SECTOR AND TRENCH DUTIES
I. Plan of Defense
=Definition.= The Plan of Defense contains all the different duties
necessary to make a proper defense of the position. The execution of
these duties is the execution of the Plan of Defense, which follows
logically and depends directly upon the Plan of Organization.
=Principles of the Plan of Defense.= (_a_) The most important principle
of organization of a position is the =disposition of troops in depth=.
It is necessary to have plenty of support and reserve units disposed one
behind the other. Only one-sixth to one-third of a garrison in the
support point of the first line remains in the trenches for the purpose
of observation and security. The rest remain in the rear as a reserve
for reinforcements or counterattacks.
(_b_) Each trench, each nest of resistance, each area of the ground,
must have a responsible leader. =The garrison of any such area must
never leave the ground allotted to its defense under any conditions of
battle.= The defense must be carried out by this garrison on the lines
originally laid out. A leader is not allowed to fall back on troops in
his rear or to take up a better position. The troops in depth are placed
there for the purpose of reinforcements for the lines in front.
(_c_) =Each part of a position that is lost to the enemy must be
immediately retaken by a counterattack= carried out by troops held in
reserve. The first line is retaken by reserve troops in the support
line, and similarly, if the support line is lost, it must be retaken by
reserve troops held in the third line. If all three lines are captured,
an attempt must be made to retake the third line by the reserve troops
of the sector.
=Form of Plan of Defense.= In each division of the position from front
to rear there must be a Plan of Defense. This plan always contains the
five following elements:
1. Directions of the probable attacks.
2. Defense of the first line, or line of resistance.
The outline of the first line.
Location and mission of the troops in the first line.
Employment of machine guns.
3. Counterattacks.
Units which are used for the purpose.
Directions or trenches to be used in the counterattack.
Depots of grenades and sandbags for the counterattack.
4. Artillery support.
Composition of this artillery.
Establishing of the front of barrage.
Infantry-artillery liaison.
5. Liaisons and supply during the hostile attack.
Details of Trench Duty
=Guard Duties (Security).= Security is obtained by the use of sentinels
and patrols.
=Sentinels= must not be confused with observers, watchers, or snipers.
Observers belong to the information service of the sector and are not on
duty at night. Snipers operate only in the daytime. The watchers of the
different lines give the alarm in case of an attack, and are on duty
both day and night. Sentinels are posted in the first line or in
advanced posts. Their work and number will depend upon the proximity of
the enemy, the tactical situation, and above all upon the conditions of
the wire entanglements out in front.
At night, one sentinel is posted, say, for example, every 10 yards in
the fire trench of the first line. During the day, only enough sentinels
are posted so that all parts of “No Man’s Land” can be observed. This
will allow a maximum number of men to rest.
In the firing line, the sentinels work in three reliefs. When not on
guard duty, they sleep. The remainder of the garrison in the cover
trench, however, are available for work, for patrols, and to furnish
supply parties. Sentinels should have their rifles resting on the
parapet close at hand, ready to fire at a moment’s notice.
By day, the sentinels use a periscope or observe through a loophole.
This practice is, however, strictly prohibited at night, when a,
sentinel must observe over the parapet. As little challenging as
possible is done, and then only in a very low tone.
=Reconnoitering Patrols= are the best means for security against attack.
Every night the commanders of the support points or the centers of
resistance send out patrols in front of the firing line. The strength of
a patrol must be sufficient to carry back a wounded man, _i. e._, the
number should be five, six, or more. The success of a patrol depends
entirely upon the leader. He must be clever, daring, and observant, and
the rest of the patrol is simply his bodyguard. He himself must observe
the objective of the mission of the patrol.
Patrols should never be sent out without definite orders as to their
mission. Such may be, for example, a reconnaissance of the enemy’s
lines, to discover if the enemy has cut passages in his wire belt
preparatory to an attack, to examine their own wire entanglements, etc.
The route of the patrol must be exactly determined; also the hour of
departure and return designated. Word is passed along the line of
sentinels that a patrol is out in front with the necessary information
about the same. The preparation for a night patrol must be made during
daylight.
=Officer of the Watch.= In the firing line the company commander
arranges a roster of his officers for duty as officer of the watch. Also
in each platoon the platoon commander will detail a N. C. O. of the
watch. The officer of the watch is responsible for the duties of
observation and security, and is especially responsible for the giving
of the alarm in case of an attack and consequently for the calling of
the artillery barrage by use of rockets, signals, etc.
