FORM IV
AUTUMN
GARDEN WORK
The regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots should
be carefully attended to. Pupils in this Form should be able to do all
kinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency. The work of
selecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued.
These should be used for planting in the school garden and in home
gardens as well. This part of the work might be left to the girls. The
boys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seed
grain. To get good seed to start with, two methods may be used:
1. Decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one of
the best fields a hundred of the best heads--those that are vigorous,
clean, free from rust or smut, and standing up straight. When the heads
are dried a little, shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar in
a cold, dry place until spring.
2. Take a quart of oats and pick it carefully, keeping only the largest
and most plump kernels. Keep this for spring planting. At the same time,
a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison. A regular
system of selection should be followed from year to year, taking enough
of the largest, brightest, and most compact heads from the plot each
autumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring. After the selection
of heads has been made, the remainder of the crop may be harvested, and
the grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of the
first, second, third year, etc. If the value per acre is required, the
plots should be made of a certain size easy to compute, such as one rod
square or one rod by two rods. (10-1/2 ft. by 21 ft. is about 1/200
acre.) Samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles and
labelled; for example--"From selected heads of 1911". The yield per acre
in the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted.
These will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testing
duration of vitality later. If the same amount of grain is used in
planting a plot each time, the change in bushels per acre may be
ascertained and also in pounds per bushel. Some of the boys in this Form
may wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and, if so,
they should communicate with the Secretary of the Canadian Seed Growers'
Association, Canadian Building, Ottawa, and receive full instructions to
enable them to carry on their work practically as well as
scientifically.
HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS FROM SEED
The teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials for
the purpose of beautifying the school grounds. Many plants may be
started from seed at the school and given to the pupils for home
planting. These plants require but little attention and provide
excellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring before
annuals are in bloom, on into the autumn. A list of the best varieties
will be found in Circular 13, on _Elementary Agriculture and
Horticulture_, a copy of which should be in every school. The seed plot
should be fertilized and prepared in the usual way, and the seeds
planted before the first of September. They may be started in June also,
in which case they make more growth before winter. The plot should be
well fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and, if the soil is very
dry, the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds are
planted. The seeds are usually quite small and should be covered very
lightly. The plot should be protected from the hot sun by means of
cheese-cloth tacked on a frame. The plants should be watered twice a
week in dry weather. In the late autumn, when the ground freezes, the
plot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards, which
should be removed when the frost comes out in the spring.
DECIDUOUS TREES
Before the pupils of this Form leave school they should be able to
recognize, by name as well as by sight, all of the species of trees
found in their vicinity. To this end the teacher should help them to
prepare an inventory of species of trees, shrubs, and vines of the
vicinity. They should learn to distinguish the different species of
maples, elms, birches, etc. A named collection of leaves helps
materially in doing this. The influence of environment upon the growth
and shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions in
which they live is a most interesting and profitable study, demanding
careful observation, reflection, and judgment.
REFERENCES
Muldrew: _Sylvan Ontario._ Briggs.
Keeler: _Our Native Trees._ Scribners' Sons. $2.00.
TREES IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Consider the influences at work and their effect under the following
heads:
1. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL.--It may be gravelly, pure sand,
sandy loam, clay or clay loam, muck or humus, shallow or rocky, and the
subsoil may be sand, clay or hard clay with stones (hard-pan). Notice
what species are most common in each kind of soil.
2. WATER SUPPLY.--What species are found naturally in moist ravines or
along the margins of rivers and lakes, in bogs or swamps, on dry, sandy
plains, or rocky hillsides. Consider also the rainfall.
3. EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT.--Account for the lack of symmetry in the shapes
of trees. Branches grow only where their leaves can get the light.
Account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometric
centre. Account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees in
the woods. Their light supply is chiefly from above, and they stretch up
toward it as rapidly as possible. Dim light causes rapid growth at the
expense, however, of strength of tissue, but as these young trees are
protected in the woods from the strain of wind storms, their slimness
and lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them.
Also, the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still young
and small, giving us the clear timber tree, free from large knots, tall
and straight. Make further application of this principle of light in
relation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber.
Account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimly
lighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees. The principle
of rapid growth in dim light is seen here also. It will be noticed that
the large leaves of the young trees are more thin, soft, and flexible.
4. WIND.--Observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposed
to a strong prevailing wind as, for instance, those growing on the tops
of hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing west
wind. The tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows.
Does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree? Examples of
stunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this. It will
be seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side most
exposed to the wind.
5. SUITABILITY OF THE SPECIES TO THE CLIMATE.--Observe that some trees
retain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others. The beech,
hickory, red oak, and chestnut are good examples. These are on the
northern extreme of their territory of growth. The tree best suited to a
rigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumn
and has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in.
Examples: maple, elm, birch, and willow.
FRUITS
EXCURSION TO A WELL-KEPT ORCHARD
If the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchard
about the time of the apple harvest, it will help to arouse interest in
the study of fruits. The trees, as well as the fruit, frequently show
distinguishing marks whereby they may be identified. Have the pupils
notice the following points: general shape of tree, colour of bark,
shape of leaf, method of cultivation, fertilizing, pruning and grafting,
spraying and its need, orchard pests, method of picking and packing
apples in barrels and boxes for market.
SMALL FRUITS
Study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits as
currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Reports issued
from the Fruit Division of the Experimental Farm at Ottawa give
information regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts of
Ontario and Quebec. Have the pupils try propagating strawberries by
taking the stolons or runners; currants and gooseberries, by means of
layers or stem cuttings; and raspberries or blackberries, by root
cuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers. Stem and root
cuttings, when taken in the autumn, may be planted at once or may be
stored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter. Stem cuttings
should be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttings
about half that size.
AUTUMN WILD FLOWERS
Observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented by
observation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods, fields,
and roadsides. Although the spring months afford a much greater variety
of wild flowers than do the autumn months, they do not afford quite as
good an opportunity for finding and studying them. The woods and fields
are drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowers
last much longer. Some of the species seen blooming in spring and early
summer are now in fruit and scattering their seed, so that the pupils
have a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosen
species. The pupils in this Form might select for special study the
milkweed, worm-seed mustard, wild aster, and goldenrod. These should be
observed out-of-doors, preferably, but suitable class-room lessons may
be taught by using similar matter.
MILKWEED
Taking the milkweed as a type, the following points are to be
considered:
The kind of soil, where found, and whether in sun or shade.
Try to pull up a small-sized plant. Dig one up and notice the
underground part.
Note the size of the largest plant seen, also the size of the leaves,
and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing.
Break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice, whence the name
"milkweed". Discuss this milk as a protection to the plant.
Note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour and
odour of the flowers. Watch insects gathering honey on a bright day.
Note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet. They sometimes
get their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish.
After the flowers disappear, note the forming of the little boat-shaped
pods in pairs. Select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts along
one side which is most protected. Open a pod carefully and notice how
beautifully the flat, brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows and
how each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it far
away in the wind. This silk-like down is sometimes used to stuff
cushions, and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed.
One species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant--the
monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. This is one of the few butterflies that
birds do not eat. It is protected by a distasteful fluid. Look on the
under side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty, pale
green cocoon with golden dots, hanging by a thread-like attachment.
Early in the season the larvae may be found feeding on the leaves.
This plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classed
as a weed. When the stems come up in the spring, they are soft and
tender and are sometimes used as pot herbs.
CORRELATIONS
Draw a leaf, a flower, a pair of pods, and a seed with its tuft.
Write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers.
TREES
A study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in November, after
the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their
quiescent winter period. This is the time when the evergreens stand out
prominently on the landscape, in sharp contrast with the other trees
that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and
lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, cedar or hemlock
may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be
observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make observations for
themselves out of school. At least one lesson should be conducted
out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for
the purpose. The following method will serve as a guide in the outdoor
study of any species of tree:
THE WHITE PINE
Have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance
and trace the outline with the finger. Compare the shape of this tree
with others near by of the same species and then with members of other
species. Have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differ
in different trees. They will come to realize that the difference in
shape results from differences in length, direction, and arrangement of
branches. They may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine in
that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft
from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape,
and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and not
slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms.
Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By
using a string or tape-line, they may find out how big it is around and
the length of the diameter. Tell them how big some evergreens are (the
giant trees of the Pacific Coast are sometimes over forty feet around).
Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a
tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain
on it just at this point. Illustrate by driving a long slat or lath into
the ground firmly: then catching it by the top, push it over, and it
will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken
up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous
roots the pine has.
Let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and
roughness. The fissures in the bark, which are caused by the enlarging
of the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper
at the bottom of the tree than at the top--the tree being younger and
the bark thinner, the nearer to the top we go. How old is the very top,
down to the first whorl of branches? How old is the stem between the
first and second whorls? Between the third and fourth? Let the pupils
find out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular and
unbroken. The whorls of branches near the ground are usually small and
dead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared. Relate
the size of the trunk to its age, and also relate the size and length of
the branches to their age. Where are the youngest branches and how old
are they? What branches are oldest? Notice how the branch is noticeably
larger just where it joins the trunk, as this is the point of greatest
strain. Are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk? If
not, find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the other
and try to discover the cause. Usually, if other trees are near enough
to shade a certain tree, the branches are shorter and smaller on the
shaded side.
Let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little
distance away and look at it. They will notice how bare the branches are
on the inside, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is
so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the
ends of the branches. The leaves get light there while the centre of the
tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to
solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pupils will now see
an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper
ones. The greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into
the sunlight.
Why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered. Why it
retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes,
but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by
explaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardy
that wind and frost and snow do not injure them.
The pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to the
school-room, if the white pine is growing commonly about, otherwise the
teacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base another
observation lesson in the class-room.
If the tree has cones on it, an effort should be made to get a few, as
they will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson. If the
cones have not yet opened when they are picked, so much the better, as
they will soon open in a warm room, and the pupils will be able to
examine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling.
If possible, let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine trees
growing in the woods as well as in the open.
OUTLINE OF A CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE WHITE PINE
~Inferences.~--If possible, each pupil is supplied with a small branch of
the white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily be
seen by all the pupils. Before proceeding to examine the specimens, give
the pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine, and
thus review the lesson taken out-of-doors. Then ask a few questions
bearing upon their own observations, such as: What was the soil like
where you found the pine tree growing? (They are found most commonly on
light, sandy soil.) Did you notice any difference between the shapes of
the pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields? Did you
notice any dead limbs on those in the woods? Why did they die? The
pupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlight
must die. Show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples.
This explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stems
without branches for a long distance up from the ground. They get the
light only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding trees to
reach it. If we want trees to grow tall, how should we plant them?
(Close together) What would such trees be good for? (Making timber or
lumber) If we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops, how
should we plant them? (Far apart) What would such trees be good for?
(Their shade and their beauty) Good shade trees should be thirty to
forty feet apart.
Ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentle
breeze was blowing, and have them tell the cause of the sound that they
heard. They may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused the
sound when the wind was blowing through the tree top. Have them examine
the branches in order to discover the following points:
LEAVES.--These are in bunches of five, two to three inches long,
three-cornered, and with little teeth pointing toward the tip, light
green near the tip of the bough (young leaves) and darker further down
(older leaves); age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it grows
on, therefore some leaves are one year, some two, and a few three years
old. No leaves on four-year-old wood, therefore the leaves fall off the
white pine the third year. Ask pupils to try to find out by observation
when the leaves fall off the pines. Note the fragrance of the leaves,
and that they are sometimes put into "pine" cushions, also, how slippery
they are to walk on.
BUDS.--These are found at the tips of the branches, one large one in the
centre and several smaller ones grouped around it. Note their
reddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping and
covered with gum which keeps out the rain, thus protecting the little
growing tip inside. When buds grow, they become little twigs with leaves
on. Find where the buds were a year ago. Notice the light colour of the
twigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of the
twigs of the previous year. Where were the buds two years ago? What did
the centre bud become? (A continuation of the stem) What did the other
buds, called lateral buds, become? (New branches) Compare the growth
made in different years.
Notice also how white the wood of the twigs is--the probable reason for
calling it "white pine".
CONES.--Note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds are
placed in them inside the large scales. Get some of the seeds and note
the wing-like attachment. Take the wing off a seed and drop it from a
height at the same instant with one that has its wing attached. Note the
whirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scattering
seed. Taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels are
fond of them. Burn a pine cone.
Find out what birds like to live in this tree. What has been noticed
about them and their nests?
Have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by putting
them in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place. They should
then plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sun
is bright. Plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered if
the weather is dry during the first summer.
NOTE.--The cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that the
wind can carry the seeds long distances. The cones usually stay on the
trees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds.
CORRELATIONS
Draw a pine tree, a bunch of pine needles, a pine cone, and a pine
seed.
Write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods; also of one found
in the open.
Write a list of things for which the white pine is useful.
_To the teacher._--The winter months, besides affording an opportunity
for seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition,
also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection, for recalling
observations and experiences of the past season, and for making plans
for work and study in the school garden, woods, and fields when spring
returns. The knowledge gained by the pupils through first-hand
observation of trees, flowers, and gardens can be greatly extended by
pictures and stories descriptive of these, which the teacher may from
time to time bring to the school-room. Their personal experiences will
be the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up in
the reading lessons, in selections which the teacher reads from week to
week, and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes.
Thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants in
garden, orchard, or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring,
and the pupils, with the awakening of spring, will take up anew the
study of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given to
reading and reflection during the winter. Illustrated magazines dealing
with gardening and with the study of trees and plants, and such
magazines as have a children's department, will prove of great
assistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interest
pupils in plant studies. Stories of life in the woods and of plant
studies suitable to young pupils should be used.
REFERENCES
Margaret Morley: _Flowers and their Friends._ Ginn & Co. 50 cents.
Margaret Morley: _Seed Babies._ Ginn & Co. 25 cents.
Margaret Morley: _Little Wanderers._ Ginn & Co. 30 cents.
Alice Lounsberry: _The Garden Book for Young People._ Stokes. $1.50.
Gertrude Stone: _Trees in Prose and Poetry._ Ginn & Co. 45 cents.
COMPARATIVE LESSON ON VARIETIES OF WINTER APPLES
KING, BALDWIN, NORTHERN SPY
Discuss the names, keeping and cooking qualities of the apples, and
bearing qualities of the trees.
Provide each member of the class with a typical representative of each
of the above varieties of apples.
Compare the three apples as to size, form, colour--including marks;
hardness, length, and thickness of stem; depth of cavity at the stem
end; depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end.
Split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness and
toughness of the skin, the colour of the flesh, the size of the core,
taste and juiciness of the flesh.
_To the teacher._--All three are apples of fair size, the Baldwin being
on the average the smallest of the three. All three are roundish, but
the King is somewhat oval-round, and the Spy, conical-round. The Baldwin
has a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russet
spots. The King is reddish, shading to dark crimson. The Spy has a
yellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red.
The beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the markets
of American cities and in those of the British Isles; but the soft and
easily damaged skin of the Spy makes it the least desirable as an apple
for export.
All keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until April.
They may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers, where the
temperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple.
The Baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range for
apple trees, and its yield is a satisfactory average. The King apple
tree is not a hardy tree, nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in the
best apple districts. The Spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives and
yields well throughout a wide range; but it does not begin to bear until
it is about fifteen years old.
A comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumn
apples, such as Fameuse, McIntosh Red, Wealthy, Gravenstein, and St.
Lawrence.
CODLING MOTH
Begin the study of the codling moth in August by examining wormy apples.
Find out, by asking the pupils, which orchards of the locality had been
sprayed in the spring.
Ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to select
from these the number that are wormy. What percentage of the apples are
wormy? Compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed, with that in
sprayed, orchards. The results will afford evidence of the benefit of
spraying.
Find out, if possible, the dates on which, and the conditions under
which, the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormy
apples was done.
Ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples.
Have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of the
hole, or burrow, and the amount of damage done to the apples.
Have the pupils observe the larva and note the size, colour, shape, and
number of legs.
_To the teacher._--The apple maggot is a less common insect larva and
may be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact that
the former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directions
through the pulp of the apple, while the larva of the codling moth works
almost entirely in the core.
The cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping the
wormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons will
be placed, or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees in
October.
Describe the cocoons. Open some of them and describe the contents. Keep
the remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during the
winter.
What birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees during
winter? Examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at work
and note that the cocoons have been destroyed.
Should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards?
By hanging up a beef bone in the orchard, various birds, including
woodpeckers, will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes in
the orchard.
REFERENCES
_Common Insects Affecting Fruit Trees, Bulletin No. 158_, Department of
Agriculture, Parliament Buildings, Toronto.
_Bulletins Nos. 158 and 171_, Ontario Department of Agriculture, deal
with many insect pests and their remedies.
In May look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons. Observe
the colour, size, shape, and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe on
the front wing--the "brand" of the codling moth.
Examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling. Note the tiny,
flat, oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the apples
and a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg. This soon
eats its way into the apple, entering usually at the calyx end. If
spraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyx
end closes up, a drop of poison is inclosed, and when the larva enters
it and begins eating its way into the apple, it gets the poison.
SOME COMMON ANIMAL FORMS
Brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animal
kingdom, for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils. The
following are suggested as types: snail, spider, freshwater mussel
(clam), crayfish (crab), centiped, milliped, salamander, and wood-louse.
These are common animal forms, most of which are frequently seen by the
pupils, but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places in
the animal kingdom recognized. The salamander is to many pupils a lizard
of the most poisonous kind; centipeds and millipeds are worms, and they
do not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities and
instincts.
REFERENCES
Kellogg: _Elementary Zoology_
Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_
CENTIPEDS AND MILLIPEDS
Under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-like
forms, both having many legs.
One of these animals is flat, about an inch long, brown in colour, and
provided with a pair of long feelers. On each division of the body is a
single pair of legs. This is the _centiped_. The other animal is more
cylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of the
body. Its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped, and it has
a habit of coiling into a spiral shape, when disturbed, so that the soft
under surface is concealed. This is the _milliped_. Both of these
animals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter. They
stand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits.
A brief observation lesson on each animal, involving their movements and
the structural features named above, will enable the pupils to identify
them and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom.
SALAMANDERS, OR NEWTS
Some forms of these are found in water, as in streams, ponds, and
ditches, while other forms are found on land, where they hide under
stones and sticks. They are commonly mistaken for lizards, which they
closely resemble in shape; but the two animals may be distinguished by
the fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth, while
that of a lizard is covered with scales.
The small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in Ontario
and are frequently found on roads after heavy rains. The tiger
salamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange and
black spots, hence the name "tiger". Many people believe this species
to be especially venomous, while in reality it is quite harmless and,
like the other salamanders, is useful for destroying insects and small
snails, which form the greater part of its food.
_To the teacher._--The superstition of the salamander's power to
extinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists. The early life
of the salamander is spent in water, the young form being very much like
a tadpole. The salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toads
and may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass. The pupils
should learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as to
their habits.
SPIDERS
~Problems in observation.~--In how many places can you find spiders' webs?
How many forms of spiders' webs can you find? Are the many webs that are
found on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders? If
so, describe where the spiders live. (At the bottom of tunnels that run
into the ground.)
What uses do spiders make of their webs? (Trapping prey, supporting egg
cases, protection, and means of moving, as in the case of cobweb
spiders.)
Drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider.
Search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn, from the
skeletons found there, what the spider feeds upon. It will be found that
flies, beetles, and other spiders are killed by this monster.
Watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body are
used in this work. It will be seen that the threads are produced from
little tubes at the rear end of the animal and are placed and fastened
by means of the feet.
Examine, by the aid of a hand lens, the feet and head of the spider.
Note the "brushes and combs" on the former. Note, on the latter, the
four, six, or eight eyes (the number and arrangement vary), and the
short poison claws at the front of the head. How are the poison claws
adapted for seizing and piercing? Note the sharp hooks at the lower
ends.
BIRD STUDIES
Continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types, using the
methods outlined for these studies in Form III. (See pp. 217-24.)