PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN

Produced by Dianne Bean

THE MASTERY OF THE AIR

By William J. Claxton

PREFACE

This book makes no pretence of going minutely into the technical and

scientific sides of human flight: rather does it deal mainly with the

real achievements of pioneers who have helped to make aviation what it

is to-day.

My chief object has been to arouse among my readers an intelligent

interest in the art of flight, and, profiting by friendly criticism

of several of my former works, I imagine that this is best obtained by

setting forth the romance of triumph in the realms of an element which

has defied man for untold centuries, rather than to give a mass of

scientific principles which appeal to no one but the expert.

So rapid is the present development of aviation that it is difficult to

keep abreast with the times. What is new to-day becomes old to-morrow.

The Great War has given a tremendous impetus to the strife between the

warring nations for the mastery of the air, and one can but give a rough

and general impression of the achievements of naval and military airmen

on the various fronts.

Finally, I have tried to bring home the fact that the fascinating

progress of aviation should not be confined entirely to the airman and

constructor of air-craft; in short, this progress is not a record of

events in which the mass of the nation have little personal concern, but

of a movement in which each one of us may take an active and intelligent

part.

I have to thank various aviation firms, airmen, and others who

have kindly come to my assistance, either with the help of valuable

information or by the loan of photographs. In particular, my thanks are

due to the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service for permission

to reproduce illustrations from their two publications on the work and

training of their respective corps; to the Aeronautical Society of Great

Britain; to Messrs. C. G. Spencer & Sons, Highbury; The Sopwith Aviation

Company, Ltd.; Messrs. A. V. Roe & Co., Ltd.; The Gnome Engine Company;

The Green Engine Company; Mr. A. G. Gross (Geographia, Ltd.); and M.

Bleriot; for an exposition of the internal-combustion engine I have

drawn on Mr. Horne's The Age of Machinery.

PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS

I. MAN'S DUEL WITH NATURE

II. THE FRENCH PAPER-MAKER WHO INVENTED THE BALLOON

III. THE FIRST MAN TO ASCEND IN A BALLOON

IV. THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND

V. THE FATHER OF BRITISH AERONAUTS

VI. THE PARACHUTE

VII. SOME BRITISH INVENTORS OF AIR-SHIPS

VIII. THE FIRST ATTEMPTS TO STEER A BALLOON

IX. THE STRANGE CAREER OF COUNT ZEPPELIN

X. A ZEPPELIN AIR-SHIP AND ITS CONSTRUCTION

XI. THE SEMI-RIGID AIR-SHIP

XII. A NON-RIGID BALLOON

XIII. THE ZEPPELIN AND GOTHA RAIDS

PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN

XIV. EARLY ATTEMPTS IN AVIATION

XV. A PIONEER IN AVIATION

XVI. THE "HUMAN BIRDS"

XVII. THE AEROPLANE AND THE BIRD

XVIII. A GREAT BRITISH INVENTOR OF AEROPLANES

XIX. THE WRIGHT BROTHERS AND THEIR SECRET EXPERIMENTS

XX. THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE

XXI. THE INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE (Con't.)

XXII. THE AEROPLANE ENGINE

XXIII. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR OF AVIATION ENGINES

XXIV. THE WRIGHT BIPLANE (CAMBER OF PLANES)

XXV. THE WRIGHT BIPLANE (Cont.)

XXVI. HOW THE WRIGHTS LAUNCHED THEIR BIPLANE

XXVII. THE FIRST MAN TO FLY IN EUROPE

XXVIII. M. BLARIOT AND THE MONOPLANE

XXIX. HENRI FARMAN AND THE VOISIN BIPLANE

XXX. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR

XXXI. THE ROMANCE OF A COWBOY AERONAUT

XXXII. THREE HISTORIC FLIGHTS

XXXIII. THREE HISTORIC FLIGHTS (Cont.)

XXXIV. THE HYDROPLANE AND AIR-BOAT

XXXV. A FAMOUS BRITISH INVENTOR OF THE WATER-PLANE

XXXVI. SEA-PLANES FOR WARFARE

XXXVII. THE FIRST MAN TO FLY IN BRITAIN

XXXVIII.THE R.F.C. AND R.N.A.S.

