FORM IV
SPRING
METHODS OF IMPROVING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS
The study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of their
beauties and a desire to have them growing about. Many of our native
trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful as
some that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen. A great
work remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best native
species. Up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted with
them in their own natural habitat; the next step should be to use them
in covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and home
grounds, in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and bare
walls, to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways.
Begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring. These may be
repairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from stray
animals, the cleaning up of the yards, the gathering of stones which may
be used in making a rockery, the planting of trees along the sides and
front of the grounds--a double row of evergreens to overcome a cold
northern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features, the
laying out of a walk or drive with borders, flower beds, or shrubs in
little clumps.
Plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in the
school-room. Many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions. Plans
can be worked out on the black-board with the pupils. It will take years
to complete such a plan, but the pupils should have a part in making the
plan as well as in carrying it out. The aim should be to encourage the
use of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity, wherewith
to produce harmony and pleasing natural effects.
Comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and natural
design. In the school grounds the outdoor games must also be provided
for and sufficient room allowed.
Such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils, if wisely directed,
are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forth
the hearty co-operation of the trustees.
It is not well to attempt too much in one year. It is better to do a
small amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition.
MAKING AND CARE OF A LAWN
The soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees. At first it
should be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout the
summer, to kill the weeds and make it fine and level. A thick seeding of
lawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightly
in. All levelling and preparation must have been done the previous
season.
Coarse grasses, such as timothy, should not be used on a lawn. Red top
and Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and, if white clover is
desired, add about half as much white Dutch clover seed as red top. If
the soil has been prepared as above, there is no need to use a foster
crop of oats or barley, as is done in seeding down meadows. Roll the
lawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surface
dries. Shortly after the grass appears, begin to run the lawn-mower over
it, so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold.
Watering is dangerous, unless carefully and regularly done during the
summer, the evening being the best time. Merely wetting the surface by
sprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out.
Regular mowing and rolling are more important.
REFERENCES
Parsons: _How to Plan the Home Grounds._ Doubleday. $1.00
Waugh: _The Landscape Beautiful._ Judd. $2.00
Department of Education: _Improvement of School Grounds._
SOIL STUDIES
WEIGHT
Using a balance, compare weights of equal-sized boxes of different
soils, dried and powdered fine. Note the comparative lightness of humus.
Weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field, from this compute (1)
the weight of a cubic foot of such soil, (2) the weight of the soil to
the depth of a foot in a ten-acre field.
Repeat the experiment, making it an exercise in percentage.
Fill two glass tubes (lamp chimneys will do), one with finely powdered
clay, the other with sand. Set the tubes in a pan containing water. Note
the rise of the water due to capillarity. Through which soil does it
rise faster? Farther? Try with other soils. Try with fine soil and also
with the same soil in a lumpy condition. From this give a reason (1)
for tilling soil, (2) for rolling after seeding.
SUBSOILS
Procure samples of soil from different depths, four inches, eight
inches, twelve inches, sixteen inches, etc. Note how the soil changes in
colour and texture. In which do plants succeed best? In most fields the
richest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches; the
portion below this is called subsoil. This extends to the underlying
rock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lighter
colour, poorer texture, and smaller supply of available plant food. The
difference is due largely to the absence of humus. The character of the
subsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil. A
layer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides natural
drainage, but if it be too deep, it may allow the water to run away
rapidly, carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants. A
hard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and too
dry in droughts, because of the small amount of water absorbed. Such a
soil is benefited by under-draining. A deep and absorptive subsoil
returns water to the surface, by capillary action, as it is needed. The
subsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food, which becomes
gradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it. Pupils
should find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields at
home and its effect on the fertility of the field.
FERTILIZERS
Along with water, the roots take up from the soil various substances
that are essential to their healthy growth. Potash, phosphoric acid,
nitrogen, calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and iron are needed by plants,
but the first three are particularly important. If land is to yield good
crops year after year, it must be fertilized, that is, there must be
added chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods. Land becomes
poor from two causes: the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted, and
poisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriously
on those of the next season. Rotating crops will improve both conditions
for a while, but eventually the soil will require treatment.
Humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of the
poisonous excretions. It is added as barn-yard manure, leaves, or as a
green crop ploughed in.
The chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda, bone meal,
sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, lime, ashes, cotton-seed meal,
dried blood, super-phosphate, rock phosphate, and basic clay.
EXPERIMENTS:
1. Sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result when
no fertilizer is used. Sow wheat on another plot, but use good manure.
2. Try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots, leaving
some without treatment.
3. Examine the roots of clover, peas, or beans, and look for nodules.
These show the presence of bacteria, which convert the atmospheric
nitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it. Scientific farmers
have learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs. A
crop of peas or clover may produce the same result.
4. Observe Nature's method of supplying soil with humus.
SOIL-FORMING AGENTS
There was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock. Much
of this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface, but it
is usually hidden by a layer of soil. Soil is said to be "rock ground to
meal by Nature's millstones". The process is very slow, but it is
constantly going on. The pupils should be directed to find evidences of
this "grinding".
1. RUNNING WATER.--Brooks, creeks, rain, and the tiny streamlets on the
hills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place. Get some
muddy water from the river after a heavy rain. Let it settle in a tall
jar and observe the fine layer formed.
Wash some pebbles clean, place them in a glass jar with some clear
water, and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes. Note that the
water becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones. A process
similar to this is constantly going on in rivers, lakes, and seas.
Account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from any
water.
2. ICE GLACIERS.--How do these act on rocks? Show evidences in Ontario
as far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings, such as
polished rocks, boulders, beds of clay, sand, or gravel, small lakes,
grooved stones, etc.
3. FROST AND HEAT.--See "Expansion of Solids", pages 189, 190. Look for
splintered or cracked stones. Why do farmers plough in the fall?
4. WIND.--In sections near the lakes the action of the wind in moving
the sand may be seen and appreciated. There are other places where this
work is going on on a smaller scale.
5. PLANTS.--Our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter in
soil. Besides contributing to the soil, plants break up rocks with their
roots and dissolve them with acid excretions. It is interesting to study
how a bare rock becomes covered with soil. First come the lichens which
need no soil; on the remains of these the mosses grow. The roots of
mosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions,
so that, with frost, heat, air, and rain to assist, there is a layer of
soil gradually formed on which larger plants can live. A forest
develops. The trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind,
thus retarding evaporation. The roots of the trees hold the soil from
being washed away. The dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus, and,
on account of the water-holding capacity of humus, the forest floor acts
like a sponge, preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in dry
times.
6. ANIMALS.--Pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and look
for examples. The work of the earthworms is especially interesting. By
eating the soil, they improve its texture and expose it to the air.
Their holes admit air and water to the soil. The worms also drag leaves,
sticks, and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus.
Darwin estimated that the earthworms in England passed over ten tons of
soil an acre through their bodies annually. This is left on the surface
and makes a rich top-dressing.
TILLING THE SOIL
1. It makes the soil finer, thus increasing the surface for holding film
water and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity.
2. It saves water from evaporation. (See Experiments 7 and 8, Form III.)
3. It aerates the soil, enabling roots to thrive better.
4. It drains (hence warms) the soil, assuring more rapid growth.
5. It kills weeds.
A large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with the
garden studies, though most of the above mentioned experiments may be
tried in the school-room. In ungraded schools any of the experiments may
be made instructive to all the Forms.
Pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implements
used on the farm. They should ascertain the special service rendered by
each. See _Circular 156_, Dominion Department of Agriculture.
GARDEN WORK
The work in gardening for Form IV should be connected with some definite
line of experimental work. The garden should be so planned that a part
of it can be used exclusively for experimental work. Co-operation with
the Farmer's Experimental Union of the Ontario Agricultural College at
Guelph is advisable at this point. The following list of experiments is
suggested as suitable for boys especially, but no pupil should attempt
more than one experiment each year.
EXPERIMENTS IN PLOTS OUT-OF-DOORS
Experimental plots may be of different sizes, according to the space
available, from a yard square to a rod square or larger. A plot 10 ft. 5
in. by 20 ft. 10 in. is almost 1/200 of an acre, so that the actual
yield on such a plot when multiplied by 200 is an approximation of the
yield an acre.
1. Testing of varieties of grains, vegetables, or root seeds, including
potatoes new to the district.
2. Testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses. These
plots should be so situated that they can remain for three years.
3. Thick and thin sowing of grain: Use plots not less than four feet
square. They may be tried most easily with wheat, oats, or barley,
although any species of grain may be used. Use four plots of the same
size, equal in fertility and other soil conditions. In No. 1 put grains
of wheat or oats, as the case may be, two inches apart each way. In No.
2 put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inches
apart. In No. 3 put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows
four inches apart. In No. 4 put the grains four inches apart in the row
and the rows eight inches apart.
If possible, weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone when
dry and shelled out of the heads.
4. Deep and shallow growing of grain: Use four plots similar to those in
experiment No. 3. Put the same amount of seed in the different plots. In
No. 1, one inch deep; in No. 2. two inches deep; in No. 3, four inches
deep, and in No. 4, six inches deep. Note which is up first, and which
gives the best yield and best quality.
5. Early and late sowing: Three plots are required. Plant the same
amount of seed in each and cover to the same depth. Plant No. 1 as early
as the soil can be made ready; No. 2, two weeks later; and No. 3, two
weeks later than No. 2. Compare the quality and the yield.
6. Effect of sowing clover with grain the first year: Only two plots are
required. Sow the same amount of wheat or oats on each plot. On one
plot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other. Weigh
(or estimate), as in Experiment 3 above, the straw and the grain
produced on each.
7. Effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the following
year: The same two plots must be used as in No. 6. When the grain was
cut the previous autumn, the plots should have been left standing
without cultivation until spring. When the clover has made some growth,
spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way. Rake them
level and sow the same amount of grain in each again. Weigh the crops
produced on each.
8. Test quality, yield, and time of maturity of several varieties of the
same species. Samples of such varieties of wheat as Red Fife, White
Fife, Preston, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, White Russian, etc.,
may be obtained from the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, if not
available in the district.
9. Effect of different fertilizers (1) on the same crop, (2) on
different crops: This can be done either out-of-doors in small plots or
indoors, using pots or boxes.
(1) Effect on the same crop: For example, oats on plots four feet
square. The following standard fertilizers may be used: stable manure,
nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, and bone meal.
On plot No. 1, a dressing of stable manure,
On plot No. 2, four oz. nitrate of soda,
On plot No. 3, four oz. muriate of potash,
On plot No. 4, eight oz. bone meal,
On plot No. 5, two oz. nitrate of soda, two oz. muriate of potash, and
four oz. bone meal.
On plot No. 6, use no fertilizer. Record results.
(2) Effect on different crops: Try a series of experiments similar to
the above, using (a) peas instead of oats, (b) using corn, (c)
using cabbage, (d) using potatoes.
FUNCTION OF PARTS OF PLANTS
This may be introduced in Form III and continued in the next Form.
Already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essential
organs of the flower, namely, stamens and pistil. They have noticed the
two kinds of flowers on pumpkins, corn, and many trees. They have seen
that only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds, and that when
the staminate flowers have shed their pollen, they die. They have seen
the yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden with
it as they emerge from the heart of the flower. Have them watch the bee
as it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part of
its pollen-covered body against the pistil. When on the moist, sticky
top of the pistil, these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow,
sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary.
Inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistened
by a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube, and at once they
begin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds. The coverings
surrounding them complete the true fruit.
The use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position is
apparent to every pupil. To demonstrate the firm hold it has upon the
soil, have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots.
They will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the long
conical roots of others. Compare the colour and other surface features
of the root and stem. To prove its feeding power, try two plants of
equal size, taking the root off one and leaving it uninjured in the
other. Set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers.
Take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks. The
plant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow. Keep it in the dark
for a long time, and it finally dies even when water and soil are
supplied. The leaves, therefore, are essential and require sunlight in
doing their work. Their complete work will be considered later.
HOW THE PLANT GETS ITS FOOD FROM THE SOIL
When seeds germinate, the lower end of the caulicle, which becomes the
root, bears large numbers of root-hairs. Inside the root-hairs is
protoplasm and cell sap. These root-hairs grow among the soil particles
which lie covered over with a thin film of moisture. It is this moisture
that is taken up by these root-hairs, and in it is a small amount of
mineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant. The
transmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of these
root-hairs is known as _osmosis_.
GERMINATION OF SOME OF THE COMMON GRAINS
Make a special study of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Take three plates
and put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch. Spread over
this a piece of damp cloth. Put in No. 1, one hundred grains of corn; in
No. 2, the same number of grains of wheat; and in No. 3, the same number
of grains of buckwheat, peas, or beans. Cover each plate with another
piece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent drying
out. Keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry. If
one of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches over the side of
the plate and dipping into a dish of water, the whole cloth will be kept
moist by capillarity. Note the following points:
1. Changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours.
2. In which variety germination seems most rapid.
3. The percentage vitality, that is, the number of seeds which germinate
out of one hundred.
4. The nature of the coverings and their use. (Protection to the parts
inside)
5. The parts of the seed inside. (Buckwheat, pea, or bean divides into
two parts, which become greenish and are called seed leaves. Wheat and
corn do not divide thus.)
6. The first signs of growth. A little shoot or tiny plant begins to
develop at one end of the seed. Note which end bears this tiny plant.
7. Note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stem
and root.
8. Of what use is the bulky part of the seed? To answer this, let the
pupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn, which is attached to
the embryo plant, from the pulpy mass surrounding it. Set five such
plants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected.
Pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for the
nourishing of the embryo plant. It is a little store of food prepared by
the mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds. Note that
it disappears as the plant grows.
To further show the great value of this stored plant food, put a
large-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days. When
it has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long, place the pea
in a thistle tube or small funnel, with the root projecting down the
tube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests. Place all in
a sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to make
without any food except that which the seed contained.
9. Note the development of the root and root-hairs. It is by means of
these root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture. The branching form of
the root gives greater support to the plant and increased area for
absorption of water by means of root-hairs.
To show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot, take a
glass jar with straight sides like a battery jar (a large fruit jar will
do); line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it with
moist sawdust. Drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paper
and the glass. The moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them to
sprout, the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the root
turning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seeds
were placed.
10. Apply this study to seed planting: Plant seeds of wheat in four pots
of soil, No. 1, half an inch deep; No. 2, two inches; No. 3, four
inches; No. 4, six inches. Repeat this experiment, using buckwheat. What
seeds are up first? What seeds last? Which are best after a week? After
three or four weeks? From this experiment could you recommend a certain
depth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat?
11. Does the kind of soil make any difference? To answer this have
different pupils choose different soils, such as (1) coarse sand, (2)
fine sand, (3) wet clay, (4) humus or leaf mould, (5) mixed soil or
loam; and let each put in grains of wheat, two inches deep.
Allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat, under similar
conditions. Treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity of
water used on each and give them all equal light and heat. Note which
come up first. Which are highest in one week, in two weeks, in four
weeks?
12. This study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot each
of corn, wheat, and buckwheat. Plots ten feet by twenty feet are large
enough. Observe the rate of development in the plots. Which seems to
mature most quickly? Which blossoms first? In what respect are the
leaves of these plants alike or unlike? How do the stems differ?
Examine the blossoming and seed formation. When the grains are ripe,
collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of each
grain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each. Dry, shell, and
store the two samples of each grain in separate bottles. These samples
are for planting the following spring.
13. To show the need of moisture in germination: Fill two flower-pots or
cans with dry sand; put seeds of sunflower in each, covering them an
inch deep. Put water in one pot and none in the other. Examine both pots
after two or three days.
14. To show that heat is needed for germination of seeds: Plant
sunflower seeds in two pots as above; place one in a warm room and the
other in a cold room or refrigerator; water both and observe result in
three days.
15. To show that air is necessary for germination: Fill a pint sealer
with hydrogen (the gas collected over water in the usual way, as shown
in any Chemistry text-book). Put a few sunflower seeds in a small sponge
or wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth. Keeping the mouth of the
jar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen, under
the surface of the water, introduce the sponge containing the seeds, by
putting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar. Seal the jar
without letting the gas get out. Put some seeds in another jar in a wet
sponge and leave the jar uncovered. Compare results after several days.
Here is a second experiment to prove this. Boil some water in a beaker
in order to drive out all the air, put a few grains of rice in the
water, and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water.
This covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again. Put
some rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil. Leave
the beakers side by side in a warm room for a week. The seeds will not
germinate in the boiled water. It is not always easy to get rice that
will germinate, but when it has been procured, the experiment is easy
and very interesting. Any other seeds, such as those of pond lily and
eel-grass, that germinate readily under water, will do as well as rice.
WEEDS
Pupils in this Form should learn to identify a large number of weeds and
weed seeds. The collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds the
previous summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for this
work. In the spring, when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up in
the garden, it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weeds
from the useful plants. To help in this work of distinguishing the good
from the bad, the teacher should arrange for a plot having, say, ten
rows, one row for each variety of weed selected. Each row should be
designated by a number instead of a name. The identification of these
growing weeds by name may be given as a problem to the pupils. This
plot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growth
of each variety, the blossoming and seed formation, and then the root
growth, as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed.
Each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the ten
varieties studied, and make drawings of the plant and its parts,
especially the leaf, flower, seed, and root. They should learn the best
methods of eradication and add these in their notes. _Farm Weeds_ will
be of great value in such weed studies.
VINES
Suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium, scarlet runner
bean, and Japanese hop. Their growth and method of climbing should be
compared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied.
Observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement, also the
flowers and fruit. Observe also the gourd family--melon, cucumber, and
squash--their tendency to climb, and the nature of their flowers and
fruit.
WILD FLOWERS
In schools where the studies with garden plants, such as have been
indicated, can be carried on, there will not be as much time for the
study of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants are
available. A definite list of wild flowers for study should be arranged
by the teacher early in spring.
The following are common in most parts of Ontario: squirrel-corn,
Dutchman's breeches, blue cohosh, dog's-tooth violet, water-parsnip,
catnip, and mallow. In each study observe the following points:
1. Description of leaves and flowers for identification.
2. Storing of food in underground parts.
3. Time of flowering. (Pupils of this Form should keep a flower
calendar.)
4. Description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered.
5. Their location, and the character of the soil where found.
Encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods to
the school or home garden. Moist humus soil and partial shade are the
best conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers. Review the
type lessons given already for Primary classes and apply the information
thus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers named
above.
PLANTING OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS IN HOME AND SCHOOL
GROUNDS
This work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter. If each
pupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting,
the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved. The teacher should guard
against over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowers
during the summer holidays.
New varieties of herbaceous perennials, grown from seed planted the
previous summer or procured from homes in the vicinity, should be
introduced. As most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a few
years, it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year, dividing
and resetting them, and fertilizing the ground.
Native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirable
views, such as closets and outbuildings, rough fences, or bare walls.
This principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees.
Evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters from
cold winds. No planting should be done, on the other hand, that would
shut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape. Too
frequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds.
Prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs. Keep all centres
open, and let the trees, shrubs, and flowering perennials be massed
about the corners and along the sides. The informal method of planting
is to be preferred to formal planting of designs. The Public School
Inspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the
_Improvement of School Grounds_, which should be carefully studied by
every teacher.
SHADE TREES
Consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamental
effects. White elm, hard and soft maple, white birch, pines, and spruces
are among the best. Elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside or
street planting, and should be about forty feet apart. Spruces and pines
may be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west, to act
as a wind break. Otherwise, evergreens are best when planted in
triangular clumps. White birch is particularly ornamental against a dark
background of evergreens. Specimen trees of horse-chestnut, beech, ash,
and hickory are also desirable.
TRANSPLANTING
The best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaves
have fallen, or in the spring before the buds have opened.
In planting a tree, the following points should be observed:
1. Preserve as much of the root system as possible, and trim off all
broken or bruised portions.
2. Do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground. This
is especially important in transplanting evergreens.
3. Reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reduced
root system.
4. Set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting.
5. Pack the best top soil closely about the roots, so as to exclude all
air spaces, since these tend to dry the delicate roots.
6. If the ground is very dry, water should be used in planting;
otherwise it is of no advantage. Water the trees thoroughly once a week
in dry weather during the first season.
7. After planting, put a mulch or covering of fine straw, grass, or
chips for two or three feet around the tree; or establish a soil mulch
and keep down the grass by frequent cultivation. Grass roots dry out the
soil.
8. In the case of deciduous trees, have the lowest limbs at least seven
feet from the ground. Evergreens, however, should never be trimmed, but
should have their branches right from the ground up--this uninterrupted
pyramid form is one of their chief beauties.
ANIMAL STUDIES
SCALE INSECTS
SAN JOSE SCALE
Certain districts in Ontario and especially those bordering on Lake Erie
have suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple, peach, pear, and
other orchard trees. A hand lens should be used in studying these
insects, observations being carried on from May to September.
Carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences of
the presence of the scale, and learn to identify it and to recognize the
damages resulting from its attacks.
Observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having a
minute point projecting upward at its centre. The young insects which
emerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for a
time, then become stationary, and each one secretes a scale under which
it matures. The mature males have two wings but the mature females are
wingless. Note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects'
attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig, made by the
insertion of the sucking mouth parts.
Describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from Japan to
America and how it is now spread on nursery stock. Give a brief account
of its destructiveness in the orchards of Essex and Kent.
(Consult _Bulletin No. 153, Common Insects Affecting Fruit
Trees and Fungus Diseases Affecting Fruit Trees_. Bethune &
Jarvis, Department of Agriculture, Toronto, free.)
OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE
This is very common throughout the Province on apple and pear trees.
Observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees,
the inferior quality of the fruit, and the gray scales shaped like tiny
oyster-shells.
The means of destroying these pests should be discussed. The Bulletins
named above give detailed information in reference to spraying and
fumigation.
CUTWORMS
(Consult _Bulletin 52_, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.)
Cutworms are the larvae of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night.
There are many species of cutworms, all of which are destructive to some
forms of plants or grasses, grains, and vegetables.
The larvae are rather thick, naked, worm-like forms. They burrow into the
ground, but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems of
tender plants or by feeding upon the leaves. For the most effective
method of dealing with these refer to what is said on "Combating Garden
Pests", Form II.
When a field is known to be infested with cutworms, it is a good plan to
spread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seed
is planted.
WHITE GRUBS
White grubs are large, fat, white larvae of June beetles. These beetles
are the well-known large, brown, clumsy beetles that blunder into the
house at night in May or June and drop with a thud upon the floor.
Three years are spent in the larval form, the grubs living underground
and feeding on the roots of plants, especially the roots of grains and
grasses.
Since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass,
they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing,
which exposes the larvae to the winter frosts.
In May or June, when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit and
shade trees, spraying the trees with London purple is quite effective
for destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among the
roots of the grass.
Hogs destroy many larvae by rooting in the soil to find them for food.
CRAYFISH
Search for the crayfish in streams and ponds. Why is the crayfish hard
to find? Hard to capture?
Obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar of
water or in an aquarium.
The crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects and
small fish which are to be kept, as it is fierce and voracious.
The pupils should study the living animal, noting its habit of lurking
under stones; the sweeping of the water with the feelers; the backward
movement in swimming, produced by bending the tail sharply underneath
the body; the walking by means of four pairs of legs, the great claws
being used to turn the animal; the use of the great claws in seizing
prey and holding food near the mouth; the movements of the small
appendages under the front part of the animal and the water currents
caused by these; the movements of the small appendages under the abdomen
of the animal.
FRESHWATER MUSSEL
The freshwater mussel--"clam" as it is usually called by
school-boys--may be found in almost any stream.
Place a mussel in the aquarium, and note the opening and closing of the
valves of the shell; the hinge connecting the valves; the foot
protruding from the shell; the movements by means of the foot; the
mantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins; the two
siphons at the rear of the animal--water currents may be observed
entering the upper and emerging from the lower of these. Infer uses for
these currents. Touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe how
quickly the shell is closed.
Compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell.
Compare also with the oyster and sea clam.
Examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell, the
action of the hinge, and the marks on the shell to which the muscles for
closing the shell were attached.
State all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal to
possess.
BIRD STUDY
(Consult _Bulletin 218. Birds of Ontario in Relation to
Agriculture_, Nash. Department of Agriculture, free.)
If the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for Forms I, II, and
III have been successful, the pupils of Form IV should have a fair
acquaintance with the habits of the common birds.
A very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds which
are viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionable
neighbours. A pupil is appointed to act as judge and other pupils give
evidence. The evidence must be based upon the pupil's personal
observations on the habits of the bird.
The following birds are named, and brief descriptions of their habits
are given as suggestions for materials for bird trials:
ROBIN.--He steals small fruits, such as cherries, currants, etc. He is a
cheerful, jolly neighbour, who sings sweetly. He eats great numbers of
cutworms and white grubs.
CROW.--He robs the nests of other birds, and steals chickens, corn, and
potatoes. He helps the farmer by killing cutworms, white grubs,
grasshoppers, and other insects.
WOODPECKER.--The members of this family are grievously persecuted
because they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by pecking
holes in the bark from which to suck the sap. Careful observations tend
to show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by this
treatment. Woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers of
wood-borers and other obnoxious insects.
CROW-BLACKBIRD (bronzed grackle).--His habits are similar to those of
the crow.
OWLS.--All the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of a
few members of the family. Very seldom does an owl steal a chicken;
their food consists chiefly of mice, rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, and
other field pests.
HAWKS.--The hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they are
seldom guilty. As a class they are beneficial, not injurious birds.
DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF NATURE STUDY
There is a knowledge of Nature which contributes to the earning of a
living. This is the _utilitarian_ aspect.
There is a knowledge of Nature which may be obtained in such a way as to
develop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training in
scientific method. This is the _disciplinary_ aspect.
There is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful in
Nature, to enjoy it and so add to his happiness. This is the _aesthetic_
aspect.
There is a knowledge of Nature which, through the life history of plant
and animal, throws light on the pupil's own life, gives him an insight
into all life in its unity, and leads him to look up reverently to the
author of all life--through Nature up to Nature's God. This is the
_spiritual_ aspect.
Each of these aspects supplements, interprets, or enforces the others.
He who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a complete
whole. Nature Study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude toward
Nature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living. It leads him to
see Nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well as
through those of the scientist.
Nature Study is concerned with plants, birds, insects, stones, clouds,
brooks, etc., but it is not botany, ornithology, entomology, geology,
meteorology, or geography. In this study, it is the spirit of inquiry
developed rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important.
Gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until, in the high
school, it passes over into the science group of studies.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE ASPECTS
The simple observational lessons on The Robin, pages 96-7, form the
bases for further study in more advanced classes. This bird as a
destroyer of worms, beetles, etc., is a valuable assistant to the farmer
as, indeed, are practically all birds in this Province. Birds such as
the duck, goose, partridge, etc., are valuable as food, and laws are
made to protect them during certain seasons.
The training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the parts
of a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function is
valuable. He studies the plant and the animal as living organisms with
work to do in the world, and learns how what they do and their manner of
doing it affect their form and structure.
The short, curved, and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method of
breaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallow
shows the bill to be a mallet, a wedge, or a pick as the case may be. A
study of the bills of the duck, woodpecker, and hawk will reveal the
method by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to its
purpose. Similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make the
idea of adaptation increasingly clear.
Literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds. The thoughts
and feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of much
of the world's enduring poetry. Longfellow, in his "Birds of
Killing-worth" (_Tales of a Wayside Inn_) sings exquisitely of the use
and beauty and worth of birds. Shelley, in his "Skylark", describes in
glowing verse "the unbodied joy" that "singing still dost soar and
soaring ever singest". Wordsworth hears the blithe new comer, the
Cuckoo, and rejoices
Though babbling only to the vale
Of sunshine and of flowers
Thou bringest unto me a tale
Of visionary hours.
The life story of a bird throws light on our own lives, puts us in
sympathy with the lives of others, teaches kindness, teaches the duties
and responsibilities of the higher to the lower, teaches respect for all
life.
Observe the helpless bird in its nest, helpless as a baby. See the care
given by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down and
feathers grow, to feed it till it is able to leave the nest. Watch the
parents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights. Olive Thorn Miller
in her _Bird Ways_ gives a delightful sketch of the father robin
teaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up.
When that task was accomplished, his father began to give him "music
lessons", that is, practice in imitating the Robin's song. Thus, the
young bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life. The social
life of birds, as they sing their matins, as they choose their mates, as
they gather in flocks preparatory to migration, furnish many
opportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems.
The Ontario Readers contain many poems that may be used in connection
with the Nature Study lessons. To supplement the observational studies
of birds, read from the Third Reader, "The Robin's Song", "The
Red-winged Blackbird", "The Sandpiper", "To the Cuckoo", "Bob White",
"The Lark and the Rook", "The Poet's Song".
In the Third Reader, the lessons on "The Fountain", "The Brook", "The
Tide River", and "A Song of the Sea" form a group that can be used in
connection with lessons in geography. "A Song for April", "An Apple
Orchard in the Spring", "The Gladness of Nature", "The Orchard", "A
Midsummer Song", "Corn-fields", "The Corn Song", "The Death of the
Flowers", "The Frost", "The Snow-storm", make another group to accompany
a study of the seasons. A similar group may be selected from the Fourth
Reader.
The pupil who has made a study of a "brook" as a lesson in geography and
defined it as "a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring or
fountain" will, if he studies the following lines from Tennyson's "The
Brook" and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy and
aptness of the words in italics, realize that the poet sees much that
the geographer has not included in his definition.
I _chatter_ over stony ways,
In little sharps and trebles,
I _bubble_ into eddying bays,
I _babble_ on the pebbles.
* * *
I _slip_, I _slide_, I _gloom_, I _glance_.
Among my skimming swallows;
* * *
I _murmur_ under moon and stars.
* * *
I _linger_ by my shingly bars.
I _loiter_ round my cresses.
Correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in this
subject.
Given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life, with observant eyes and
ears, and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity and
stimulates inquiry, Nature Study will be a joy and an inspiration to
pupils.