corruptible
through vice, the bridegroom glorieth in the same Canticles, saying
'the beams of our house are cedar, and its ceiling, fir.' For God hath
built His Church of living stones, and imperishable wood, according to
that saying, 'Solomon made himself a litter of cedar wood;' [Footnote
167] that is, Christ, of His saints who wear the white robe of
chastity.
[Footnote 167: It is very difficult to find the right meaning of the
word ferculum here. The English version gives the passage from the
Canticles, 'King Solomon made himself a _chariot_ (marg. reading,
_bed_) of the wood of Lebanon. In the extremely beautiful treatise
of Hugo de S. Victore, _De Nuptiis Spiritualibus_(cap. iii), the
_fercula nuptialia_ appear to mean the _marriage feast_, which is to
perform its part in the general _Sensuum refectio_, by its sweet
savours; as the bed or chariot of Solomon is noted for the odour of
its cedar wood. However, the same writer devotes five Tituli of his
_Erudit. Theolog. Ex Miscellan._ namely, lix--lxii of the first
book, and cxxi of the second, to the consideration of this Ferculum
Solomonis: which he decides to be a _lectica sen vehiculum_, a
litter or sedan (such as is now used in Sicily under the name of
_lettiga_), differing from the _lectulus_ or _bed_ (Cant, i, 16),
inasmuch as this denotes the repose of the contemplative life, while
the ferculum typifies the laborious exercise of the active life; and
differing again from the _currus_ or chariot (the only other vehicle
mentioned in Holy Scripture), since the latter is drawn on the earth
with a grating noise, and represents a depraved heart clinging to
earthly things, but the former is borne smoothly and quietly above
the ground, an image of the righteous soul despising earthly and
seeking heavenly things. Lastly, the _ferculum_, or litter, typifies
the Church, from carrying, _a ferendo_, as doth the Church her
children unto Heavenly Rest.]
{26}
The chancel, that is, the head of the church, being lower [Footnote
168] than its body, signifieth how great humility there should be in
the clergy, or in prelates, according to that saying, 'And the more
thou art exalted, humble thyself in all things.' The rail, by which
the altar [Footnote 169] is divided from the choir, teacheth the
separation of things celestial from things terrestrial.
[Footnote 168: The fact that in many unaltered and unmutilated
churches the chancel is lower than the nave, appears to have been
unnoticed by ecclesiologists. Wherever it occurs, William Dowsing,
or some of his puritanical coadjutors, have been supposed agents in
the matter. But there exist chancels, which, whether from the height
of the piscina and sedilia, or on other accounts, cannot have been
lowered, to which nevertheless there is a descent from the nave.
Such an one is that of S. Giles's at Cambridge: and the arrangement
is very common in the little churches of the south-west part of
Sussex.]
[Footnote 169: This is another very remarkable passage: and one
which proves that the injunction of Abp. Laud for the erection of
altar rails was not a novelty. And though their abolition is much to
be wished, as well from the ugliness of all existing specimens, as
from the irreverence which they seem to pre-suppose, the Church in
England can scarcely be charged with the adoption of an innovation
in giving her sanction to them.]
32. The seats in the choir admonish us that the body must sometimes be
refreshed: because that which hath not alternate rest wanteth
durability.
33. The pulpit in the church is the life of the perfect: and is so
called from being public, or placed in a public place. For we read,
'Solomon made a brazen scaffold, and set it in the midst of the
temple, and stood upon it, and stretching forth his hands spake to the
people of God.' Esdras also made a wooden scaffold for speaking: in
which when he stood, he was higher than the rest of the people.
[Footnote 170]
[Footnote 170: 3 Kings vi, 13.]
34. The analogium (rood-loft) is so called because in it the Word of
God is read and delivered. Which also is called ambo, from _ambire_,
[Footnote 171] to surround, because it surroundeth him that entereth
in.
[Footnote 171: This is, of course, a false derivation. The important
subject of Rood-lofts has been treated with admirable learning by
Father Thiers, in his treatise 'Sur les jubés,' to which the reader
is referred. See also Appendix C.]
{27}
35. The horologium, by means of which the hours are read, teacheth the
diligence that should be in priests to observe at the proper times the
canonical hours: as he saith, 'Seven times a day do I praise thee.'
[Footnote 172]
[Footnote 172: Psalm (cxix), _Beati immaculati_, 164.]
36. The tiles [Footnote 173] of the roof which keep off the rain are
the soldiers, who preserve the Church from paynim, and from enemies.
[Footnote 173: This passage deserves to be noticed, as proving that
lead was not the only roofing employed in the Norman churches.]
37. The circular staircases, which are imitated from Solomon's temple,
are passages which wind among the walls, and point out the hidden
knowledge which they only have who ascend to celestial things.
Concerning the steps, by which ascent is made to the altar, hereafter.
38. The sacristy, or place where the holy vessels are deposited, or
where the priest putteth on his robes, is the womb of the Blessed
Mary, where Christ put on his robes of humanity. The priest, having
robed himself, cometh forth into the public view, because Christ,
having come from the womb of the Virgin, proceeded forth into the
world.
The bishop's throne in the church is higher than the rest.
39. Near to the altar, which signifieth Christ, is placed the piscina,
or lavacrum, that is, the pity of Christ, in which the priest washeth
his hands, thereby denoting that by baptism and penitence we are
purged from the filth of sin: which is drawn from the Old Testament.