XXXIX. AEROPLANES IN THE GREAT WAR

XL. THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE BAROMETER

XLI. HOW AN AIRMAN KNOWS WHAT HEIGHT HE REACHES

XLII. HOW AN AIRMAN FINDS HIS WAY

XLIII. THE FIRST AIRMAN TO FLY UPSIDE DOWN

XLIV. THE FIRST ENGLISHMAN TO FLY UPSIDE DOWN

XLV. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE

XLVI. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE (Cont.)

XLVII. ACCIDENTS AND THEIR CAUSE (COnt.)

XLVIII. SOME TECHNICAL TERMS USED By AVIATORS

XLIX. THE FUTURE IN THE AIR

THE MASTERY OF THE AIR

PART I. BALLOONS AND AIR-SHIPS

CHAPTER I. Man's Duel with Nature

Of all man's great achievements none is, perhaps, more full of human

interest than are those concerned with flight. We regard ourselves

as remarkable beings, and our wonderful discoveries in science and

invention induce us to believe we are far and away the cleverest of all

the living creatures in the great scheme of Creation. And yet in

the matter of flight the birds beat us; what has taken us years of

education, and vast efforts of intelligence, foresight, and daring to

accomplish, is known by the tiny fledglings almost as soon as they come

into the world.

It is easy to see why the story of aviation is of such romantic

interest. Man has been exercising his ingenuity, and deliberately

pursuing a certain train of thought, in an attempt to harness the forces

of Nature and compel them to act in what seems to be the exact converse

of Nature's own arrangements.

One of the mysteries of Nature is known as the FORCE OF GRAVITY. It is

not our purpose in this book to go deeply into a study of gravitation;

we may content ourselves with the statement, first proved by Sir Isaac

Newton, that there is an invisible force which the Earth exerts on all

bodies, by which it attracts or draws them towards itself. This property

does not belong to the Earth alone, but to all matter--all matter

attracts all other matter. In discussing the problems of aviation we are

concerned mainly with the mutual attraction of The Earth and the bodies

on or near its surface; this is usually called TERRESTRIAL gravity.

It has been found that every body attracts very other body with a force

directly proportionate to its mass. Thus we see that, if every particle

in a mass exerts its attractive influence, the more particles a body

contains the greater will be the attraction. If a mass of iron be

dropped to the ground from the roof of a building at the same time as a

cork of similar size, the iron and the cork would, but for the retarding

effect of the air, fall to the ground together, but the iron would

strike the ground with much greater force than the cork. Briefly stated,

a body which contains twice as much matter as another is attracted

or drawn towards the centre of the Earth with twice the force of that

other; if the mass be five times as great, then it will be attracted

with five times the force, and so on.

It is thus evident that the Earth must exert an overwhelming attractive

force on all bodies on or near its surface. Now, when man rises from the

ground in an aeroplane he is counter-acting this force by other forces.

A short time ago the writer saw a picture which illustrated in a very

striking manner man's struggle with Nature. Nature was represented as

a giant of immense stature and strength, standing on a globe with

outstretched arms, and in his hands were shackles of great size. Rising

gracefully from the earth, immediately in front of the giant, was

an airman seated in a modern flying-machine, and on his face was a

happy-go-lucky look as though he were delighting in the duel between him

and the giant. The artist had drawn the picture so skilfully that one

could imagine the huge, knotted fingers grasping the shackles were

itching to bring the airman within their clutch. The picture was

entitled "MAN TRIUMPHANT"

No doubt many of those who saw that picture were reminded of the great

sacrifices made by man in the past. In the wake of the aviator there are

many memorial stones of mournful significance.

It says much for the pluck and perseverance of aviators that they have

been willing to run the great risks which ever accompany their efforts.

Four years of the Great War have shown how splendidly airmen have risen

to the great demands made upon them. In dispatch after dispatch from

the front, tribute has been paid to the gallant and devoted work of the

Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. In a long and bitter

struggle British airmen have gradually asserted their supremacy in the

air. In all parts of the globe, in Egypt, in Mesopotamia, in Palestine,

in Africa, the airman has been an indispensable adjunct of the

fighting forces. Truly it may be said that mastery of the air is the

indispensable factor of final victory.

