CHAPTER I_Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Nature Study

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ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS

NATURE STUDY

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION

TORONTO

THE RYERSON PRESS

THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO

Second Printing, 1918

Third Printing, 1923

Fourth Printing, 1924

Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected. Italics are

indicated by subscripts (_) and bold words are indicated by tildes (~).

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFATORY NOTE 1

COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS 3

CHAPTER I

The Aims of Nature Study; General Methods 13

Concrete Material 15

Topics and material must suit the season;

matter suited to the child; use of the commonplace;

order of development of lesson; problems in observation;

note-books and records 15

The School Garden 19

Suggestions; Garden Expenses 20

The Excursion 23

Its value; difficulties; frequency;

suggestions for ungraded schools;

the teacher's excursions; a type excursion 23

Collections 29

Animal Studies 29

Domestic animals; references 29

Birds; references 30

Insects; insect collections 34

Butterfly and moth collections 37

Plant Collections 39

CHAPTER II

Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 42

Instructions and General Method 42

Value of such lessons; conditions under which experiments

should be performed 42

Correlations of physical science phase 44

List of Reference Books and Bulletins on garden and plant

study, physical science, and animal study 45

Physical Science--Equipment for Forms III and IV 47

Desirable apparatus 47

Chemicals 48

Apparatus 50

Grenet cells; decomposition apparatus; pneumatic trough;

spirit-lamp; barometer; hygrometer; hints 50

Time Apportioned to Nature Study 53

CHAPTER III. FORM I: AUTUMN

Garden Work 54

Lessons on a Garden Plant--Pansy 55

Observation Exercises on the Dandelion 57

Correlation with literature and reading 59

Dwarf Nasturtium 59

Seeds 60

Field exercise; class-room lesson based on the collection 60

Seed Dispersal 61

Lesson on seeds that fly; correlations 62

Twigs and Buds 62

Lesson on Twigs 62

Further study of twigs; review lesson 63

Lesson on Buds 65

Review lesson; correlations 65

Leaves 66

Field exercises; class-room lesson on leaves 66

Garden Studies 68

Studies in the Pupil's individual Plot 68

Studies from the Garden as a Whole 69

Bulb Planting 69

Lesson on Bulbs and Bulb Planting 69

Planting the bulb 70

CHAPTER IV. FORM I: WINTER

Pet Animals 72

The Rabbit--Lesson on; correlations 72

The Domestic Cat--detailed study 75

The Pigeon--detailed study 76

Winter-blooming Plants--Observation and care of 78

Trees 79

Pines of the Locality 79

The White Pine 79

Field exercises; class-room lesson 79

The Elm--field exercise 82

Domestic Animals 83

The Horse; correlations 83

Domestic Birds 85

The Duck--class-room lesson 85

CHAPTER V. FORM I: SPRING

Garden Work 87

Garden Studies--window garden 88

Wild Flowers 90

Recognition of Wild Flowers 91

Lesson in Outline--Bloodroot; correlations 91

Insect Study 93

Cecropia, or Emperor-moth 93

Dragon-fly 94

Other Conspicuous Insects 95

Birds 95

The Robin 96

Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young 96

The Song-sparrow 97

Field exercises; class-room lesson 97

The Sheep 99

Problems for Field Work 99

CHAPTER VI. FORM II: AUTUMN

Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors 101

Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors 101

Garden Work 103

Seed selection; storing seeds;

harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson;

autumn cultivation 103

Garden Studies 106

Garden Records; correlations 107

Climbing Plants 108

Trees 109

Storing of Tree Seeds 110

A Flower 110

Type--Nasturtium 110

Soil Studies 112

Kinds of Soil 112

Animal Studies 113

Bird Migration; correlations 113

Common Wild Animals 114

General method for field work 114

The Wood-chuck 116

The Chipmunk--field exercises 117

The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly 118

CHAPTER VII. FORM II: WINTER

Care of Plants in the Home 120

Trees 121

Collection of Wood Specimens 122

Related Reading 183

How Animals Prepare for Winter 183

Summary of Lessons; correlations 184

Chickens 185

Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson;

care and food of chickens 185

Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 188

Solids, Liquids, and Gases 188

Change of State 189

Expansion of Solids 189

Practical applications; questions for further investigation 190

Expansion of Liquids--applications 192

The Thermometer 193

Expansion of Air 194

Sources of Heat and Light 194

Notes for a Series of Lessons 194

Conduction--problems 196

Convection--problems, convection in gases; applications 198

Radiation of Heat--problems 199

CHAPTER XI. FORM III: SPRING

Window Boxes 201

Window Gardens 201

Suitable Plants; Fertilizer 202

Soil Studies--constituents 203

Garden Work 206

Tree Seeds 207

Transplanting--flowers, vegetables, tree seedlings 208

Budding 209

Cuttings--leaf cuttings, root cuttings, layering 211

Planting and Care of Herbaceous Perennials 212

Garden Studies--biennials 212

Wild Flowers 213

Study of the Trillium 213

Class-room lesson on the specimens 213

Adaptations of Animals 215

Bird Types 217

Woodpeckers--the downy woodpecker; observations 217

Flycatchers 219

Wrens 219

Insect Types 220

Cabbage-butterfly 220

Tussock-moth 221

Potato beetle 222

References 222

Fish--Observations; problems; references 223

CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: AUTUMN

Garden Work 225

Herbaceous Perennials from Seed 226

Trees--Deciduous; references 227

Trees in Relation to their Environment 228

Fruits--Excursion to a well-kept orchard 229

Small Fruits 230

Autumn Wild Flowers--Milkweed; correlations 230

Trees--The White Pine 232

Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine;