For he saith in Exodus, 'And Moses made a laver of brass, with his
basin, in the which Aaron the priest and his sons should wash, before
they went up to the altar, that they might offer an offering.
[Footnote 174]
[Footnote 174: Exodus xxxviii, 8.]
{28}
40. The lamp in the church is Christ: as He saith, 'I am the light of
the world'; [Footnote 175] and again, 'That was the true light.'
[Footnote 176] 'Or the light in a church may denote the apostles and
other doctors, by whose doctrine the Church is enlightened, as the sun
and moon: concerning whom saith the Lord, 'Ye are the light of the
world: [Footnote 177] that is, an example of good works. Wherefore
He saith to them in His admonitions, 'Let your light shine before
men.' [Footnote 178] But the Church is enlightened by the precepts
of the Lord; wherefore it saith in the before-quoted place, 'Speak
unto the sons of Aaron that they offer oil-olive most pure, that the
lamp may burn continually in the tabernacle of the testimony.'
[Footnote 179] Moses made also seven lights, which are the seven gifts
of the Holy Ghost: for they in the darkness of this world shine forth
with brightness: and they rest in candlesticks, because in Christ
rested 'the spirit of wisdom and knowledge, the spirit of counsel and
might, the spirit of learning and piety, the spirit of the fear of the
Lord, by which He preached wisdom to the captives.' [Footnote 180]
The number of lights showeth the number of graces in the faithful.
[Footnote 175: S. John viii, 12.]
[Footnote 176: S. John i, 6.]
[Footnote 177: S. Matthew v, 14.]
[Footnote 178: S. Matthew v, 16.]
[Footnote 179: Lev. xxiv, 2.]
[Footnote 180: Isaiah lxi, i.]
41. In many places a triumphal cross is placed in the midst of the
church; to teach us, that from the midst of our hearts we must love
the Redeemer: who, after Solomon's pattern, 'paved the midst of his
litter (_ferculum_) with love for the daughters of Jerusalem:'
[Footnote 181] and that all, seeing the sign of victory, might
exclaim. Hail, thou Salvation of the whole world, Tree of our
Redemption: and that we should never forget the love of God, who, to
redeem His servants, gave His only son, that we might imitate Him
crucified. But the cross is exalted on high, to signify the victory of
Christ. Why a church is ornamented within and not without, shall be
said hereafter.
[Footnote 181: Cantic. iii, 10.]
{29}
42. The cloisters, as Richard, Bishop of Cremona, testifieth, had
their rise either in the watchings of the Levites around the
tabernacle, or from the chambers of the priests, or from the porch of
Solomon's temple. 'For the Lord commanded Moses, that he should not
number the Levites with the rest of the children of Israel; but should
set them over the tabernacle of the testimony to carry it and to keep
it.' [Footnote 182] On account of which divine commandment, while
the Holy Mysteries are in celebration, the clergy should in the church
stand apart from the laity. Whence the Council of Mayence ordained
that the part which is separated with rails from the altar should be
appropriated altogether to the priests choral. Furthermore, as the
church signifieth the Church Triumphant, so the cloister signifieth
the celestial Paradise, where there will be one and the same heart in
fulfilling the commands of God and loving Him: where all things will
be possessed in common, because that of which one hath less, he will
rejoice to see more abounding in another, for 'God shall be all in
all.' [Footnote 183] Therefore the regular clergy who live in the
cloisters, and are of one mind, rising to the service of God and
leaving worldly things, lead their lives in common. The various
offices in the cloister signify the different mansions, and the
difference of rewards in the Kingdom: for 'In My Father's House are
many mansions,' [Footnote 184] saith our Lord. But in a moral sense
the cloister is the contemplative state, into which the soul betaking
itself, is separated from the crowd of carnal thoughts, and meditateth
on celestial things only. In this cloister there are four sides:
denoting, namely, contempt of self, contempt of the world, love of
God, love of our neighbour. Each side hath his own row of Columns.
Contempt of self hath humiliation of soul, mortification of the flesh,
humility of speech, and the like. The base of all the columns is
patience.
[Footnote 182: Numbers i, 47; xviii, 6.]
[Footnote 183: I Corinth, xv, 28.]
[Footnote 184: S. John xv, 2.]
{30}
43. In this cloister the diversity of office-chambers is the diversity
of virtues. The chapter-house is the secret of the heart: concerning
this, however, we shall speak differently hereafter. The refectory is
the love of holy meditation. The cellar, Holy Scripture. The
dormitory, a clean conscience. The oratory, a spotless life. The
garden of trees and herbs, the collection of virtues. The well, the
dew of God's heavenly gifts; which in this world mitigateth our
thirst, and hereafter will quench it.
44. The Episcopal throne, which according to the injunctions of Saint
Peter has been of old consecrated in each city (as shall be said
below), the piety of our forefathers dedicated, not in memory of
confessors, but to the honour of apostles and martyrs, and especially
of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
45. But we therefore go to church, that we may there ask for the
pardon of our sins, and assist in the divine praises: as shall be said
in the proeme of the fifth book, and that there we may hear God's
proceedings [Footnote 185] with the good and the ill, and learn and
receive the knowledge of God, and that we may there feed on the Lord's
body.
[Footnote 185: Such is probably the meaning of the passage. The
original is _ut iti bona sive mala judicia audiamus_.]