CHAPTER II. The French Paper-maker who Invented the Balloon

In the year 1782 two young Frenchmen might have been seen one winter

night sitting over their cottage fire, performing the curious experiment

of filling paper bags with smoke, and letting them rise up towards

the ceiling. These young men were brothers, named Stephen and Joseph

Montgolfier, and their experiments resulted in the invention of the

balloon.

The brothers, like all inventors, seem to have had enquiring minds.

They were for ever asking the why and the wherefore of things. "Why

does smoke rise?" they asked. "Is there not some strange power in the

atmosphere which makes the smoke from chimneys and elsewhere rise in

opposition to the force of gravity? If so, cannot we discover this

power, and apply it to the service of mankind?"

We may imagine that such questions were in the minds of those two French

paper-makers, just as similar questions were in the mind of James

Watt when he was discovering the power of steam. But one of the most

important attributes of an inventor is an infinite capacity for taking

pains, together with great patience.

And so we find the two brothers employing their leisure in what to us

would, be a childish pastime, the making of paper balloons. The story

tells us that their room was filled with smoke, which issued from the

windows as though the house were on fire. A neighbour, thinking such

was the case, rushed in, but, on being assured that nothing serious was

wrong, stayed to watch the tiny balloons rise a little way from the thin

tray which contained the fire that made the smoke with which the bags

were filled. The experiments were not altogether successful, however,

for the bags rarely rose more than a foot or so from the tray. The

neighbour suggested that they should fasten the thin tray on to the

bottom of the bag, for it was thought that the bags would not ascend

higher because the smoke became cool; and if the smoke were imprisoned

within the bag much better results would be obtained. This was done,

and, to the great joy of the brothers and their visitor, the bag at once

rose quickly to the ceiling.

But though they could make the bags rise their great trouble was that

they did not know the cause of this ascent. They thought, however, that

they were on the eve of some great discovery, and, as events proved,

they were not far wrong. For a time they imagined that the fire they had

used generated some special gas, and if they could find out the nature

of this gas, and the means of making it in large quantities, they would

be able to add to their success.

Of course, in the light of modern knowledge, it seems strange that the

brothers did not know that the reason the bags rose, was not because of

any special gas being used, but owing to the expansion of air under the

influence of heat, whereby hot air tends to rise. Every schoolboy above

the age of twelve knows that hot air rises upwards in the atmosphere,

and that it continues to rise until its temperature has become the same

as that of the surrounding air.

The next experiment was to try their bags in the open air. Choosing a

calm, fine day, they made a fire similar to that used in their first

experiments, and succeeded in making the bag rise nearly 100 feet. Later

on, a much larger craft was built, which was equally successful.

And now we must leave the experiments of the Montgolfiers for a

moment, and turn to the discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish,

a well-known London chemist. In 1766 Cavendish proved conclusively that

hydrogen gas was not more than one-seventh the weight of ordinary air.

It at once occurred to Dr. Black, of Glasgow, that if a thin bag could

be filled with this light gas it would rise in the air; but for various

reasons his experiments did not yield results of a practical nature for

several years.

Some time afterwards, about a year before the Montgolfiers commenced

their experiments which we have already described, Tiberius Cavallo, an

Italian chemist, succeeded in making, with hydrogen gas, soap-bubbles

which rose in the air. Previous to this he had experimented with

bladders and paper bags; but the bladders he found too heavy, and the

paper too porous.

It must not be thought that the Montgolfiers experimented solely with

hot air in the inflation of their balloons. At one time they used steam,

and, later on, the newly-discovered hydrogen gas; but with both these

agents they were unsuccessful. It can easily be seen why steam was of no

use, when we consider that paper was employed; hydrogen, too, owed its

lack of success to the same cause for the porosity of the paper allowed

the gas to escape quickly.

It is said that the name "balloon" was given to these paper craft

because they resembled in shape a large spherical vessel used in

chemistry, which was known by that name. To the brothers Montgolfier

belongs the honour of having given the name to this type of aircraft,

which, in the two succeeding centuries, became so popular.