correlations; references 235

Apples--Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties 239

King, Baldwin, Northern Spy 239

Codling moth; references 240

Some Common Animal Forms; references 242

Centipeds and millipeds 243

Salamanders or newts 243

Spiders 244

Bird Studies 245

CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: WINTER

Forest Trees 246

Evergreens; Wood Specimens 246

Fruits 247

Weeds and Weed Seeds 248

Physical Science Phase of Nature Study 248

Water Pressure--exercises 248

Study of Air 249

The barometer; the common pump; expansive

force of air; composition of air;

oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air 250

Solutions of Solids 255

Solutions of Liquids 256

Solutions of Gases 256

Limestone 256

Carbon 257

Hydrogen 258

Magnets 258

Electricity 259

Steam 260

Farm tools--machines; problems 260

CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SPRING

Method of Improving Home and School Grounds 263

Making and Care of a Lawn; References 264

Soil Studies 265

Weight 265

Subsoils 266

Fertilizers--experiments 268

Soil-forming Agents 268

Tilling the Soil 269

Garden Work--experiments in plots out-of-doors 270

Function of Parts of Plants 273

How the plant gets its food from the soil;

germination of some of the common grains 274

Weeds 278

Vines 279

Wild Flowers 279

Planting of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous

Perennials in Home and School Grounds 280

Shade trees; transplanting 281

Animal Studies 283

Scale Insects 283

San Jose scale; oyster-shell bark-louse; cutworms; white grubs 283

Crayfish 285

Freshwater Mussel 286

Bird Study 287

Different Aspects of Nature Study 288

PREFATORY NOTE

This Manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that the

suggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books of

reference, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers

and in particular to those who have had little or no instruction in

Nature Study during their academic or professional training.

The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have general

reference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manual

deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the

different Public and Separate School Forms. While this division of the

matter into Forms is convenient for general classification, it is not to

be regarded as arbitrary. Materials and methods of presentation suitable

for one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under different

conditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same

Form. For example, work which would be suitable for a class in Form I

made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age,

after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons

received special attention, would not be suitable for a Form I class

made up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such

previous training. In selecting work for any class the teacher,

therefore, should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the

Manual, but should exercise his own judgment, taking into account his

environment and the attainments of his pupils. To facilitate such a

selection, page references are given in the details of the Course of

Study, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public and

Separate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these references,

the teacher may find, in any department of the subject, typical matter

suited to the development of his pupils.

The numerous type lessons that are contained in the Manual are intended

to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon

the same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned against

attempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by the

teacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation should

include the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used.

The books, bulletins, etc., that are named in the Manual as references

will be found helpful.

To facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigation

methods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simple

apparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher.

From the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more or

less elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to

be suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to local

conditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, but

all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation

with the Inspector. The treatment of the subject must always be suited

to the age and experience of the pupils, to the seasons of the year,

accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated by the

teacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher,

is not Nature Study. The acquisition of knowledge must be made secondary

to awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and to

training him to habits of observation and investigation.

As a guide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that at

least one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each general

heading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of three

lessons from the subjects under each general heading.

PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL

COURSE OF STUDY

DETAILS

FORM I

AUTUMN

GARDEN WORK AND GARDEN STUDIES:

Division of the garden plots, removal of weeds and observations on these

weeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based on

garden plants, selection of seeds, harvesting and disposing of the crop.

(See pp. 54-9.)

STUDY OF PLANTS:

Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster,

nasturtium; study of a field plant, as buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion.

(See pp. 55-9.)

Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; planting

bulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-71.)

BIRDS AND CONSPICUOUS INSECTS:

Identification of a few common birds, as robin, English sparrow,

meadow-lark; observation lessons on the habits of these birds;

collection of the adult forms, the larvae and the cocoons of a few common

moths and butterflies, as emperor-moth, promothea moth, eastern

swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8.)

COMMON TREES:

Identification of a few common trees, as white pine, elm, maple;

observations on the general shape, branches, leaves, and bark of these

trees. (See pp. 62-7 and 79-82.)

WINTER

FARM ANIMALS, INCLUDING FOWLS:

Habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals, as horse, cow,

sheep, hen, duck; the uses of these animals, and how to take care of

them. (See pp. 83-6.)

PET ANIMALS:

Observations on the habits, movements, and characteristics of pet

animals, as cat, pigeon, bantam, rabbit, etc.; conversations about the

natural homes and habits of these animals, and inferences upon their

care. (See pp. 72-7.)

COMMON TREES:

Observations on the branching of common trees. (See pp. 79-82.)

SPRING

GARDEN WORK:

Preparation, planting, and care of the garden plot; observations on the

growing plants. (See pp. 87-90.)

FLOWERS:

Identification and study of a few spring flowers, as trillium,

bloodroot, hepatica, spring-beauty. (See pp. 90-2.)

BIRDS AND INSECTS:

Identification and study of the habits of a few common birds, as

song-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of a

few common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9.)

COMMON TREES:

Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the

Autumn. (See p. 65.)

FORM II

AUTUMN

BIRDS AND INSECTS:

Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habits

and movements of a few common insects, including their larval forms, as

grasshopper, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9.)

ANIMALS OF THE FARM, FIELD, AND WOOD:

Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad,

squirrel, ground-hog; habits and structures, including adaptive

features, of domestic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and

123-30.)

TREES OF THE FARM, ROADSIDE, WOOD, AND ORCHARD:

Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness of

common orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horse-chestnut.

(See pp. 109-10.)

WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS:

Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means of

persistence and dispersal. (See pp. 139-40.)

CARE OF POTTED AND GARDEN PLANTS:

Preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs; selecting and storing

garden seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, and

application of the knowledge gained to the care required for these

plants. (See pp. 101-9 and 120.)

WINTER

BIRDS:

Identification of winter birds and study of their means of protection

and of obtaining food. (See pp. 130-2.)