46. In church, men and women sit apart: which, according to Bede, we
have received from the custom of the ancients: and thence it was that
Joseph and Mary lost the Child Jesus; since the one who did not behold
Him in his own company, thought Him to be with the other. . . . But
the men remain on the southern, the {31} women on the northern side:
[Footnote 186] to signify that the saints who be most advanced in
holiness should stand against the greater temptations of this world:
and they who be less advanced, against the less; or that the bolder
and the stronger sex should take their place in the position fittest
for action: because the Apostle saith, 'God is faithful, Who will not
suffer you to be tempted above that ye are able.' [Footnote 187] To
this also pertaineth the vision of S. John, who 'beheld a mighty angel
placing his right foot in the sea.' [Footnote 188] For the stronger
members are opposed to the greater dangers. But, according to others,
the men are to be in the fore part [_i.e._ eastward], the women
behind: because 'the husband is the head of the wife,' [Footnote
189] and therefore should go before her.
[Footnote 186: This is the practice in some parts of England even to
this day: more especially in Somersetshire. Bp. Montague in his
'Visitation Articles' (reprinted Camb. 1841) asks (p. 17), 'Do men
and women sit together in those seats indifferently and
promiscuously? or (as the fashion was of old), do men sit together
upon one side of the church, and women upon the other?' And, indeed,
of old there was a still further separation on each side, into the
married and unmarried. The restoration of the practice recommended
by Bp. Montague is much to be wished.]
[Footnote 187: 1 Corinth, x, 13.]
[Footnote 188: Apocalypse x, 7.]
[Footnote 189: Eph. v, 23.]
47. A woman must cover her head in the church, because she is not the
image of God, and because by woman sin began. And therefore in the
church, out of respect for the priest, who is the vicar of Christ, in
his presence, as before a judge, she hath her head covered, and not at
liberty: and on account of the same reverence she hath not the power
of speaking in the church before him. Of old time, men and women
wearing long hair stood in church with uncovered heads glorying in
their locks: which was a disgrace unto them.
48. But what should be our conversation in church the Apostle
teacheth, saying, 'Speaking to yourselves in psalms and hymns and
spiritual songs.' [Footnote 190] Whence we must, when we be there,
abstain from superfluous words: {32} according to that saying of S.
Chrysostome, When thou goest into a king's palace, set in order thy
conversation and thy habit. For the angels of the Lord are there: and
the House of God is full of incorporeal virtues. [Footnote 191] And
the Lord saith to Moses, and so doth the angel to Joshua, 'Put off thy
shoes from off thy feet: for the place where thou standest is holy
ground.' [Footnote 192]
[Footnote 190: Coloss. iii, 16.]
[Footnote 191: The passage referred to is as follows:--' Regiam
quidem ingrediens, et habitu et aspectu et incessu et omnibus aliis
te ornas et componis: Hic autem vera est Regia et plane hic talia
qualia caelestia:--et rides? Atque scio quidem quod tu non vides.
Audi autem quod ubique adsunt angeli, et maxima in Domo Dei
adsistunt Regis, et omnia sunt impleta incorporeis illus
Potestatibus.]
[Footnote 192: Exod. iii, 5. Josh, v, 15.]
49. In the last place, a consecrated church defendeth murderers who
take sanctuary in it from losing life or limb, provided that they have
not offended in it, or against it. Whence it is written that 'Joab
fled to the tabernacle, and laid hold on the horns of the altar.'
[Footnote 193] The same privilege is possessed also by an
unconsecrated church, if the divine offices be therein celebrated.
[Footnote 193: 2 Kings i, 28.]
50. But the body of Christ received by such persons, doth not defend
them nor those who fly to it: partly because the privilege is granted
to a church as a church: and therefore not to be misbestowed on other
things: partly because that food is the support of the soul, and not
of the body: whence it freeth the soul and not the body.
51. Churches are moved from one place to another on three accounts.
First, on account of the necessity arising from persecutors: secondly,
on account of the difficulty of access or habitation, such as the
unwholesomeness of air: thirdly, when they are oppressed with the
society of evil men: and then with the consent of the Pope or the
bishop. Wherefore he that entereth into a church fortifieth himself
with the sign of the cross, shall be said in the proeme of the fifth
book.' [Footnote 194]
[Footnote 194: See Appendix.]
{33}
CHAPTER II
OF THE ALTAR
The First Builders of Altars--The Difference between Altare and
Ara--Various Significations of Various Kinds of Altars--The Ark of the
Testimony--It is preserved in the Lateran Church--What a Man needeth
that he may be the Temple of God--What the Table Signifieth--Of the
Candlestick--Of the Ark--Of the Altar--Of the Altar Cloths--Of Steps
to the Altar.
I. The altar hath a place in the church on three accounts, as shall be
said in speaking of its dedication. We are to know that Noe
[Footnote 195] first, then Isaac [Footnote 196] and Abraham [Footnote
197] and Jacob made, as we read, altars: which is only to be
understood of stones set upright, on which they offered and slew the
victims and burnt them with fire laid beneath them. Also Moses made an
altar [Footnote 198] of shittim wood: and the same was made as an
altar of incense, and covered with pure gold: as we read in the xxvth
chapter of Exodus, where also the form of the altar is described. From
these of the ancient fathers, the altars of the moderns have their
origin, being erected with four horns at the corners. Of which some
are of one stone, and some are put together of many.
[Footnote 195: Gen. viii, 20.]
[Footnote 196: Gen. xxvi, 25. xxxiii, 20.]