=Standing to Arms.= It is of the greatest importance that the troops in
the first line are thoroughly trained in taking their positions when the
alarm is given as quickly as possible, without confusion. The alarm is
often given for practice in order to ascertain the amount of time it
will take the men to reach their places in the firing line.
The command “Stand to” is usually given one hour before daylight and one
hour before dark. At this time the company commanders arrange for
inspection of arms, ammunition, and equipment by the platoon commanders.
=Observers’ Duties.= Every effort should be made to obtain information
of the enemy, his trenches, and his wire entanglements. Any alteration
in the enemy’s lines must immediately be reported. The importance of
forwarding such information must be impressed upon all ranks. This duty
is carried out by observers.
All men of the company are used as sentinels in the first line or as
watchers in other lines, but not all are observers. Men who are to act
as observers receive special training. A man to become an observer must
have a special capacity for this task.
Each platoon should have at least six such observers, enough for proper
reliefs.
The observers are placed:
1. In each company the observers are distributed in a number of
observation posts properly camouflaged so as not to be discovered by the
enemy. These posts may be in advance of the firing line, in the firing
line, or at any point within the position that has a wide view of the
front. The observers employ periscopes or field glasses. Everything of
note that is observed is recorded and from these data the captain makes
out his daily observation report.
2. Also in the sector there are 2 or 3 observatories from which the
information is turned in directly to the colonel. These posts must be
properly concealed and protected. In each one of these we find the
following:
(_a_) Regulations posted that give the personnel, tour of duty, sector
of observation, direction to special points of interest, and certain
precautionary measures.
(_b_) Specially prepared blank forms upon which to record information
gained by observation.
(_c_) Field glasses, maps and sketches, and panoramic views of the
ground in front, both visible and invisible from the observation posts.
(_d_) A telephone connecting the post with the nearest command post
(center of resistance or sector).
The observers in these posts are directly under command of the
intelligence officers of the regiment and are of a special personnel.
They must be thoroughly familiar with the regulations of the posts,
maps, panorama, etc.
The intelligence officer collects and coordinates all information
gathered in the sector. Every morning he turns in a consolidated report
made up from the information in the captains’ daily reports and from the
records of the sector observatories. (In order to avoid confusion of the
different daily reports these information records are kept on two
different colored blanks, red and blue alternating each day.)
The report of the intelligence officer is signed by the colonel and sent
on to the brigade headquarters. From the data of his complete report the
intelligence officer very often must verify certain information by the
use of patrols. For this purpose he makes a request upon the colonel for
special patrols.
Information is gathered from both airplanes and ground observatories.
From ground observatories it is attempted to obtain the following data;
1. To ascertain the intentions of the enemy.
2. To properly prosecute attrition of the enemy’s works.
=Attrition.= By the word attrition in fighting is meant the gradual
destruction of the enemy’s morale and strength, and demolition, little
by little, of the enemy’s position. Trench warfare is not a rest or
simply a time for guard duty. It is a phase of the battle in which you
must do as much damage to the enemy as possible.
This work will also keep up the offensive spirit. For this purpose
different means are used:
(_a_) Sniping: Each company in the first line uses its best shots as
snipers. A sniper must be a good observer and he must depend upon his
keen eye for evidences of the enemy, such as smoke of cigarette or the
glint of a bayonet, giving proof of the presence of an enemy. Especially
during hostile shelling will a too curious enemy come to his loopholes
to observe the effect of the same. This is the sniper’s chance.
In each center of resistance the snipers are placed under the command of
a sniping officer. He makes the rounds of the snipers’ posts once or
twice a day, and submits a daily report containing known casualties of
the enemy, location of the number of snipers’ posts, telescope rifles,
fixed rifles, and rifle batteries.
(_b_) Infantry Weapons: Besides sniping, all the other infantry weapons
are used to assist attrition of the enemy. Hand and rifle grenades are
thrown on special points of the hostile line. A battery of hand or rifle
grenadiers properly disposed can very often carry out a concentrated
surprise fire on an enemy’s salient or advanced post. Automatic and
machine guns are always used for this purpose and especially at night.