ANIMALS OF THE FARM:

Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog and cat, and of the

duck and hen. (See pp. 123-8.)

ANIMALS OF THE PARK AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN:

Observations on the general structural features, noting the natural

adaptations of such animals as bear, lion, deer, tiger, etc. (See p.

132.)

TREES:

Winter study of trees, noting buds, branches, and foliage of spruce,

cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. (See pp. 121-3.)

SPRING

BIRDS AND INSECTS:

Observations on the structure, adaptations and development of insect

larvae kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly,

caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (See pp. 149-153.)

ANIMALS OF THE FIELD AND WOODS:

Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals,

continued. (See pp. 114-8, 143-9.)

ORCHARD TREES:

The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through the

stages up to fruit formation. (See pp. 141-3.)

EXPERIMENTS IN THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS:

Germination of seeds and general observations on the stages of

development; testing the conditions required for seed germination;

introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting.

(See pp. 133-8 and 112-3.)

WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS:

Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in-the-pulpit,

violet, etc. (See pp. 139-40.)

FORM III

AUTUMN

BIRDS AND INSECTS:

Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, as

cabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc.; discussion of means of

checking these insects. (See pp. 156-7 and 172-7.)

FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY:

Field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure,

including adaptive features, of common animals, as musk-rat, fox, fish,

sheep. (See pp. 99 and 183-5.)

GARDEN AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:

Harvesting of garden and field crops; preparation of cuttings from

geraniums, begonia, currant, etc.; identification of garden plants; seed

dispersal. (See pp. 154, 179-80, and 164-8.)

STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS:

Characteristics of annuals, biennials, and perennials; life histories of

common plants, as sweet-pea, Indian corn, etc. (See pp. 158-64 and

168-70.)

STUDY OF WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION:

Identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality; collection,

description, and identification of weed seeds; cause of the prevalence

of the weeds studied, and means of checking them. (See pp. 164-8 and

170-2.)

WINTER

FARM AND WILD ANIMALS OF THE LOCALITY:

Habits and instincts of common domestic animals, as fowls, sheep, and

hogs; the economic values of these animals. (See pp. 185-8.)

GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:

The characteristics of common house plants, and care of these plants.

(See pp. 178-9.)

STUDY OF COMMON FLOWERS, TREES, AND FRUITS:

Comparative study of common evergreens, as balsam, spruce, hemlock,

etc.; collection of wood specimens. (See pp. 181-3.)

OBSERVATIONS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA:

Simple experiments to show the nature of solids, liquids, and gases.

(See pp. 188-9.)

HEAT PHENOMENA:

Source of heat, changes of volume in solids, liquids, and gases,

accompanying changes in temperature; heat transmission; the thermometer

and its uses. (See pp. 189-200.)

SPRING

BIRDS AND INSECTS:

Field and class lessons on the habits, movements, and foods of common

birds, as crow, woodpecker, king-bird, phoebe, blackbird, etc. (See pp.

217-22.)

GARDEN WORK AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS:

Care of garden plots; transplanting; testing best varieties; making of,

and caring for, window boxes; propagation of plants by budding,

cuttings, and layering. (See pp. 201-3 and 208-13.)

COMMON WILD FLOWERS:

Field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers; class-room study of

the plant organs including floral organs; study of weeds and weed seeds

continued, also the study of garden and field annuals, biennials, and

perennials. (See Autumn.) (See pp. 170-2 and 212-5.)

SOIL STUDIES AND EXPERIMENTS:

The components of soils, their origin, properties, and especially their

water absorbing and retaining properties; the relation of soils to plant

growth; experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and of

drainage. (See pp. 203-6.)

FORM IV

AUTUMN

INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS:

Identification of common insects and observations on their habits; means

of combating such insects, as codling moth, etc.; bird identification,

and study of typical members of some common families, as woodpeckers,

flycatchers; spiders. (See pp. 217-22 and 240-5.)

ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS:

Observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots; common

shrubs, vines, and trees, and how to grow them. (See pp. 225-30 and

279.)

FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS:

Simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption, stems as

organs of transmission, and leaves as organs of respiration,

transpiration, and food building. (See pp. 273-8.)

ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS:

Comparative study of varieties of winter apples, of fall apples, or of

other fruits of the locality; visits to orchards; weed studies

continued. (See Form III.) (See pp. 229-30 and 239-40.)

RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS:

Soil-forming agents, as running water, ice, frost, heat, wind, plants,

and animals, and inferences as to methods of tillage. (See pp. 268-70.)

WINTER

AIR AND LIQUID PRESSURE:

Simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air; simple tests

to demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure; the application

of air pressure in the barometer, the common pump, the bicycle tire,

etc. (See pp. 248-52.)

OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE:

Generate each of these gases and test for properties, as colour, odour,

combustion, action with lime-water; the place occupied by these gases in

nature. (See pp. 252-5.)

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF HEAT, STEAM, AND ELECTRICITY:

Making a simple voltaic cell, an electro-magnet, and a simple

electroscope. Test the current by means of the two latter and also with

an electric bell. Explain the application of the above in the electric

telegraph and motor. Simple demonstration of pressure of steam; history

and uses of the steam-engine. (See pp. 259-60.)

SPRING

INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS AND BIRDS:

Identification of noxious insects and observations thereon; study of

representatives of common families of birds, as thrushes, warblers,

sparrows; economic values of birds. (See pp. 283-5 and 286-7.)

AQUATIC ANIMALS:

Observation exercises upon the habits, movements, and structures,

including adaptive features of aquatic animals, as crayfish, mussel,

tadpole, etc. (See pp. 285-6.)

ORNAMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN PLOTS:

Experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection;

ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants; how to

improve the school grounds and the home lawns. (See pp. 270-3 and

263-5.)

TREE STUDIES:

Comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees, how to

plant and how to take care of shade trees. (See pp. 280-2.)

THE FUNCTIONS OF PLANT ORGANS:

Examination of the organs of common flowers; use of root, flower organs,

fruit, and seed. (See pp. 273-8.)

ECONOMIC STUDY OF PLANTS:

Plants of the lawn and garden; weed studies. (See pp. 263-5, 270-3, and

278-9.)

RELATION OF SOIL AND SOIL TILLAGE TO FARM CROPS:

Study of subsoils; capillarity in soils; benefits of crop rotations and

mulching; experiments in fertilizing, mulching, depth of planting, and

closeness of planting. (See pp. 265-7.)

NATURE STUDY

CHAPTER I

THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY

Nature Study means primarily the study of natural things and preferably

of living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its position

on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for the

responsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for life

who lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to his

environment, and it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintain the

bond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects and

phenomena which surround him. To this end it is necessary to adapt the

teaching, in matter and method, to the conditions of the child's life,

that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the better

able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment.

At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the

quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of

investigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness,

which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained to

experiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the worker

finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery,

while, from a fuller understanding of the forces which he must combat

or with which he must co-operate, he reaps better rewards for his

labours.

The claims of Nature Study to an educative value are based not upon a

desire to displace conventional education, but to supplement it, and to

lay a foundation for subsequent reading. Constant exercise of the senses

strengthens these sources of information and develops alertness, and at

the same time the child is kept on familiar ground--the world of

realities. It is for these reasons that Nature Study is frequently

defined as "The Natural Method of Study". Independent observation and

inference should be encouraged to the fullest degree, for one of the

most important, though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modern

intellect, is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode of

accepting the opinions of others. Reading from nature books, the study

of pictures, and other such matter, is not Nature Study. These may

supplement Nature Study, but must not displace the actual vitalizing

contact between the child and natural objects and forces.

It is this contact which is at the basis of clear, definite knowledge;

and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subject

is conducive to clearness and freedom of expression. The Nature Study

lesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons.

Undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can be

claimed for Nature Study is its influence in training the pupil to

appreciate natural objects and phenomena. This implies the widening and

enriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency of

the child to love the fields and woods and birds; the checking of the

selfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness of

each creature, the harmony of its relation to its environment, and the

significance of its every part. Nor is it a mistake to cultivate the

more sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and the

poet. John Ruskin emphasizes this value in these words: "All other

efforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees and

birds and flowers".

GENERAL METHODS IN NATURE STUDY

CONCRETE MATERIAL

It is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributed

that each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercise

his senses, and, from his observations, to deduce inferences and form

judgments. The objects chosen should be mainly from the common things of

the locality. The teacher should be guided in the selection by the

interests of the pupils, first finding out from them the things upon

which they are expending their wonder and inquiry. Trees, field crops,

flowers, birds, animals of the parks, woods, or farmyard, all form

suitable subjects for study.

TOPICS AND MATERIAL MUST SUIT THE SEASON

The material should be selected not only with reference to locality but

also with due regard to season. For example, better Nature Study lessons

can be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giant

Douglas fir of British Columbia; and on the oriole whose nest is in the

elm tree than on the eagle portrayed in Roberts' animal stories; and it

is manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer, or on flowers

and ants in winter.

MATTER MUST BE SUITED TO THE CHILD

For the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different from

that in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupils

have already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants and

animals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city. The

simpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of the

urban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. For

example, while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that he

may learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, the

efforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to the

discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life.

USE OF THE COMMONPLACE

It must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover new

sources of interest, the teacher should strive to accomplish that which

is even greater, namely, to lead them to discover new truth and new

beauty in old, familiar objects. It may be true that "familiarity breeds

contempt" and there is always a danger that the objects with which

children have associated in early life may be passed by as uninteresting

while they go in search of something "new and interesting".

For example, to be able to recognize many plants and to call them by

name is no doubt something of an accomplishment, but it should not be

the chief aim of the teacher in conducting Nature Study lessons on

plants. It is of much greater importance that the child should be led to

love the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility. Such

appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine

flowers and useful plants, and this end can be reached only through

intelligent acquaintanceship. There can be no true appreciation without

knowledge, and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation and

experiment. With reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields,

the method employed is that of continuous observation.

ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. The

attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for these

appeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securing

interest and attention. What does this animal do? How does it do it? How

is it fitted for doing this? How does this plant grow? What fits it for

growing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mind

of the child. They are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry in

child nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effective

means of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature.

The child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own,

does so at first from a purely personal motive, which is perfectly

natural to childhood; but while he studies its needs and observes its

movements and changes, gradually and unconsciously this interest will be

transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of the

child is thus broadened during the process.

PROBLEMS IN OBSERVATION

In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, or

during a nature excursion, or by observations made in the farmyard at

home, the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning to

them definite and suitable problems. Care must be taken to reach the

happy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils of

the pleasure of making original discovery. For example, instead of

asking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can about

it, more specific problems should be assigned, such as: Observe how the

hoof is placed on the ground in walking. What are the arrangements for

lessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground? Examine the under

surface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse from

slipping.

NOTE-BOOKS AND RECORDS

In Grades higher than Form I, written exercises should be required and

also sketches representing the objects studied. For this purpose a

Nature Study note-book is necessary--a loose-leaf note-book being

preferable because of necessary corrections, rearrangements, additions,

or omissions.

In all records and reports, independence of thought and of expression

should be encouraged. The drawing and the oral or written description

should express what is actually observed, not what the book or some

member of the class says has been, or should be, observed. The

descriptions should be in the pupil's own words, because these are most

in keeping with his own ideas on the subject. More correct forms of

expression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher's

dictation, but this is fatal to the development of originality.

The disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity for

impressing upon the pupil, in the first place, the necessity for more

accurate observation and, secondly, the impossibility of reaching a

correct general conclusion without having studied a large number of

examples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which may

result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from

these observations, is vastly more important than the memorizing of many

facts.

THE SCHOOL GARDEN

In the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interest

arising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The love of

the gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does not

usually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plants

produced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist as

well. Most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own and

which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal

sacrifice; therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and school

gardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughout

this Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at once

the chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship. A

careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when

he himself has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore,

that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and,

if possible, to own a plot of ground however small.

The teacher should not merely aim at _making_ a garden in the school

grounds. The great question is rather how best to use a school garden in

connection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do garden

work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of

manual training. To understand something of soils and methods of

cultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of flowers,

vegetables, fruits, and farm crops, and how to grow them successfully,

is very important in such a great agricultural country as this; but the

greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with

school gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils are

taught to observe the growing plants with great care, noting

developments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beauties

and adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail to

produce good results in moral as well as in mental development. The

teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are

working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate.

The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one. It is

rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply

interested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced most

pleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than the

last. No school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and no

garden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl.

SUGGESTIONS

For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of

September, in school sections where school gardening has never been

carried on, the following suggestions are offered:

1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. To

ascertain this, note the size of the present grounds and see if they

meet the requirements of the Department as laid down in the Regulations.

If they do not, consult your Inspector at once and acquaint him with

your plans. If the grounds are to be enlarged, try to take in sufficient

land of good quality to make a good garden. The part chosen for the

garden should be both convenient and safe. Examine the soil to see if it

is well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation.

Lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing.

2. See that the fences and gates are in good repair. When circumstances

will permit, a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs, pigs, and

poultry is most desirable. If not used to inclose the whole grounds, it

should at least inclose the part used for gardening.

3. Begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses.

Sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardening

operations.

4. If local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of school

gardening, or is somewhat adverse, begin on a small scale. If the work

is well done, you will soon have both moral and financial support.

5. See that the land is well drained. Plough it early in the autumn and,

if a load of well-rotted manure is available, spread it on the land

before ploughing. Commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plots

the following spring, but no stable manure.

6. In spring, when dry enough, cultivate thoroughly with disc and drag

harrows. Build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods and

stable manure, for use in the autumn and also the following spring.

GARDEN EXPENSES

In connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma from

the Ontario Agricultural College in Elementary Agriculture and

Horticulture, there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds,

tools, fertilizers, and labour, as the Government grant for such

purposes is sufficient. In other schools, however, where the teacher

holds no such diploma (and such is the case in most of the schools as

yet), other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to. The

following are offered as suggestions along this line:

1. Part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of the

school grounds should be available for school garden expenses.

2. An occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not be

used to better advantage.

3. An occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouring

farms will help to solve the fertilizer problem.

4. Donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interested

persons and societies will be forthcoming, if the teacher is in earnest

and his pupils interested.

5. If it is required, the trustees could make a small grant each year

toward the cost of tools.

6. Fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for by

volunteer assistance from the men of the school section.

7. It is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale,

the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceeds

to be used to meet garden expenses.

8. The pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for the

first season's work.

9. Many Agricultural and Horticultural societies offer very substantial

cash prizes for school garden exhibits, and all funds so obtained should

be used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken.

10. An earnest, resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting the

necessary expenses.

THE EXCURSION

Nature Study is essentially an outdoor subject. While it is true that a

considerable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room by

the aid of aquaria, insectaria, and window boxes, yet the great book of

nature lies outside the school-house walls. The teacher must lead or

direct his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverent

spirit what is written there by its great Author.

~Value.~--The school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings the

pupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying, permits

him to get his knowledge at first hand, and gives him an opportunity of

studying these objects in their natural environment. Incidentally the

excursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions--no

slight advantage for city children especially; and it gives the teacher

a good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint. It also

provides a means of gathering Nature Study material.

~Difficulties.~--Where is the time to be found? How can a large class of

children be managed in the woods or fields? If only one class be taken,

how, in an ungraded school, are the rest of the children to be employed?

Will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing? What if the woods

are miles away? These are all real problems, and the Nature Study

teacher, desirous of doing his work well, will have to face some of them

at least.

SHORT EXCURSIONS

The excursion need not occupy much time. It should be well planned

beforehand. _One_ object only should be kept in view and announced to

the class before starting. Matters foreign or subordinate to this

should be neglected for the time. The following are suggested as objects

for excursions:

~Objects.~--A bird's nest in an adjacent meadow; a ground-hog's hole; a

musk-rat's home; crayfish or clams in the stream near by; a pine (or

other) tree; a toad's day-resort; the soil of a field; the pests of a

neighbouring orchard; a stone-heap or quarry; ants' nests or earthworms'

holes; the weeds of the school yard; buds; the vegetable or animal life

of a pond; sounds of spring; tracks in the snow; a spider's web.

Such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very little

time. Many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundaries

of the school yard.

Of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion, as

it will that of the whole of the work done in Nature Study, but in any

place the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at his

very door.

Much outside work can be done without interfering with the regular

programme. The teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions and

problems for the pupils to solve from their own observations, and these

observations may be made by the pupils at play hours, or while coming or

going from school, or on Saturdays. The following will serve as an

example of the treatment that may be followed:

~Pests of Apple Trees.~--Look on the twigs of your apple trees for little

scales. Bring an infected branch to school. Note whether

unhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected. Examine scales with a

lens. Loosen one, turn it over, and examine with a lens the under side.