[Footnote 197: Gen. xiii, 18.]
[Footnote 198: Exodus xxvii, i.]
2. And sometimes the words altare and ara are used in the same sense.
Yet is there a difference. For _altare_, derived from _alta res_, or
_alta ara_, is that on which {34} the priests burnt incense. But
_ara_, which is derived from _area_, or from _ardeo_, is that on which
sacrifices were burnt. [Footnote 199]
[Footnote 199: The true ecclesiastical distinction between _altare_
and _ara_ is that the former means the altar of the true God, and is
therefore alone used in the Vulgate, answering to the Greek [Greek
text], as opposed to ara ([Greek text]), an altar with an image
above it. See _Mede_. Folio 386. ]
3. And note, that many kinds of altars are found in Scripture: as a
higher, a lower, an inner, an outer; of which each hath both a plain
and a symbolical signification. The higher altar is God the Trinity:
of which it is written, 'Thou shalt not go up by steps to my altar.'
[Footnote 200] And it also signifieth the Church Triumphant: of which
it is said, 'Then shall they offer bullocks upon mine altar.'
[Footnote 201] But the lower altar is the Church Militant, of which it
is said, 'If thou wilt make an altar of stone, thou shalt not make it
of hewn stone.' [Footnote 202] Also it is the table of the temple.
Of which he saith, 'Appoint a solemn day for your assembly even unto
the horns of the altar.' [Footnote 203] And in the Third of Kings,
it is said that Solomon made a golden altar. [Footnote 204 ] But the
interior altar is a clean heart, as shall be said below. It is also a
type of faith in the incarnation, of which in Exodus, 'An altar of
earth ye shall make Me.' [Footnote 205] And an interior altar is the
altar of the cross. This is the altar on which they offered the
evening sacrifice. Whence in the Canon of the Mass it is said, _Jube
hoc in sublime Altare Tuum perferri_. [Footnote 206] Moreover the
external altar representeth the sacraments of the Church: of which it
is said, 'Even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my King, and my God.'
[Footnote 207] Again, the altar is our mortification in our heart, in
which carnal motions are consumed by the fervour of the Holy Spirit.
[Footnote 200: Exodus XX, 26.]
[Footnote 201: Psalm li (_Miserere mei_), 19.]
[Footnote 202: Exodus XX, 25.]
[Footnote 203: Psalm cxviii (_Confitemini_), 27.]
[Footnote 204: III Kings vi. 22.]
[Footnote 205: Exodus xx 26.]
[Footnote 206: This prayer, which immediately precedes the
Commemoration of the Dead, runs thus: Supplices Te rogamus,
omnipotens Deus, jube hoc perferri per manus Sancti Angeli Tui, in
conspectu Divinae Majestatis Tuae: ut quotquot ex hac Altaris
participatione sacrosanctum Filii Tui Corpus et Sanguinem
sumpserimus, omni benedictione caelesti et gratia repleamur. Per.]
[Footnote 207: Psalm lxxxiv (_Quam dilecta_), 4.]
{35}
4. Secondly, it also signifieth the Spiritual Church: and its four
horns teach how she hath been extended into the four quarters of the
world. Thirdly, it signifieth Christ, without whom no gift is offered
acceptable to the Father. Whence also the Church addresseth her
prayers to the Father through Christ alone. Fourthly, it signifieth
the body of Christ, as shall be explained in the fifth book. Fifthly,
it signifieth the table at which Christ did feast with His disciples.
5. It is written in Exodus, that in the Ark of the Testament or of the
Testimony the witness was laid up: [Footnote 208] that is, the tables
on which the law was written: and it is said that the _Testimony_ was
there laid up, because it was a bearing witness that the law imprinted
on our hearts by nature God had reimprinted by writing. Also, there
was laid up the golden pot full of manna, for a testimony that He had
given the children of Israel bread from heaven. And the rod of Aaron,
for a testimony that all power is from God. And the second tables of
the law, in testimony of the covenant in which they had said, 'All
that the Lord hath spoken we will do.' [Footnote 209] And on these
accounts it is called the Ark of the Testimony or Testament; and also
the tabernacle of the testimony thence deriveth its title. But over
the ark was made a mercy seat: of which we shall speak in the proeme
of the fourth book. In imitation whereof some churches have over the
altar an ark or tabernacle, in which the body of the Lord and relics
are preserved. The Lord also commanded that a candlestick should be
made of beaten pure gold. It is written in the third book of Kings,
that in the Ark of the Covenant was nothing else than the two tables
of stone which Moses put therein in Horeb: when the Lord made a
covenant with the children of Israel in the day that they came out of
the land of Egypt.
[Footnote 208: Exodus xxv, 16.]
[Footnote 209: Exodus xix, 8.]
{36}
6. And note that in the time of S. Silvester, Pope, [Footnote 210]
Constantine the Emperor built the Lateran church, in which he placed
the Ark of the Testament, which the Emperor Titus had brought from
Jerusalem, and the golden candlestick with his seven branches. In
which ark are these things: the rings and the staves of gold: the
tables of the testimony: the rod of Aaron: manna: barley loaves: the
golden pot: the seamless garment: the reed: a garment of S. John
Baptist, and the scissors with which the hair of S. John the
Evangelist was shorn.