They are trained on supply routes, road junctions, etc., and by use of
sudden bursts of fire at irregular intervals they will compel the
enemy’s supply parties to continue their transportation in the boyaux
instead of on the open ground.
The use of indirect machine gun fire is very depressing to the enemy.
Such judicious employment of machine guns is sometimes more effective
than severe artillery shelling.
The 37 mm. gun, which is also an infantry weapon, is used principally
against hostile machine gun emplacements. The location of this gun must
be constantly changed.
(_c_) Use of Artillery Weapons: Besides furnishing barrage fire against
hostile attacks, the artillery can be called upon for surprise fire on
working parties, harassing fire during the night against supply parties
and their routes, and also for reply fire against hostile shelling.
Trench mortars and other engines keep the enemy as uncomfortable as
possible at all times.
(_d_) Fighting Patrols and Raids: Fighting patrols and raids are used
with the express purpose of causing loss and damage to the enemy. This
is accomplished by engaging the enemy’s patrol and working parties or by
raiding his saps, listening posts, or trenches. Such operations must
not, however, degenerate into frivolous local fighting, causing loss of
men and waste of artillery ammunition.
=Work.= Daily trench work consists of (1) maintenance and (2) new
construction.
(_a_) Maintenance: The daily work of maintaining the elements of the
position is considerable, and its importance often escapes those
responsible for the same. They are:
Repair of parapets, boyaux, and shelters damaged by bombardment, water,
or frost.
Replacing or completing accessory defenses, revetments, ammunition
recesses, emplacement of machine guns, observation posts, depots, etc.
Cleaning and Draining of Trenches and Boyaux: The garrison of each area
is responsible for their own maintenance work, which is done usually
during daylight hours. Sometimes during severe bombardments this repair
and maintenance work becomes too great for the garrison and workmen have
to be called in to help.
(_b_) New Construction: New elements of the position are constructed in
carrying out the Plan of Organization. These are usually carried out at
night. This work is carried out by troops in the doubling trench, the
support line, or detachments of workmen from the reserve of the sector.
There may also be special parties from the headquarters detachment of
pioneers or of the engineer battalion of the brigade.
For all these special works the personnel for whom they are built must
be present during the construction to furnish necessary information and
for inspection. A machine gun crew helps in building its emplacement;
the intelligence officer directs the construction of his observatories.
The medical officer present during the work on the medical aid station;
the telephone officer superintends the establishment of his telephone
exchange, etc.
The battalion commander is responsible for all the work done in his
center of resistance, and in conjunction with the sector leader draws up
a time-table for the work.
All this work must be continued by each succeeding relief. When a new
unit takes its turn in the trenches the orders and plans of new works
are turned over to its commander.
=Arms, Equipment, and Ammunition.= Full equipment will always be worn in
the firing trench, except the haversack, water bottle, and entrenching
tool. In the support and reserve trenches the equipment to be worn is
subject to the will of the sector commander. Every man will always carry
a gas mask in any part of the position and even as far to the rear as
ten miles.
The men in the firing line and in the doubling trenches will at all
times be in possession of their rifles and bayonets. The rifles of men
in the support and reserve trenches may be kept in protected racks in
the same shelter as the men.
All rifles must be kept scrupulously clean at all times.
Ammunition is protected from bad weather by being placed in boxes
located in the sides of the trenches.
Ten to twenty hand grenades are placed in a sandbag. These are usually
kept at the depot and carried in these quantities for the supply of the
fire trench in combat. One or two of such sandbags are kept at a bombing
post.
Special care must be taken to keep rockets in good condition. Supplies
are kept in the fire line (platoon leaders’ posts, observations) and at
points in the rear (in the observatories or different command posts or
in the observation posts of the information service).
=Depots and Supply.= (_a_) Depots:—There should be one general depot in
each area located near the command post of the chief of area. However,
in order to facilitate work in the first line the platoon leaders may
establish near their post a small depot of tools and material being used
for the time being. The importance of the depot depends upon the area it
is to supply. For example, the depot of the garrison of a support point
in the first line would contain:
20,000 cartridges
1,000 hand grenades
400 rifle grenades
100 each—signal and illuminating rockets
60 to 70 gas masks
100 shovels
100 picks
Sandbags, planks, barbed wire, etc.
The depot at the center of resistance contains the same articles but in
greater number, also telephone wire, blankets, and three days’ rations
of food.
The main depot of the position, however, is the one near the command
post of the leader of the sector. It is divided into three parts:
1. Ammunition and rocket signals (Ordnance Service).
2. Material of every sort (Engineer Service).
3. Food and clothing (Quartermaster Service).
The different services in the rear of the position maintain the supplies
of the sector depot. The amount of ammunition to be carried is fixed by
orders from the general and this amount must be strictly maintained.
[Illustration: _Organization of Supply System._]
(_b_) Requests for Supplies: Each morning the chiefs of areas send in a
request for material required for the next night’s work. All these
requests in a sector are grouped by a staff officer under the heads of
the three different services. Along with each request must go the
information showing necessity for same. Emergency requests are made by
telephone. The officer making request for material must be on hand to
receive and check the same upon delivery.
(_c_) Supply Parties: The supply of the depot is usually made with
special detachments taken from the support or reserve companies. If it
is necessary to take men from the front trenches for this purpose, no
more than 10% can be taken away from these trenches at the same time.
Complete units will be used as supply parties with their leader if
possible. Upon each battalion in a C. of R. and upon each regimental
reserve falls part of the responsibility of distributing supplies in the
rear of the sector. The unloading or rendezvous points are disposed
along what is called the supply line, usually on a road, path, ravine,
behind a hill, etc. Supply parties sent out at night to these points
make as little noise as possible. They return along a well-picketed
path, usually running along one of the central boyaux. Transportation is
thus carried in the open ground as far as possible, usually to the
support line.
When proper protection is possible, pack trains are used to carry
supplies right through the distributing point and up to the depots of
the sector.
(_d_) Cooking: The battalion kitchens are located behind the sector in a
protected emplacement. Steps must be taken to ensure as little smoke as
possible being seen from them. At night each platoon sends a ration
party to the kitchen.
When the regiment has rolling kitchens, these are brought up part of the
way towards the sector where they meet the ration party. Arrangements
should be made to always have, if possible, some hot soup or drink
available for the men between midnight and 4 a. m.
(_a_) Activities of the Troops: Sector duties include a considerable
amount of work, and are not only useful from a tactical point of view,
but are also indispensable for the moral and physical welfare of the
troops. Men without occupation in the trenches stagnate, grow slack, and
think only of the time when their relief will arrive. Such troops lose
their aggressiveness, so that when the time for the offensive arrives
they have no confidence and cannot deliver the proper blow.
Good practice to obtain fruitful results is the employment of time as
follows: In each company the captain prepares a daily schedule of duties
in which he allots the different services of the strong point: hours of
“standing to” and inspection, of sending ration and supply parties, time
of rest, of cleaning arms, equipment, and clothing, time of trench work,
etc. This schedule is communicated daily to each platoon at a regular
hour.
(_b_) Discipline in the Trenches:—Life in the trenches is not especially
dangerous when all precautions are observed. In the presence of an alert
enemy, every faulty move of disposition receives its punishment, such as
the improper concealment of a movement, poorly hidden trench work, or
useless noise in the firing line. Silence is one of the essential rules
of the trench. Silence in a sector in which troops are properly
disciplined enables the chief to rapidly transmit his orders and the men
to accomplish same without delay.
Daily Reports:—In each sector, from the captain up, the different
commanders must furnish a daily report. These are co-ordinated in the
headquarters of the sector commander, and afterwards sent to the
division headquarters.
(_a_) Telephone Reports:—
Night report. 5 a. m. to 7 a. m.
Day report. 3 p. m. to 5 p. m.
These reports contain the main events of the time covered. Similar
messages are sent at any time important events occur, such as heavy
shelling, important information of the enemy, activities in the air,
etc.
(_b_) Written Reports:—The daily morning written reports contain the
following paragraphs.
1. General aspect of the sector.
2. Important events of the day.
(The events must be reported in detail, for example: A report of
shelling must contain the details as to the area bombarded, the caliber
of the gun used, and the time and direction of same, etc.)
3. Casualties (wounded, killed, and missing).
4. Consumption of ammunition.
5. Requests for miscellaneous equipment and material.
This report is signed by the chiefs of the area responsible for the
information in the report. Along with this official report is added a
second written report with the following paragraphs:
1. Request for materials for the night.
2. Observation and information reports (to the Intelligence Officer).
3. Report of all the work done in the sector, including time schedule of
the center of resistance.
Use of Infantry and Artillery Weapons, and Liaison
=Machine Guns.= The tactical use and location of machine guns in the
sector depends upon the following two points:
(_a_) Machine gun emplacements must be thoroughly concealed and during
the bombardment the M. G. itself is kept under cover in a dugout.
Previous to an attack of the enemy, his artillery searches the position
for the destruction of the machine guns and their emplacements, because
they are the most powerful weapons of the defense.
If invisible casemates can be constructed this practice is good. The
best method is, however, to prepare several emplacements, properly
camouflaged, with a deep dugout near at hand for the protection of the
M. G. and its crew. This shelter must be located at such a point that
the M. G. can be quickly brought out to any one of its emplacements when
the attack develops. These emplacements usually are simple pits located
in front of the trench and connected with the dugout by a gallery. When
emplacements are destroyed by hostile artillery fire, or when they are
not possible, machine guns are pushed into shell holes or operated on
the open ground. Shell holes out in front give the best service as
emplacements for a daring M. G. crew. The French success at Verdun
depended to a great extent upon the judicious use of shell holes for M.
G. flanking fire.
(_b_) Machine guns are not only located in the first line, but are
disposed throughout the interior of the position. The hostile artillery
may entirely destroy the first line of defenses, but the proper
disposition of machine guns for flanking fire in the interior lines will
prevent the enemy’s progress after penetrating the position. Machine
guns are so located in the position as to cover all the space between
the different lines with flanking fire. Usually three pickets define the
sector to be covered by any one M. G., one at the M. G. and two limiting
its sector of fire.
In a sector, ⅓ of the machine guns are located in, or near the first
line, ⅓ is disposed of in the support line or in the redoubt. The last ⅓
is assigned to the third line. In each line machine guns are under the
command of the chief of the area.
As a general rule, in the first line, automatic-machine rifles, because
of their mobility, are used instead of machine guns.
Standing orders are, that M. G. crews will never surrender, but fight to
the last man. Often the tenacity of a M. G. crew has permitted the
retaking of an area otherwise lost.
=Trench Mortars.= In each sector there are located a certain number of
trench mortars. These are efficient weapons, but must be used with care,
because they will nearly always draw concentrated artillery fire.
They are used for the destruction of special points in the enemy’s lines
that the artillery cannot reach.
They are employed in the preparation for an offensive against the
enemy’s first line, either for an attack or for a raid. They are used
for reply fire against enemy’s trench mortars.
They participate in establishing barrages.
The efficiency of trench mortars cannot be overestimated, but at the
same time, great precaution must be taken in their use and concealment.
The personnel required to serve the light trench mortars are taken from
the garrison of the sector and belong to a special headquarters unit, a
platoon of bombardiers.
The large trench mortars are commanded by an artillery officer who keeps
himself constantly in liaison with the commander of the center of
resistance. He consults the latter on the location of his mortars and
especially upon their use. He also reports to the commander of the
center of resistance all orders he receives from his artillery chief.
This artillery officer always works in co-operation with the chief of
his area, who in turn gives him all necessary information and help.
Especially does the mortar commander require help for the supply of
ammunition.
Artillery Support in a Sector
=Composition of the Artillery Support.= The light artillery of this
sector is not directly under the command of the Division Commander.
The Commanding Officer of the light artillery, usually a Colonel, in
cooperation with the chief of the sector, divides it into different
parts, assigning one to each of the centers of resistance. This
artillery is called support artillery. As we shall see later this
practice is usually the same in the offensive.
The amount of artillery allotted as support depends upon the tactical
situation, in other words, the activity of the enemy.
In the Verdun and Champagne offensives the disposition of light
artillery was the same in principle as that for the defensive, that is
to say, one troop of artillery consisting of 3 batteries was assigned to
each infantry battalion.
The general use of this artillery, is:
(_a_) To protect the infantry with barrage fire.
(_b_) Prosecution of destruction of the enemy’s personnel and works.
=Tactical Liaison between Infantry and Orderly.= To carry out its
functions, the artillery support must be in perfect liaison with the
infantry, and only when this is done is co-operation of the two arms
possible. This liaison is obtained by the following five means:
(_a_) Organization of Leadership:—For the full co-operation of the
infantry and artillery, the latter is not kept entirely independent, but
is divided and assigned to infantry unit. Each chief of sector and each
chief of center of resistance knows what artillery must support him if
he needs it. The commander of the artillery support is not exactly under
the command of the infantry chief of area, but he is at the latter’s
disposal for certain calls for support fire. The proper co-operation of
these two officers will give efficient results.