For eggs, look closely at the twigs in June. Do you see white specks

moving? If so examine them with a lens.

Are there any small, prematurely ripe apples on the ground in the

orchard? Cut into one of these and look for a "worm". Look for apples

with worm holes in the side. Are there worms in these apples? What is in

them? Note the dirty marks that the larva has left. Keep several apples

in a close box and watch for the "worms" to come out. Examine the bark

of apple trees for pupae in the fall.

FREQUENCY OF EXCURSIONS

As to the frequency of excursions, the teacher will be the best judge.

It is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the Nature

Study work as the need for them arises. One short trip each week with a

single object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternoon

each term spent in aimless wandering about the woods.

EXCURSIONS TO A DISTANCE

Long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent. If the woods

are far away, one such trip in May or June would prove valuable to

enable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers, and another in

October to gather tree seeds, autumn leaves, pupae, and other material

for winter study. When a large class is to be taken on an excursion,

preparations must be made with special care. The teacher and one or two

assistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the work

to be done. Some work must be given to every pupil, and prompt obedience

to every command and signal must be required. The class, for example,

may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers are

there. The pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt for

specimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS

1. The teacher may take all the classes, choosing an object of study

from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, for

example.

2. In many sections, the little ones are dismissed at 3.30 p.m.

Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors.

3. The older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a

monitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for their

conduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms.

4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be

encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found.

5. An occasional Saturday excursion may be arranged.

~Discipline.~--The teacher should insist on making the excursion a serious

part of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviour

cannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground should

give place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound of

the teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and should promptly

respond to every call. Topics of conversations should as far as possible

be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or

related matters.

In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flowers in their

environment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none except

for some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds and

their nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered.

THE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS

As soon as possible after coming to a section, the teacher should

acquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts that

may provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work. He can

then direct the pupils effectively. The teacher should go over the route

of an excursion shortly before it takes place. This prevents waste of

time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. If the

teacher wishes to increase his love for nature, he must take many walks

without his pupils.

The school garden offers a partial solution of the difficulties

mentioned above. It brings a large amount of material to the doors of

the school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under

various changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests,

weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessons

on birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the garden

devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers, ferns, and forest trees, the

specially organized excursion will become less of a necessity, although

it will still continue to be a valuable factor in Nature Study work.

After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The various

facts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupils have made

inaccurate observations, they should be required to observe again to

correct their errors. Finally, the excursion may form the subject of a

composition.

A TYPE EXCURSION

~A Bird's Nest.~--The children have been instructed to study the

meadow-lark, beginning about March twenty-first. While engaged in this

work, a nest is discovered near the school. The teacher is informed and

the pupils are conducted to the spot.

What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? Did the

mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help to

reveal its presence? Is the nest easy to see? The class will halt a few

paces from it and try to find it. How many eggs? Their colour? Note the

arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest.

Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils may

then express themselves by written composition or by drawings,

paintings, or modellings of the nest, the eggs, or the surroundings.

Frequent visits to the nest should not be made, and the pupils should be

warned not to disturb the bird, as she may desert the nest on slight

provocation.

A second excursion may be made, when the eggs are hatched, to see the

young birds.

~A Wasp's Nest.~--A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it is

suspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or to

protection from rain, its colour, the material of the nest, and the

position of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many wasps

enter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one and

watch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old board

fence. This they chew into pulp, and from this pulp their paper is made.

Get the children to verify this by observations. If the nest is likely

to become a nuisance, smoke out the wasps, take the nest carefully down,

and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest to

ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which, in this case

is entirely devoted to larvae.

COLLECTIONS

General school collections of such objects as noxious weeds, weed seeds,

wild flowers, noxious insects, leaves of forest trees, rocks or stones

of the locality, etc., should be undertaken.

All the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to each

collection and should assist in the work of preparing them.

In addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils who

show special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouraged

to make individual collections.

Collections, when properly prepared, have a value within themselves,

because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain, and

also because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and in

the identifying of insects, weeds, etc. Nevertheless the chief value of

the collection rests in the making of it, because of the training that

it gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness, and also because

it causes the child to study natural objects in their natural

surroundings.

ANIMAL STUDIES

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

The teacher, before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals,

should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the following

important aims:

1. The cultivation of a deeper sympathy for, and a more complete

understanding of, farm animals.

2. The development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals through

awakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding.

3. Implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interesting

and profitable.

The following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable for

study: horse, cow, sheep, dog, cat, goose, duck, hen.

There are two practical methods of observation work; namely, home

observation and class-room observation.

The observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity be

done out of school. In this the teacher can direct the efforts of the

pupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by their

study of the animals.

The results of their observations can be discussed in the class in

lessons of ten or fifteen minutes length. It may frequently be necessary

to re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct their

observations.

It is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-room

certain of the animals, as the dog, cat, duck, hen, and the observations

may then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of the

teacher.

REFERENCES

Crawford: _Guide to Nature Study._ Copp Clark Co., 90 cents.

Dearness: _How to Teach the Nature Study Course._ Copp Clark Co., 60

cents.

Shaler: _Domesticated Animals._ Scribners, $2.50.

Smith: _The Uses and Abuses of Domestic Animals._ Jarrold & Sons, 50

cents.

BIRDS

The chief aims in developing lessons on birds are:

1. To teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours, to love

them for their beauty, and sweet songs, and their sprightly ways.

2. To train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness in

destroying insect pests.

Many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds, yet they

never hear their songs. Many children see and hear the birds, but if

they have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them, they

never learn to appreciate them; on the contrary, their attitude becomes

one of indifference or of destructiveness. Too often, boys cruelly

destroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone and

catapult. The cowardice of such acts should be condemned, but more

effective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find in

the birds assistants and companions that contribute to their material

progress and to their joy in life.