[Footnote 210: It is very remarkable that no notice whatever is
taken of these relics by Ciampini in his very minute description of
the Lateran Basilica: although in his account both of this, and of
all the other Basilican churches built by Constantine, he copies
_verbatim_ the list of the donations of the Emperor which is given
in the life of Pope S. Sylvester, compiled by an unknown librarian
of the Vatican. It is clear that either Durandus was misinformed, or
that the present passage is corrupt. Again, it is not likely that
the vest of S. John Baptist, or the scissors of S. John Evangelist
would have been kept in the ark besides its proper contents. Yet
Durandus had obviously some facts to go upon, since the Lateran
Church, having been originally dedicated to the Saviour, was now
under the Invocation of the two SS. John; and the sufferings of both
these saints were depicted in a very ancient mosaic, those of the
Evangelist having over them the following inscription, which we give
as describing a Confession of this _Martyr in will_, now little
known.
Martyrii calicem bibit hic Athleta Johannes
Principium Verbi cernere qui meruit.
Verberat hunc fuste Proconsul, _forfice tondet_,
Quem fervens oleum laedere non valuit.
Conditus hic oleum, dolium, cruor, atque capilli,
Quae consecrantur libera Roma tibi.
To return, we may be satisfied that these Jewish memorials did not
exist, since Ciampini, while composing his account, consulted the
former writers upon the Lateran Basilica; viz. the poet Prudentius,
an unedited MS. of Panvinius, Severanus De Septem Urbis Ecclesiis,
and the work of Caesar Cardinal Rasponus.]
7. Man, if he hath an altar, a table, a candlestick, and an ark, he is
the temple of God. He must have an altar, whereon rightly to offer and
rightly to distribute. The altar is our heart, on which we ought to
offer. {37} Whence the Lord commandeth in Exodus: 'Thou shalt offer
burnt offerings on mine altar.' [Footnote 211] Since from the heart
words, set on fire of charity, ought to proceed. _Holocaust_ is
derived from _holos, whole_, and _cauma, a burning:_ therein
signifying a thing wholly burnt. On this altar we must rightly offer,
and we must rightly divide. We offer rightly when we bring any good
thought to perfection. But we do not rightly divide if we do it not
discreetly. For a man often thinketh to do good, and doeth ill: and
sometimes with one hand he doeth good and with the other ill; and thus
himself buildeth, and himself knocketh down. But we then rightly
divide when the good which we do we attribute, not to ourselves, but
to God alone.
[Footnote 211: Exodus ix, 2.]
8. It behoveth also man to have a table, whence he may take the bread
of the Word of God. By the table we understand Holy Scripture,
concerning which the Psalm, 'Thou preparest a table before me in the
presence of mine enemies.' [Footnote 212] That is, Thou hast given me
Scripture against the temptations of the devil. This table then we
must have, that is, must lay up in our minds, that thence we may take
the Word of God. Of the deficiency of this bread saith Jeremiah: 'The
little ones sought bread, and there was none to break it unto them.
[Footnote 213] It behoveth man likewise to have a candlestick, that he
may shine with good works.
[Footnote 212: Psalm xxiii (_Dominus regit me_), 5.]
[Footnote 213: Jeremiah xvi, 7.]
9. A candlestick that giveth light without is a good work, which by
its good example inflameth others. Of which it is said, 'No man
lighteth a candle and putteth it under a bushel, but in a
candlestick.' [Footnote 214] This candle, according to the Word of
the Lord, is a good intention: of which He saith Himself: 'Thine eye
is a light.' [Footnote 215] But the eye is the intention. {38}
Therefore we ought not to put the candle under a bushel, but in a
candlestick. Because, if we have a good intention, we ought not to
hide it: but to manifest our good deeds to others, for a light and an
example.
[Footnote 214: S. Matthew v, 15.]
[Footnote 215: S. Matthew vi, 22.]
10. Man must also have an ark. Now _area_ is derived from _arcendo_:
discipline, therefore, and regular life may be called the ark; by
which crimes are driven away (_arcentur_) from us. Now in the ark were
the rod, the tables, and the manna: because in the regular life there
must be the rod of correction, that the flesh may be chastised; and
the table of love, that God may be loved. For in the tables of the law
were written the commands which pertain to the love of God. Therein
must also be the manna of divine sweetness: that we may 'taste and see
how gracious the Lord is: for it is good to have to do with Him.'
[Footnote 216] According to that proverb of the prudent woman, 'She
tasted and saw that it was good.' [Footnote 217] Therefore, that we
may be the temple of God, let us have in ourselves an altar of
oblation, lest we appear empty in His presence, according to that
saying, 'Thou shalt not appear empty before the presence of thy God':
[Footnote 218] let us have a table for refection lest we faint,
through hunger, in the way: as saith the Evangelist, 'If I send them
away empty, they will faint in the way,' [Footnote 219] a
candlestick by good works that we be not idle, as he saith in
Ecclesiasticus, 'Idleness hath taught much mischief,' [Footnote 220]
let us have an ark, that we be not as sons of Belial, that is,
undisciplined, and without the yoke: for discipline is necessary, as
the Psalmist teacheth, saying, 'Be instructed, lest He be angry.'
[Footnote 221] Concerning which, and other ornaments, we shall speak
in the following chapter.
[Footnote 216: Psalm xxxiv (_Benedicam Dominum_), 8.]
[Footnote 217: Prov. xxxi, 18. Marg. reading.]
[Footnote 218: Exodus xxiii, 15.]
[Footnote 219: S. Mark viii, 3.]
[Footnote 220: Ecclesiasticus xxii, 2.]
[Footnote 221: Psalm ii (_Quare fremuerunt_), 12.]
{39}
11. He buildeth this altar who adorneth his heart with true humility
and other virtues. Whence Gregory: He who gathereth together virtues
without humility, is as he who scattereth dust to the wind. For by the
altar he understandeth our heart, as it shall be said when we treat of
the dedication of the altar: it is in the middle of the body, as the
altar is in the middle of the church. [Footnote 222]
[Footnote 222: Lev. vi, 9.]
12. Concerning which altar the Lord commandeth in Leviticus: 'The fire
shall always be burning upon Mine altar.' [Footnote 223] The fire is
charity. The altar is a clean heart. The fire shall always burn on the
altar, because charity should always burn in our hearts. Whence
Solomon in the Canticles: 'Many waters cannot extinguish charity,'
[Footnote 224] for that which ever burneth cannot be extinguished. Do
thou, therefore, as the prophet commandeth, keep holy day and a solemn
assembly, even to the horns of the altar: because the rest of thy
thoughts will keep holy day. Concerning this the Apostle showeth 'unto
us a more excellent way.' [Footnote 225] He calleth charity a more
excellent way, because she is above all virtues: and whoever
possesseth her possesseth all virtues. This is the short word that the
Lord speaketh over the earth: which is so short that it only saith,
'Have charity, and do whatsoever thou wilt. For from these two
commandments hang all the law and the prophets.' [Footnote 226]
[Footnote 223: Canticles viii, 7.]
[Footnote 224: I Corinth xii, 31.]
[Footnote 225: S. Matthew xxii, 40.]
[Footnote 226: See Appendix I.]
13. Or by the altar we understand the soul of every man, which is by
the Lord built up of various living stones, which are various and
different virtues.
14. Furthermore, the white cloths wherewith the altar is covered
signify the flesh of the Saviour, that is, His humanity: because it
was made white with many toils, as also the flesh of Christ born of
earth, that is, of Mary, {40} which attained through many tribulations
to the glory of the Resurrection, and the purity and joy of
immortality. [Concerning which the Son exulteth, saying to the Father,
'Thou hast girded me with gladness, and exalted Me on every side.'
[Footnote 227] When, therefore, the altar is covered, it signifieth
the joining of the soul to an immortal and incorruptible body.]
[Footnote 228] Again, the altar is covered with white and clean
cloths, because the pure heart is adorned with good works. Whence the
Apocalypse: 'And put on white garments, that the shame of thy
nakedness do not appear.' [Footnote 229] And Solomon: 'Let thy
garments be always white,' [Footnote 230] that is, let thy works be
clean. [But it little profiteth him that approacheth to the altar to
have high dignity, and a life sunk low in sins. Whence Benedict: It is
a monstrous thing, exalted faith, and abandoned life. The highest step
and the lowest state, is mighty authority joined with instability of
soul. [Footnote 231]] The silken coverings placed over the altar are
the ornaments of divers virtues wherewith the soul is adorned. The
hanging wherewith the altar is beautified setteth forth the saints, as
below shall be said. [The beginning and the end of the Mass take place
at the right side of the altar: the middle portion at the left: as
shall be said when we treat of the changes of the priest. The ancients
made their altars concave; as it is written in Ezekiel, that in the
altar of God was a trench. And this, according to Gregory, lest the
wind should scatter the sacrifices laid upon it. Also he saith in
Ezekiel that the inner part of the altar was bent downwards in all its
circumference. [Footnote 232]
[Footnote 227: Psalm lxxi (_Juste, Domine_), 21. ]
[Footnote 228: This passage does not appear in the edition of
Durandus published at Venice, in 1609.]
[Footnote 229: Apocalypse iii, 18.]
[Footnote 230: Ecclesiastes ix, 8.]
[Footnote 231: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.]
[Footnote 232: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.]
{41}
15. But the steps to the altar [spiritually set forth the apostles and
martyrs of Christ, who for His love poured out their blood. The bride
in the Canticles of Love calleth it a purple ascent. Also, the fifteen
virtues are set forth by them: which were also typified by the fifteen
steps by which they went up to the temple of Solomon:] [Footnote
233] and by the prophet in fifteen Psalms of degrees, therein setting
forth that he is blest who maketh ascents in his heart. This was the
ladder that Jacob beheld: 'And his top reached to the heavens.' By
these steps the ascent of virtues is sufficiently made manifest, by
which we go up to the altar, that is, to Christ: according to that
saying of the Psalmist, 'They go from virtue to virtue.' [Footnote
234] And Job, 'I will seek him through all my steps.' Yet it is said
in Exodus, 'Neither shalt thou go up by steps to my altar, that thy
nakedness be not discovered thereon.' [Footnote 235] For perhaps the
ancients did not as yet use trousers. In the Council of Toledo, it is
decreed that the priest, who for the sake of grief at the misfortune
of another, strippeth the altar or any image of its garments, [or
girdeth himself with a mourning vest, or with thorns, [Footnote 236]]
or extinguisheth the lights of the church, shall be deposed. But if
his church be undeservedly spoiled, he is allowed to do this for
grief: or, according to some, he may on the day of the Passion of our
Lord make bare the altars as a sign of grief. Which is, however,
reprobated by the Council of Lyons. Lastly, altars which have been
built at the instigation of dreams, or the empty revelations of men,
are altogether reprobated.
[Footnote 233: This passage also is not found in the Venetian
edition.]
[Footnote 234: Psalm lxxxiv (_Quam dilecta_), 7]
[Footnote 235: Exodus xx, 26.]
[Footnote 236: This passage also is not found in the Venetian edition.]
{42}
CHAPTER III
OF PICTURES, AND IMAGES, AND CURTAINS,
AND THE ORNAMENTS OF CHURCHES
Use of Pictures and Curtains--Objections against the Use, answered--
Place of Pictures--The Saviour, how Represented--The Angels--The
Evangelists--The Apostles--The Patriarchs--S. John Baptist--
Martyrs--Confessors--Institution of Pictures--Of Crowns--Of
Paradise--Of the General Ornament of Churches--Of Pyxes--Of
Relicaries--Of Candlesticks--Of Cups--Of the Cross--Of Altar Cloths
and Veils--The Treasures of the Church, when Displayed, and why--Of
Ostrich Eggs--Of Vessels for the Holy Mysteries--Of Chalices--General
Observations on the Respect due to Church Ornaments.
1. Pictures and ornaments in churches are the lessons and the
Scriptures of the laity. Whence Gregory: It is one thing to adore a
picture, and another by means of a picture historically to learn what
should be adored. For what writing supplieth to him which can read,
that doth a picture supply to him which is unlearned, and can only
look. Because they who are uninstructed thus see what they ought to
follow: and _things_ are read, though letters be unknown. True is it
that the Chaldeans, which worship fire, compel others to do the same,
and burn other idols. But Paynim adore images, as icons, and idols;
which Saracens do not, who neither will possess nor look on images,
grounding themselves on that saying, 'Thou shalt not make to thyself
any graven image, nor the likeness of anything that is in heaven
above, nor in the earth beneath, nor in the waters {43} under the
earth,' [Footnote 237] and on other the like authorities: these they
follow incontinently, casting the same in our teeth. But we worship
not images, nor account them to be gods, nor put any hope of salvation
in them: for that were idolatry. Yet we adore them for the memory and
remembrance of things done long agone. [Footnote 238 ] Whence the
verse, [Footnote 239]
What time thou passest by the rood, bow humbly evermore;
Yet not the rood, but Him which there was crucified, adore.
And again: [Footnote 240]
That thing, which hath his being given, 'tis fond for God to own:
A form material, carved out by cunning hands, in stone.
And again: [Footnote 241]
The form is neither God nor man, which here thou dost behold:
He very God and Man, of whom thou by that form art told.
[Footnote 237: Exodus xx, 4.]
[Footnote 238: _Veneramur_.--We here use the word _adore_ in the
sense given to it by the great and good Bishop Montague, in his
'Just Treatise of Invocation': where he says, speaking of the
Saints, 'I do admire, reverence, _adore_ them in their kind.']
[Footnote 239:
Effigiem Christi, quum transis, pronus honora:
Non tamen effigiem, sed quem designat, adora.]
[Footnote 240:
Esse Deum, ratione caret, cui consulit esse:
Materiale lapis, effigale manus.]
[Footnote 241:
Nec Deus est, nec homo, quam praesens cernis imago;
Sed Deus est et Homo, quem sacra figurat imago.
The later editions add--
Nam Deus est, quod imago docet, sed non Deus ipse;
Hunc videas, sed mente colas, quod noscis in ipsa.]
2. The Greeks, moreover, employ painted representations, painting, it
is said, only from the navel upwards, that all occasion of vain
thoughts may be removed. But they make no carved image, as it is
written, 'Thou shalt not make a graven image.' [Footnote 242] And
again: 'Thou shalt not make an idol, nor a graven image.' [Footnote
243] And again, 'Lest ye be deceived, and make a graven image.'
[Footnote 244] And again: 'Ye shall not make unto you gods of silver:
[Footnote 245] {44} neither shall ye make with Me gods of gold.' So
also the Prophet, 'Their idols are silver and gold, the work of man's
hand. They that make them are like unto them: and so are all they that
put their trust in them.' [Footnote 246] And again: 'Confounded be
all they that worship graven images: and that put their glory in their
idols.' [Footnote 247]
[Footnote 242: Deut. v, 8.]
[Footnote 243: Lev. xxvi. 1.]
[Footnote 244: Deut. iv, 16.]
[Footnote 245: Exodus xx, 20.]
[Footnote 246: Psalm cxv, 4.]
[Footnote 247: Psalm xcvii, 7.]
3. Also, Moses saith to the children of Israel, 'Lest perchance thou
shouldest be deceived, and shouldest worship that which the Lord thy
God hath created.' [Footnote 248] Hence also was it that Hezekiah
King of Judah brake in pieces the brazen serpent which Moses set up:
because the people, contrary to the precepts of the law, burnt incense
to it.
[Footnote 248: Deut. iv, 19.]
4. From these forementioned and other authorities, the excessive use
of images is forbidden. The Apostle saith also to the Corinthians, 'We
know that an idol is nothing in the world: and there is no god but
One.' [Footnote 249] For they who are simple and infirm may easily
by an excessive and indiscreet use of images, be perverted to
idolatry. Whence he saith in Wisdom, 'There shall be no respect of the
idols of the nations, which have made the creatures of God hateful,
and temptations for the souls of men, and snares for the feet of the
unwise.' [Footnote 250] [Footnote 251] But blame there is none in a
moderate use of pictures, to teach how ill is to be avoided, and good
followed.
[Footnote 249: I Corinth, viii, 4.]
[Footnote 250: Wisdom xiv, 11.]
[Footnote 251: A more solemn protest against the sin of idolatry can
hardly be found than the above passage: and they who brand every
return to, and every wish for the restoration of, Catholic
practices, by so hateful a name, would do well to bear it in mind.]
{45}
Whence saith the Lord to Ezekiel, 'Go in, and behold the abominations
which these men do. And he went in, and saw the likeness of reptiles
and beasts, and the abominations, and all the idols of the house of
Israel portrayed on the wall.' [Footnote 252] Whence saith Pope
Gregory in his Pastorale, When the forms of external objects are drawn
into the heart, they are as it were painted there, because the
thoughts of them are their images. Again, He saith to the same
Ezekiel, 'Take a tile, and lay it before thee, and describe in it the
city Jerusalem.' [Footnote 253] But that which is said above, that
pictures are the letters of the laity explaineth that saying in the
Gospel, 'He saith. They have Moses and the prophets: let them hear
them.' [Footnote 254] Of this, more hereafter. The Agathensian
[Footnote 255] Council forbids pictures in churches: and also that
that which is worshipped and adored should be painted on the walls.
But Gregory saith, that pictures are not to be put away because they
are not to be worshipped: for paintings appear to move the mind more
than descriptions; for deeds are placed before the eyes in paintings,
and so appear to be actually carrying on. But in description, the deed
is done as it were by hearsay: which affecteth the mind less when
recalled to memory. Hence, also, is it that in churches we pay less
reverence to books than to images and pictures.
[Footnote 252: Ezekiel viii, 10.]
[Footnote 253: Ezekiel iv, 1.]
[Footnote 254: S. Luke xvi, 29.]
[Footnote 255: A.D. 605]
5. Of pictures and images some are above the church, as the cock and
the eagle: some without the church, namely, in the air in front of the
church, as the ox and the cow: others within, as images, and statues,
and various kinds of painting and sculpture: and these be represented
either in garments, or on walls, or in stained glass. Concerning some
of which we have spoken in treating of the church: and how they are
taken from the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon. For
Moses made carved work, and Solomon made carved work, and pictures,
and adorned the walls with paintings and frescoes.
{46}
6. The image of the Saviour is more commonly represented in churches
three ways: as sitting on [Footnote 256] His throne, or hanging on
His cross, or lying on the bosom of His Mother.
[Footnote 256: Durandus had doubtless in his mind the ancient mosaic
over the apsides of the earliest churches in Rome. The extremely
beautiful one in San Clemente represents our Lord as crucified. The
frescoes with which the walls of our own churches were anciently
adorned, seem usually to have represented the Saviour as seated on
the Throne of His Majesty. In the chancel of Widford, Herts, is, or
was till lately, a fresco of the Saviour seated on a rainbow, a
sword proceeding from His mouth, His feet and His hands pierced. In
Alfriston, Sussex, there was, we believe, before it was whitewashed
over by Bishop Buckner's order, a painting of a similar kind. There
is a singular, and, we believe, undescribed painting over the altar
in Llandanwg church, Merion. The Saviour is seated in judgment, as
before: at His side is His Blessed Mother in a kneeling posture:
around Him are angels blowing trumpets, and S. Peter in
eucharistical vestments. There is a representation of the souls
under the altar. Below are devils torturing souls in cauldrons of
brimstone. The evangelistic symbols are also represented.
In a fresco at Beverstone, Gloucestershire, our Saviour is
represented on the Cross, with blood flowing from His side into a
chalice. (See App. I.) There are remains also of a crucifixion in
fresco, in the exquisite, but desecrated chapel of Prior Crauden, in
the Deanery, Ely. On the Iconostasis of the Greco-Russian Church,
all the three positions are to be found.
In stained glass, the Crucifixion generally supplies the place of
any other representation of the Saviour. Brasses occasionally, as a
very curious one in Cobham, Surrey, represent His nativity or
epiphany: but most commonly the Crucifixion, or a Trinity.
There can be no doubt, that many of the most graphic pictures in our
old poets owed their origin to the then undestroyed fresco paintings
of churches. Some painting, like that above described, of hell, very
probably suggested the noble lines of Spenser (i. ix. 50. 6):
He showed him painted in a table plaine.
The damned ghosts that doe in torments waile.
And thousand feends that doe them endless paine
With fire and brimstone, which for ever shall remaine.
Who can estimate the effect of such pictorial representations on the
minds of our ancestors? or the good which might be the result, if
our churches were again frescoed with similar subjects, wrought with
the genius and Catholic feeling of an Overbeck or Cornelius?]
[End footnote]
And because John Baptist pointed to Him, saying, 'Behold the Lamb of
God,' [Footnote 257] therefore some represented Christ under the form
of a lamb.
[Footnote 257: S. John i, 29.]
{47}
But because the light passeth away, and because Christ is very man,
therefore, saith Adrian, Pope, He must be represented in the form of a
man. A holy lamb must not be depicted on the cross, as a principal
object: but there is no let when Christ hath been represented as a
man, to paint a lamb in a lower or less prominent part of the picture:
since He is the true Lamb which 'taketh away the sins of the world.'
In these and divers other manners is the image of the Saviour painted,
on account of diversity of significations.