(_b_) Relation between Artillery and Infantry Commanders:—The best of
relations must be established between the artillery and infantry
commanders. Usually, it is not possible to locate the commanding posts
of the two officers close together. Each has his area or unit to command
and for that purpose must be located for the proper control of the same.
The support artillery commander, however, should make frequent visits to
the infantry leader and his area. He should also send his subordinate
artillery officers into the infantry area to become acquainted with the
first line, the conditions in “No Man’s Land,” the enemy’s lines, and to
gather all the information possible from the infantry officers in the
trenches. Everything should be done to foster good relations between the
infantry and their support artillery and this is best done by frequent
visits of the artillery officers to the infantry trenches to gather
information for artillery data.
(_c_) Communication of Orders:—It is necessary that the orders received
by the infantry commander be communicated in whole or in part to the
artillery commander, and vice versa. For instance, if the chief of area
receives orders to send out a fighting patrol or a raid, this
information is sent to the artillery commander, who, in turn, sends back
his plan of action. Similarly, when the artillery commander expects to
carry out special fires not called for by the infantry, such as
destructive shelling, harassing fires, etc., he should first notify his
infantry chief of area.
Similarly, any useful information picked up, either by the infantry or
artillery, must be communicated to the other. The daily report of the
chief of sector and the observation report of the Intelligence Officer
are sent direct to the commander of the artillery support. Valuable
information obtained at the artillery observation posts is sent to the
infantry.
(_d_) Means of Communication:—The principal of the organization of the
different means of communication is such as to assure the best liaison
between the two arms. Telephone lines, searchlight signals, runners,
etc., are established directly between a unit of infantry and its
artillery support. This is to avoid loss of time and useless
interruption between leaders.
[Illustration]
(_e_) Detachments for Liaison and Observation:—For more efficient
liaison between the artillery and the infantry, usually a certain number
of artillerymen are sent from the group of the artillery Support to the
infantry in their area. Usually a special detachment of artillerymen is
sent. This detachment is made up of one officer, chief of the
detachment, who is sent to the chief of sector, one N. C. O. to each
chief of a center of resistance, the rest as telephone operators and
artillery orderlies. This disposition of artillerymen in the infantry
area is obligatory for an attack, but it is so practical that it is now
employed in the sector organization.
The task of these artillery officers or N. C. O. is:—
(1) To control all means of communication with the batteries of the
artillery support.
(2) To transmit to the artillery the different calls for fire, and in
technical terms to give the proper data for the laying of the pieces on
the target, and the kind of fire required.
=Use of Artillery Support.= Different kinds of fire are executed by the
artillery support. The most important is the barrage.
=Barrage.= Purpose:—The purpose of a barrage is to stop a hostile attack
before it can get started, or to hinder enemies’ reinforcements or
reserve troops from coming forward.
Form:—The barrage is a curtain of fire let down in “No Man’s Land” as
close in front of your first line as possible without loss to your own
garrison. This will be about 150 or 200 yards to the front, between the
two lines of trenches.
[Illustration: LOCATION OF ARTILLERY FOR BARRAGE]
Front of the Barrage:—The barrage has real value only if it is
impassible. This will be if the density of the fire is so great that the
danger zones of the explosions of the individual shells overlap each
other. The allotting of one troop of artillery, 12 guns, for an infantry
battalion is quite sufficient for this purpose if the front of the
battalion does not exceed the average length of from 400 to 600 yards.
Duration:—The barrage is a burst of fire which lasts from six to ten
minutes. At the beginning the fire is very rapid and towards the end
becomes slower. For instance, for the first six minutes the fire may be
six rounds per gun and in the last four minutes, say, four rounds per
gun. Successive barrages can be carried out depending upon the needs of
the infantry.
Calling for the Barrage:—Barrage fire, for the best results, must open
up at the moment the hostile attack begins. To accomplish this the call
for the barrage must be made by an observer in the first line. For this
reason every officer in the first line has the authority to call for the
barrage. The barrage is the only fire that can be called for
automatically by signal.
The kind and color of the rocket signifies the type of barrage required
and the front it is to cover. In order to avoid mistakes this rocket
signal is repeated from some point farther to the rear, usually at the
observatories of the command post of the center of resistance, or of the
sector. Rocket signals are repeated until the barrage fire opens.
Confirmation of the barrage is given by telephone, if possible. However,
at the first signal rocket the artillery is required to open up the
barrage fire as quickly as possible without waiting for confirmation.
Barrage fire is at the disposal of the infantry and cannot be refused by
the commander of the artillery, whether it is justified or not.
=Other Kinds of Artillery Fires.= The commanders of the center of
resistance or of the sector may call on the artillery support for other
fires besides the barrage, such as:
Reprisal fire on the enemy’s lines.
Reply fire to hostile shelling.
Surprise fire on supply attachments or working parties.
Destruction fire on special points.
All these fires are called for by telephone, but do not follow
automatically like the barrage fire. The artillery commander, in such
case, can use a certain amount of discretion whether these fires should
be carried out or not. Last of all there is the counter-preparation
fire, which is a strong shelling of the enemy’s position. It is carried
out as a reply to a methodical bombardment of the enemy preliminary to
his offensive. It is the best means to prevent a hostile attack. If this
fire is well executed the enemy’s assault is “killed in the egg” as the
French expression has it.
=Liaison in the Sector.=
(_a_) Telephone: There are two different systems of telephones.
First, there is the system connecting the infantry command posts,
support points, centers of resistance, sector, and division
headquarters, with the command posts of the artillery protecting the
different infantry areas. These are direct lines between the command
posts and the groups of support artillery. Also, this system connects
the command post with observatories, depots, medical aid stations,
kitchens, etc.
Secondly, there is the system connecting the chief of artillery with his
subordinate commanders, the artillery observation posts, and the
artillery dumps. In this same system the artillery command posts are
again connected with the infantry units which they are to support.
Special lines are run by the artillery to the officer and N. C. O. of
the artillery attachment of liaison in the infantry areas.
[Illustration: _Telephone Liaison._]
Consequently, the liaison between the artillery and the infantry is
doubly provided for in these two systems.
The lines of connection between the infantry and the artillery must be
separate from those within the infantry area and those between the
artillery commander and his subordinate units.
Confidential information should never be telephoned except in cipher.
Conventional designations are employed to call the different posts.
Strict regulations are maintained as to who should use the telephone and
for what purposes.
The weak point of a telephone system is that it is often broken by
bombardment or earth-slides. This can be partially remedied by
constructing as few direct lines as possible, by burying the wires in
the bottom of the boyaux, and by executing repairs as quickly as
possible.
(_b_) Wireless and Ground Telegraphy: The battalions in the first line
have ground telegraph apparatus connecting them with the regimental
headquarters, and these, in turn, can communicate with the general
headquarters by wireless. This means of communication is only employed
when the telephone cannot be used.
(_c_) Signalling: It is difficult to establish signal communication
within the sector without being seen by the enemy. However, at night
with flashlights it is possible, especially in hilly country, to
communicate from front to rear within the position. The receiving post
should be able to certify received messages. When practicable,
communications should be established between the command post of the
center of resistance and the sector command posts, and from the latter
post to the artillery. This method of liaison is organized as a
duplicating means or as a temporary substitute for the telephone.
(_d_) Rockets: Signal rockets are used to communicate with the rear.
Different forms and colors of rockets are used to signify different
things. As we have seen, the most important use of the rocket is to
signal for barrage fire. It is often necessary to relay a rocket signal
from a second position in the rear to make absolutely sure that it
reaches the artillery support.
Signal rockets are also used to communicate with aëroplanes, but this
means is usually only employed during an attack.
(_e_) Runners: The liaison established with runners is best of all, from
the point of view that it usually never fails. During heavy shelling it
is the only sure means of communication.
[Illustration: _Example of a Chain of Runners._]
The ordinary messengers or orderlies are not used as runners. A chain of
trained runners is used, located in a little post, shelters, or shell
holes; Each post contains three runners, their distance being from 150
to 300 yards apart. Each runner is selected from the unit located near
the next post in the chain, that is, the one to which he is to run.
Often the divisional cavalry furnish these runners.
The chain of runners is under the command of a N. C. O. who is
responsible for its efficiency. He has an important task on his hands.
He must assure himself that every runner knows, not only his two
neighboring posts, but also the general direction of the chain. He must
change disabled runners and fill gaps in his chain. It becomes his duty
to instill into the runners the importance of their duty.
(_f_) Carrier Pigeons: Carrier pigeons are the last means of
communication. They have been found to give excellent service during
heavy shelling or gas attacks. They do not fly very easily at night.
Each command post of a center of resistance in the first line has a
pigeon post. These consist of two reliefs of men, four pigeons, and the
necessary equipment and food. The pigeons themselves have to be relieved
every few days. The care given to the birds at the command posts must
not be as good as that at the dovecot in the rear, so that when they are
released they will return immediately to the latter place, from where
the message is delivered to its proper destination.
Instructions for Sentinel, Watcher, and Observer
=Sentinel.= A sentinel is a soldier placed in the first line or in an
advanced post for the purpose of security.
The duty of the sentinel is to watch and guard against hostile attack
and to warn the chief of the platoon of every action of the enemy in “No
Man’s Land.”
At night, one sentinel is posted about every ten yards in the firing
trench. During the day, only a sufficient number are posted to assure
that all parts of the enemy’s line and “No Man’s Land” are observed.
Sentinels are relieved every two hours except under bad weather
conditions when the length of the tour of duty is reduced. Every
sentinel is regularly posted by a non-commissioned officer who explains
to him his duties and ascertains that both the sentinel and his relief
are aware of the position of the platoon commanders and of the
sentinels, on either side.
At night, the sentinels must observe over the parapet. As little
challenging as possible is done and then only in a very low voice. If
the sentinel receives no answer to his challenge, he shoots, thus giving
the alarm. During the day, the sentinel uses a periscope or observes
through a loophole.
The sentinel always has the bayonet fixed on his rifle, which is loaded
and ready for use. He must be on the alert for every noise, and for this
reason he is not allowed to wear any ear covering.
Sentinels must be informed of the sending out of patrols, the
approximate hour of departure and return, and the general direction that
the patrol is to follow.
=Watcher.= Each platoon in the trenches, from the first line to the
rear, must have some watchers, whose duty it is to give the alarm both
day and night against attack. These watchers do not observe the enemy as
do the sentinels. They walk in the trench in which the platoon is
placed, especially at the entrance of the dugouts or shelters occupied
by this platoon. When they hear a signal of alarm given by a sentinel or
by a messenger, they wake the platoon as quickly as possible. In
general, they give to the chief of the platoon all the information that
they have obtained during the time of their duty. When an officer or
private from another sector enters the trench, it is the duty of the
watchers to ascertain the purpose of his visit. Watchers receive special
orders to give the alarm against a gas attack, and must sound the alarm
gongs and bells for this purpose.
The watcher may have his rifle, without bayonet, resting on the side of
the trench at the entrance of a dugout.
=Observer.= The observers are specially trained men whose duty is to
observe the hostile position and to gain all the information that they
can obtain of the enemy’s activities.
Each man in the company can be used as a sentinel or as a watcher, but
not all as observers. To become an observer, a man must have a special
capacity for this task. Each platoon should have at least six such
observers of proper qualification; good eyesight and hearing, patient,
and a good shot. They are relieved every two hours. Observation duty is
carried out in daylight.
The observers are of two kinds:
(1) In each company the platoon observers are distributed in a number of
observation posts especially chosen for this purpose. These posts are
located in the support point of the company which may be in advance of
the firing line, in the firing line, or in any point within the position
that has a wide view of the front. These observers employ periscopes or
field glasses. Everything of note that is observed is recorded and from
this data the captain makes out his daily observation report.
(2) Also, in the sector, there are special observatories belonging to
the headquarters of the regiment, under the command of the intelligence
officer of the sector. There are usually two or three observatories,
from which the information is transmitted directly to the colonel. These
observatories are furnished with field glasses, maps, and telephones.
In general, all observers are required to obtain all possible
information of the enemy, to record all modifications of the hostile
position in its works and wire entanglements, all the movements that
they can observe, all working parties that they can discover. Also, they
receive special orders for the cases they must report to the commander,
as for instance: shelling of the position by artillery or trench
mortars, gas attacks, signal rockets fired in the front line, activities
of the aviation services, whether of friend or enemy.