With these aims in view, the teacher will readily perceive that the most

effective work in bird study results from observing the living birds in

their natural environment. Field excursions are valuable for this, but

good results can seldom be attained when the class is large, for birds

are shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement. Quietness

is absolutely necessary for success. Better results are obtained when

only one or two accompany the teacher. If the teacher selects a few who

are interested in birds, and there are always some pupils in every

school who are readily interested in bird study, these few can soon be

made sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds, so that they

will be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school, and

thus they become the teacher's assistants in the work.

By beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds, an acquaintance

grows rapidly. Early spring is a good time to begin, when the first

birds return from their winter sojourn. The teacher and pupils may now

learn to recognize the birds, because there are only a few, and these

are easily seen, as the robin, blue-bird, junco, meadow-lark, goldfinch,

bronzed grackle, sapsucker, blue jay, downy woodpecker, and flicker.

The teacher, assisted by the pupils who already know these birds,

directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen, and they

are also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them by

means of the bird chart or colour key.

The description should include:

Size (compare with some common bird); shape; colour of head, back, and

breast; conspicuous markings, as crest, stripes, bright patches of

feathers; movements in flight or on the ground; song, call notes;

whether in flocks, or pairs, or single birds.

Later in spring, other birds will attract attention, as the

song-sparrow, phoebe, wren, horned lark, cowbird, and red-winged

blackbird; while in summer the oriole, catbird, vesper sparrow, American

redstart, night hawk, scarlet tanager, and crested flycatcher are some

of the birds that will call for attention, because of their plumage,

songs, or peculiar habits.

When a nest has been found by a pupil, he should report it to the

teacher, and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only upon

promising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird by

remaining too long near it. While it is well that the pupils should see

the nest with the young birds, they should be taught to respect the

desire of the bird for quietness and seclusion.

In studying the nest, observe: Concealment, protection, size, comfort,

number and colour of eggs, young birds, size, colour, covering, food.

The pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus:

Watch the wrens returning to the nest; what do they carry to their

young? Where do the wrens get the snails and grubs? Observe how the

robins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground. Follow

the downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking.

Watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird kills

grasshoppers and crickets.

Observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds.

Collecting birds' eggs should be condemned, because it nearly always

leads to the robbing of the nests. The practice of exchanging eggs is

the chief cause of this; for although an occasional boy will collect

wisely, the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collection

without regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes.

A collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have been

abandoned for the season, and it will be found useful for interesting

the pupils in the ingenuity, neatness, and instinctive foresight of the

builders.

REFERENCES

Chapman and Reed: _Colour Key to North American Birds_ $2.75

Reed: _Bird Guide, Pts. I and II_ .75

Silcox and Stevenson: _Modern Nature Study_ .75

Cornish: _Thirty Lessons in Nature Study on Birds._ Dominion Book

Company 1.00

_Canadian Birds in Relation to Agriculture._ This chart has pictures in

colours of eighty-eight Canadian birds. G. M. Hendry Co., $3.00.

_The Audubon Charts._ These three charts have pictures of fifty-five

birds; the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the first

named. G. M. Hendry Co., $2.00 each.

_Coloured Bird Pictures_, Mumford, Chicago, (separate coloured pictures)

are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds.

INSECTS

There are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to the

pupils of the Junior Grades, and the teacher who makes direct use of

this natural interest has taken possession of the key to success in

insect study in the primary classes.

The three classes, basing the classification upon their power to attract

attention, are:

The beautiful insects, including moths, butterflies, and beetles,

The wonderful insects, including such insects as ants, ant-lions,

caddice-flies, etc.,

The economic insects, including bees, silk-worms, codling-moths, etc.

Economic insects are interesting because of their relations to the

occupations of the home. The successful growing of farm, orchard, and

garden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insect

and bird life.

The teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited to

allow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of Nature Study

should cast his misgivings aside; for it is not difficult for the

teacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to become

acquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attract

the attention of the pupils of the Nature Study classes.

The following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides to

teacher or pupil:

Obtain books and pamphlets from the Department of Agriculture, Toronto,

on the subject of Insect Pests on Farm Crops and Fruit Trees.

Secure a good general book on insects. _Modern Nature Study_, by Silcox

and Stevenson, contains illustrations of several of the most common

moths and butterflies, which are clear enough to make possible the

identification of the forms represented. Comstock's _Manual for the

Study of Insects_ is the best general book on the subject. This, and

Holland's _The Moth Book_ and _The Butterfly Book_, are valuable for

those who wish to follow the study of insects at any length.

Begin by studying the more conspicuous moths, butterflies, and beetles,

and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselves

into prominence by causing destruction of grain, vegetable, or fruit

crops in the locality. The utility phase of lessons on these insects

will appeal to the older children and also to their parents. Moreover,

these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtain

literature dealing with their life histories and habits.

Carefully observe the colour, size, and shape of the insect, and note

the plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding. Consult

available books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects that

feed upon this plant, and study carefully what is said about the insect

observed. If this method is persistently followed, the teacher will be

surprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insects

broadens.

Pictures of moths, butterflies, and beetles are of great assistance in

the identification of these insects.

A school collection, made from the insects studied, is useful for future

collection and for identification of insects. Do not allow any insect to

be killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in the

collection, or unless it is known to be an injurious insect. The

teacher, by exercising proper control of the collecting, has an

efficient means of teaching the sacredness of life. The fact should be

emphasized that killing even an insect, when there is no good reason for

doing so, is the act of a mean and selfish coward.

In addition to a collection of insects, including larval and pupal

forms, collections of insect nests, of plant galls, of markings of

engraver beetles, of burrows of tree borers, and of samples of the

destructive workings of insect pests should be made.

While nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection of

moths, butterflies, and beetles with their infinite variety of form and

colour, nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection of

distorted, shrivelled, vermin-infested specimens. The teacher should

avail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys of

nine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things done

well, to develop in them habits of carefulness, neatness, and

thoroughness.

INSECT COLLECTIONS

See Manual on _Manual Training_, for details for making collecting

appliances.

Agricultural Bulletin No. 8, _Nature Collections for Schools_,

Department of Education, Ontario, for detailed instructions on making

insect collections.

The outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare. It

consists of (1) an insect net for catching the insects, made by sewing a

bag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter, which is

fastened to a broom handle; (2) a cyanide bottle for killing the

insects, prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps of

potassium cyanide (three pieces, each of the size of a pea) in a

wide-mouthed bottle. When the plaster has set, keep the bottle tightly

corked to retain the poisonous gases. (3) Pins to mount the specimens.

Entomological pins, Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are the best for general use.

Beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about one

fourth of its length from the front end of it. Moths and butterflies are

pinned through the thorax. Small insects may be fastened to a very small

pin, which in turn is set into a bit of cork, supported by a pin of

ordinary size. (4) Spreading board for moths and butterflies. (5) Insect

boxes to hold the specimens. This should be secured before the

collection is begun. It is a common mistake to believe that any box

whatever will do for storing insects. It is necessary to encourage

effort in drying, spreading, pinning, and labelling, by providing an

effective means of permanently preserving the specimens. In cigar-boxes,

pasteboard boxes, and such makeshifts, the specimens soon become broken,

covered with dust, and marred in other ways, and the collectors become

discouraged; hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers in

entomological supplies.

A sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box at

intervals of not more than three months, to ensure the killing of

parasites that destroy the specimens.

Entomological supplies may be obtained from Chapman & Co., London, Ont.,

or from G. M. Hendry Co., Toronto, Ont., or from Messrs. Watters Bros.,

Guelph, Ont.

BUTTERFLY AND MOTH COLLECTIONS

For a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths, it is

necessary to have an insect cage. This can be purchased from any dealer

in entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the Manual

Training Class. See Manual on _Manual Training_. A very satisfactory

cage may be made, by the teacher or larger pupils, from a soap box, by

tacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box, removing the nails

from one of the boards of the bottom, and converting this board into a

door by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hook

and staple. The box, if now placed on end with two inches of loose soil

in the bottom, will constitute a satisfactory insect cage, or vivarium.

A large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful for

inclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larvae are developing.

The base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and the

development of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can be

studied.

The following are larvae suitable for study and may be found in the

places named:

The tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants. (Look for stems whose

leaves have been stripped off.)

The milkweed butterfly larvae on milkweed,

The potato beetle on potato vines,

The eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants,

The tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts,

The promothea moth on lilac bushes,

The cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants,

The red-spotted purple, banded purple, and viceroy butterfly larvae on

willow and alder,

Cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark, logs, and rubbish in

early autumn.

Larvae of the emperor-moth (cecropia) may be found wandering about,

apparently aimlessly, in September; but they are searching for suitable

places for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees.

After the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees, cocoons can be found

more easily on the naked twigs or in withered, rolled-up leaves that are

fastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches.

Larvae, when placed in the cage, should be supplied with green plant food

such as they were found feeding upon, and the pupils should be

instructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving. It

will be found that some larvae burrow into the soil.

During winter the cage should be kept in a cool place, such as a shed,

so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible.

In a few cases, the development within the cocoon is quite rapid; and

the adult form hatches out in a few weeks, for example, the

cabbage-butterfly, monarch or milkweed butterfly, and tussock-moth. For

this reason these are preferable for study by Form I pupils. In April

the cage should be placed in the school-room, that the pupils may

observe the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings. The

insects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong, then the

pupils should set them free.

Reference.--_Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario_,

Department of Agriculture.

PLANT COLLECTIONS

The instructions given below for collecting, pressing, and mounting

plants are applicable to wild flowers, grains, grasses, and weeds.

~The specimen.~--Select a plant which in form and size is typical of its

species and which is in full flower. Care must be taken to dig down and

secure the root.

If the plant is too large for the mounting sheet, cut out the central

part, and use the root, lower leaves, upper leaves, and flower. If the

root is very thick, cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduce

it to a flat form that is not too bulky.

Before the plant has had time to wither, spread it out flat on a sheet

of paper and spread another sheet over it, taking care to straighten the

leaves and flower out. Blotting-paper is preferable, but any soft paper

that will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute.

~Pressing and drying.~--Place several sheets of paper above and below the

specimen. Any number of specimens prepared as described in the last

paragraph may be placed in a pile, one over another, resting on the

floor or on a table. Place on top of the pile a board which is large

enough to cover the surface of the pile, and on the board place a weight

of about fifteen pounds of bricks, or other convenient material. A box

containing sand, stones, or coal may be used in place of the board and

weights. The weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of the

plants.

To prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants, the papers around

them must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals:

two days, three days, five days, one week, etc., until they are quite

dry. The length of time required for pressing and drying depends upon

the quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidity

of the atmosphere.

~Mounting.~--When dry, the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy white

paper. These sheets are cut to a standard size, eleven inches by

fourteen inches, or sheets of half this size, namely, seven inches by

eleven inches; are permissible. The best method of attaching the plant

to the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across the

plant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it in

position.

~Labelling.~--The name of the specimen, the date of collection, the place

from which collected, and the name of the collector are to be neatly

written in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Printed

labels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used.

Collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that given

for plants. Leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface is

covered with varnish or paraffin, which will prevent the admission of

air.

To cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin.