FORM III
AUTUMN
GARDEN WORK
The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of
them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and
thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their
gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded.
They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best
flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed
from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good.
Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some
cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part
of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it
will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best
varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to
the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market.
Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables.
TREATMENT OF FUNGI
During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to
the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato
is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to
blacken and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be
prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux
mixture. This may be prepared as follows:
Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by
pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a
wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack,
which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across
the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this
solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime
and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot,
add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five
gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn
them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep
robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used
at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions
throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care
should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been
diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue
litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline.
If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it.
If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water
added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed
with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two
weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to
prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling
the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture--a teaspoonful to
every two gallons. To prove the value of this treatment have a trial
plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux
mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be
repeated.
Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers
before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent.
solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water.
Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut
spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large
barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of
formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor
that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A
solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of
water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve
hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be
disinfected with this formalin solution.
TREATMENT OF INSECTS
In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine
how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats
the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used.
Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by
adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also
be used dry with flour or dust.
If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case
with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used,
such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is
sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows:
Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for
five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of
whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed
thoroughly.
Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to
plant-lice and scale insects:
Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of
rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn
vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling,
it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm
water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct
proportions when only a few plants are to be treated.
CABBAGE-WORM
The larvae of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by
eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage,
as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder,
which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour--one ounce of insect
powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over
night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping
with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on
the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as
is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar
plants.
PLANTS
ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS
CLASS-ROOM LESSON
By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common
annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the
following points:
1. These plants are always grown from seeds.
2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's
growth.
3. These plants wither and die in the autumn.
Plants having these characteristics are called _annuals_. The teacher
explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few
other annuals.
In a similar way, discuss a few common types of _biennials_, such as
turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points:
1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of
their life.
2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots,
leaves, or stems.
3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish
the flowers and seeds.
A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish
material for concrete study.
In a similar way discuss a few common types of _perennials_, such as
rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points:
1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's
growth.
2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and
shrubs.
3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth.
4. These plants live on from year to year.
GARDEN STUDIES
ANNUALS
~Observations.~--Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early
blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer,
hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom
throughout the season.
Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when
the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example,
sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum.
Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and
nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in
plots, not until the soil is quite warm.
The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in
the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones.
BIENNIALS
~Observations.~--During the first year food is stored in the root of the
turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in
the stem of the hollyhock.
Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the
storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation for winter is
therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth
the following spring.
PERENNIALS
~Observations.~--The highest forms of plant life are found in this class;
namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs.
The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act
as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through
successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion,
and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip,
scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc.
Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this
class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food
in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn,
Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc.
SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS
A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are
recommended: annuals--sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials--cabbage,
parsnip, and carrot; perennials--dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass.
It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the
garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens
brought into the room by the pupils.
SWEET-PEA
Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform
slender structure, and the fact that it climbs. Find out just how it
climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of
the midribs of the leaves.
Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them _compound_.
Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form.
What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the
flower enable it to attract attention?
The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For
example:
Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the
_calyx_.
The beautiful, attractive part is the _corolla_.
The parts that produce the pollen are called _stamens_.
The case that holds the seeds is the _pistil_.
Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute
pistil to the pod.
Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch.
Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on
them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds
and preserve them for spring planting.
Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils
will discover such facts as those given below.
PUMPKIN
Notice the method of growth--the stem no stronger than that of the
sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent
out here and there where the stem touches the ground. This gives extra
nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction,
but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem.
Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit.
Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but
no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged
and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out
whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even
blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small
pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See
whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having
young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds
inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for
spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that
they will have flowers on their vines as late as September.
Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the
pumpkin.
CORN
This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines,
and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the
plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or
nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship
of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in
different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong,
stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as
circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement.
The same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken
across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as
this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks
are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The
nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much
stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a
distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the
close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves
the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but
lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the
plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above
the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are
needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the
feeding capacity.
Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon
as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little
cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with
small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of
so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch,
or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one
of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This
pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube
down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them
and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries
this pollen.
Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the
need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces?
Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on
the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show
how each kind is fitted for its particular work.
Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find:
1. Whether the corn grows faster:
(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard;
(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool;
(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm.
2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in
adjoining plots. Account for the result.
CORRELATIONS
Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also
upon the ear.
Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields",
from _Hiawatha_.
History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of
the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the
Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by
girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus
have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or
for boiling to make hominy by September.
SEED DISPERSAL
The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be
continued in this Form.
I. LESSON
Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of
seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute
the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate
the number of seeds produced by each plant.
By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to
recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of
improper scattering of seeds, namely:
1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become
weak.
2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which
causes the plants to be small and worthless.
Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a
general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds.
The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its
seeds.
Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which
provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these
plants to the class for the next lesson.
DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL
II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON
Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for
observing and classifying as follows:
1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples--burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork
weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue.
2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive
colours, tastes, etc. Examples--apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn.
3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples--dandelion, thistle,
milkweed, maple, pine, elm.
4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods.
Examples--violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel.
5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the
wind. Examples--Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass.
6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially
fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are
especially adapted for dispersal by water.
_To the teacher._--Require the pupils to observe the special structure
that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the
pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is
really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with
seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of
animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the
basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out
at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite
firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that
the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull.
SEED COLLECTIONS
During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have
been identified by the pupils should be collected.
Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until
the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The
seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are
carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be
sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons
on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the
winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is
in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a
shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be
attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and
passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with
the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies.
MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS
Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for
discussion.
Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy
seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the
number of weed seeds found in each.
The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious
weeds are introduced.
Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie
Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The
seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and
also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their
household goods.
Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills,
fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infested with noxious weeds to
do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that
was produced on dirty farms.
THE SUGAR MAPLE
FIELD EXERCISES
Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and
to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the
branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk,
the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and
direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the
density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the
pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree.
Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop
on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for
the difference.
Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field?
Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality
have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar
maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi?
Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup?
Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds
become overgrown or cause decay.
Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood.
_To the teacher._--The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our
native trees for ornament and shade. It grows fairly rapidly and
becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The
symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark
green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect
pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap.
As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable
and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat
building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making
shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by
hickory.
MAPLE LEAVES
CLASS-ROOM LESSON
The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is
provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of
the teacher.
~Observations.~--Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on
the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny.
Shape: star-shaped, broader than long.
Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth.
Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red.
Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth.
Distribute leaves of the _red_ maple and ask the pupils to note the
general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape,
texture, and teeth on the margin.
Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with
leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the
sugar maple.
Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See
Collections, page 33, in General Method.)
_To the teacher._--The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad,
and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There
are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple,
with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common
species.
A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits
(keys) of the maples.
The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to
those outlined for the study of the maple.
CORRELATIONS
With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", _The Ontario
Readers, Third Book_, page 179;
With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in
colour work.
WEED STUDIES
In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly
troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify
these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed
persistent.
To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as
the following:
1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention
to a few of the outstanding features of the plant.
2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the
weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in
grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class.
3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the
pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the
leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal;
the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous
root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence.
4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied.
(See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.)
5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been
studied.
OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS
The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association
with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed.
Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed.
The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to
the following scheme:
NAME OF SEED
_Colour:_
_Size:_ (in fractions of an inch)
_Shape:_
_Details:_
_Occurrence:_
The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear
in the following form:
SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY
_Colour:_ Black and greenish-white in stripes,
_Size:_ One sixteenth of an inch,
_Shape:_ Club-shaped,
_Details_: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end,
_Occurrence:_ A common impurity in grass seed.
GRASSHOPPER
(Consult the Manual on _Suggestions for Teachers of
Science_: Zoology, First year.)
The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September,
together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for
insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study
serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class _insecta_.
FIELD EXERCISES
Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying,
leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its
behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in
what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or
grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it.
Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or
incite to more careful observation.
CLASS-ROOM LESSON
(Studied as a typical insect)
~Observations.~--The three divisions of the body--head, thorax, abdomen;
the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting
covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and
three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the
cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and
two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears,
ovipositors of the female.
The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few
even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They
are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult
and are in the stage of development called the _nymph_ phase. Note the
hairy body and the absence of wings.
_To the teacher._--The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting
process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a
burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are
kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay
their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and
examined.
In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is
expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check.
The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the
wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these
kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles
lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvae of the beetles
feed upon and destroy the eggs.
The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the
meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow.
The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes"
because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into
snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the
bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and
are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract
attention.
Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the
grasshopper.
APHIDES
In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak,
turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens
of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or
alder.
Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these
insects feed.
Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in
support of your answer.
Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does
it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with
water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect?
Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from
solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which
enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning.
Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by
aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found
where there are aphides. Lady-birds (also called lady-bugs), are small,
spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black,
or yellow and black, or black and white.
They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods
consists largely of plant-lice (aphides).
Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may
be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides
to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes
called ant-cows.
Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male
and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless.
TOMATO WORM
THE ADULT
The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in
bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey.
It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may
also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the
leaves of tomato vines.
Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid
growth. Keep the larvae in a box in the school-room and feed them on
tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the
sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of
remaining rigid for hours--hence the name sphinx moth.
The larvae burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides,
hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept.
THE CHRYSALIS
~Observations.~--The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long
handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the
adult in May or early June.
What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis?
The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful,
clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look
on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for
relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvae whose chrysalis and
adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm.
THE CROW
Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making
observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer.
(As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have
a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of
structure.)
~Observations.~--Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the
wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in
trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight?
Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons,
and expression of fear.
Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and
young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong?
Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop?
Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn,
potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and
occasionally birds' eggs or young birds.
Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in
keeping crows off the grain fields?
Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger.
Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird.
Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful
character. Give reasons why crows should be protected.
NOTE.--Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with
coal-tar before it is planted.
In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox,
flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for
study in many localities.
The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit
it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises,
as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the
water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the
structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding
moat, are topics of interest.
CORRELATIONS
With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, _The Kindred of the
Wild_ and "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; and _Wild Animals I Have
Known_, by Ernest Thompson-Seton.
With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have
been observed.