After numerous experiments the public were invited to witness the

inflation of a particularly huge balloon, over 30 feet in diameter.

This was accomplished over a fire made of wool and straw. The ascent was

successful, and the balloon, after rising to a height of some 7000 feet,

fell to earth about two miles away.

It may be imagined that this experiment aroused enormous interest in

Paris, whence the news rapidly spread over all France and to Britain.

A Parisian scientific society invited Stephen Montgolfier to Paris in

order that the citizens of the metropolis should have their imaginations

excited by seeing the hero of these remarkable experiments. Montgolfier

was not a rich man, and to enable him to continue his experiments the

society granted him a considerable sum of money. He was then enabled to

construct a very fine balloon, elaborately decorated and painted, which

ascended at Versailles in the presence of the Court.

To add to the value of this experiment three animals were sent up in a

basket attached to the balloon. These were a sheep, a cock, and a duck.

All sorts of guesses were made as to what would be the fate of the "poor

creatures". Some people imagined that there was little or no air in

those higher regions and that the animals would choke; others said they

would be frozen to death. But when the balloon descended the cock was

seen to be strutting about in his usual dignified way, the sheep was

chewing the cud, and the duck was quacking for water and worms.

At this point we will leave the work of the brothers Montgolfier. They

had succeeded in firing the imagination of nearly every Frenchman, from

King Louis down to his humblest subject. Strange, was it not, though

scores of millions of people had seen smoke rise, and clouds float, for

untold centuries, yet no one, until the close of the eighteenth century,

thought of making a balloon?

The learned Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon, who lived in the thirteenth

century, seems to have thought of the possibility of producing a

contrivance that would float in air. His idea was that the earth's

atmosphere was a "true fluid", and that it had an upper surface as the

ocean has. He quite believed that on this upper surface--subject, in his

belief, to waves similar to those of the sea--an air-ship might float if

it once succeeded in rising to the required height. But the difficulty

was to reach the surface of this aerial sea. To do this he proposed to

make a large hollow globe of metal, wrought as thin as the skill of man

could make it, so that it might be as light as possible, and this vast

globe was to be filled with "liquid fire". Just what "liquid fire" was,

one cannot attempt to explain, and it is doubtful if Bacon himself

had any clear idea. But he doubtless thought of some gaseous substance

lighter than air, and so he would seem to have, at least, hit upon the

principle underlying the construction of the modern balloon. Roger Bacon

had ideas far in advance of his time, and his experiments made such an

impression of wonder on the popular mind that they were believed to be

wrought by black magic, and the worthy monk was classed among those who

were supposed to be in league with Satan.

CHAPTER III. The First Man to Ascend in a Balloon

The safe descent of the three animals, which has already been related,

showed the way for man to venture up in a balloon. In our time we marvel

at the daring of modern airmen, who ascend to giddy heights, and, as

it were, engage in mortal combat with the demons of the air. But,

courageous though these deeds are, they are not more so than those of

the pioneers of ballooning.

In the eighteenth century nothing was known definitely of the conditions

of the upper regions of the air, where, indeed, no human being had

ever been; and though the frail Montgolfier balloons had ascended and

descended with no outward happenings, yet none could tell what might

be the risk to life in committing oneself to an ascent. There was, too,

very special danger in making an ascent in a hot-air balloon. Underneath

the huge envelope was suspended a brazier, so that the fabric of the

balloon was in great danger of catching fire.

It was at first suggested that two French criminals under sentence of

death should be sent up, and, if they made a safe descent, then the

way would be open for other aeronauts to venture aloft. But everyone

interested in aeronautics in those days saw that the man who first

traversed the unexplored regions of the air would be held in high

honour, and it seemed hardly right that this honour should fall to

criminals. At any rate this was the view of M. Pilatre de Rozier, a

French gentleman, and he determined himself to make the pioneer ascent.

De Rozier had no false notion of the risks he was prepared to run, and

he superintended with the greatest care the construction of his balloon.

It was of enormous size, with a cage slung underneath the brazier for

heating the air. Befors making his free ascent De Rozier made a trial

ascent with the balloon held captive by a long rope.

At length, in November, 1783, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlandes as

a passenger, he determined to venture. The experiment aroused immense

excitement all over France, and a large concourse of people were

gathered together on the outskirts of Paris to witness the risky feat.

The balloon made a perfect ascent, and quickly reached a height of

about half a mile above sea-level. A strong current of air in the upper

regions caused the balloon to take an opposite direction from that

intended, and the aeronauts drifted right over Paris. It would have gone

hard with them if they had been forced to descend in the city, but the

craft was driven by the wind to some distance beyond the suburbs and

they alighted quite safely about six miles from their starting-point,

after having been up in the air for about half an hour.

Their voyage, however, had by no means been free from anxiety. We are

told that the fabric of the balloon repeatedly caught fire, which it

took the aeronauts all their time to extinguish. At times, too, they

came down perilously near to the Seine, or to the housetops of Paris,

but after the most exciting half-hour of their lives they found

themselves once more on Mother Earth.

Here we must make a slight digression and speak of the invention of

the hydrogen, or gas, balloon. In a previous chapter we read of the

discovery of hydrogen gas by Henry Cavendish, and the subsequent

experiments with this gas by Dr. Black, of Glasgow. It was soon

decided to try to inflate a balloon with this "inflammable air"--as

the newly-discovered gas was called--and with this end in view a large

public subscription was raised in France to meet the heavy expenses

entailed in the venture. The work was entrusted to a French scientist,

Professor Charles, and two brothers named Robert.

It was quickly seen that paper, such as was used by the Montgolfiers,

was of little use in the construction of a gas balloon, for the gas

escaped. Accordingly the fabric was made of silk and varnished with a

solution of india-rubber and turpentine. The first hydrogen balloon was

only about 13 feet in diameter, for in those early days the method of

preparing hydrogen was very laborious and costly, and the constructors

thought it advisable not to spend too much money over the initial

experiments, in case they should be a failure.

In August, 1783--an eventful year in the history of aeronautics--the

first gas-inflated balloon was sent up, of course unaccompanied by

a passenger. It shot up high in the air much more rapidly than

Montgolfier's hot-air balloon had done, and was soon beyond the clouds.

After a voyage of nearly an hour's duration it descended in a field some

15 miles away. We are told that some peasants at work near by fled in

the greatest alarm at this strange monster which settled in their midst.

An old print shows them cautiously approaching the balloon as it lay

heaving on the ground, stabbing it with pitchforks, and beating it with

flails and sticks. The story goes that one of the alarmed farmers poured

a charge of shot into it with his gun, no doubt thinking that he had

effectually silenced the panting demon contained therein. To prevent

such unseemly occurrences in the future the French Government found

it necessary to warn the people by proclamation that balloons were

perfectly harmless objects, and that the experiments would be repeated.

We now have two aerial craft competing for popular favour: the

Montgolfier hot-air balloon and the "Charlier" or gas-inflated balloon.

About four months after the first trial trip of the latter the inventors

decided to ascend in a specially-constructed hydrogen-inflated craft.

This balloon, which was 27 feet in diameter, contained nearly all the

features of the modern balloon. Thus there was a valve at the top by

means of which the gas could be let out as desired; a cord net covered

the whole fabric, and from the loop which it formed below the neck of

the balloon a car was suspended; and in the car there was a quantity of

ballast which could be cast overboard when necessary.

It may be imagined that this new method of aerial navigation had

thoroughly aroused the excitability of the French nation, so that

thousands of people were met together just outside Paris on the 17th

December to see Professor Charles and his mechanic, Robelt, ascend in

their new craft. The ascent was successful in every way; the intrepid

aeronauts, who carried a barometer, found that they had quickly reached

an altitude of over a mile.

After remaining aloft for nearly two hours they came down. Professor

Charles decided to ascend again, this time by himself, and with a much

lighter load the balloon rose about two miles above sea-level. The

temperature at this height became very low, and M. Charles was affected

by violent pain in his right ear and jaw. During the voyage he witnessed

the strange phenomenon of a double sunset; for, before the ascent, the

sun had set behind the hills overshadowing the valleys, and when he

rose above the hill-tops he saw the sun again, and presently saw it

set again. There is no doubt that the balloon would have risen several

thousand feet higher, but the professor thought it would burst, and he

opened the valve, eventually making a safe descent about 7 miles from

his starting-place.

England lagged behind her French neighbour's in balloon

aeronautics--much as she has recently done in aviation--for a

considerable time, and, it was not till August of the following year

(1784) that the first balloon ascent was made in Great Britain, by Mr.

J. M. Tytler. This took place at Edinburgh in a fire balloon. Previous

to this an Italian, named Lunardi, had in November, 1783, dispatched

from the Artillery Ground, in London, a small balloon made of oil-silk,

10 feet in diameter and weighing 11 pounds. This small craft was sent

aloft at one o'clock, and came down, about two and a half hours later,

in Sussex, about 48 miles from its starting-place.

In 1784 the largest balloon on record was sent up from Lyons. This

immense craft was more than 100 feet in diameter, and stood about 130

feet high. It was inflated with hot air over a straw fire, and seven

passengers were carried, including Joseph Montgolfier and Pilatre de

Rozier.

But to return to de Rozier, whom we left earlier in the chapter, after

his memorable ascent near Paris. This daring Frenchman decided to cross

the Channel, and to prevent the gas cooling, and the balloon falling

into the sea, he hit on the idea of suspending a small fire balloon

under the neck of another balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. In the

light of our modern knowledge of the highly-inflammable nature of

hydrogen, we wonder how anyone could have attempted such an adventure;

but there had been little experience of this newly-discovered gas in

those days. We are not surprised to read that, when high in the air,

there was an awful explosion and the brave aeronaut fell to the earth

and was dashed to death.

CHAPTER IV. The First Balloon Ascent in England

It has been said that the honour of making the first ascent in a balloon

from British soil must be awarded to Mr. Tytler. This took place in

Scotland. In this chapter we will relate the almost romantic story of

the first ascent made in England.

This was carried out successfully by Lunardi, the Italian of whom we

have previously spoken. This young foreigner, who was engaged as a

private secretary in London, had his interest keenly aroused by the

accounts of the experiments being carried out in balloons in France, and

he decided to attempt similar experiments in this country.

But great difficulties stood in his way. Like many other inventors and

would-be airmen, he suffered from lack of funds to build his craft, and

though people whom he approached for financial aid were sympathetic,

many of them were unwilling to subscribe to his venture. At length,

however, by indomitable perseverance, he collected enough money to

defray the cost of building his balloon, and it was arranged that he

should ascend from the Artillery Ground, London, in September, 1784.

His craft was a "Charlier"--that is, it was modelled after the

hydrogen-inflated balloon built by Professor Charles--and it resembled

in shape an enormous pear. A wide hoop encircled the neck of the

envelope, and from this hoop the car was suspended by stout cordage.

It is said that on the day announced for the ascent a crowd of nearly

200,000 had assembled, and that the Prince of Wales was an interested

spectator. Farmers and labourers and, indeed, all classes of people from

the prince down to the humblest subject, were represented, and seldom had

London's citizens been more deeply excited.

Many of them, however, were incredulous, especially when an

insufficiency of gas caused a long delay before the balloon could be

liberated. Fate seemed to be thwarting the plucky Italian at every step.

Even at the last minute, when all arrangements had been perfected as

far as was humanly possible, and the crowd was agog with excitement, it

appeared probable that he would have to postpone the ascent.

It was originally intended that Lunardi should be accompanied by a

passenger; but as there was a shortage of gas the balloon's lifting

power was considerably lessened, and he had to take the trip with a dog

and cat for companions. A perfect ascent was made, and in a few moments

the huge balloon was sailing gracefully in a northerly direction over

innumerable housetops.

This trip was memorable in another way. It was probably the only aerial

cruise where a Royal Council was put off in order to witness the flight.

It is recorded that George the Third was in conference with the Cabinet,

and when news arrived in the Council Chamber that Lunardi was aloft, the

king remarked: "Gentlemen, we may resume our deliberations at pleasure,

but we may never see poor Lunardi again!"

The journey was uneventful; there was a moderate northerly breeze,

and the aeronaut attained a considerable altitude, so that he and

his animals were in danger of frost-bite. Indeed, one of the animals

suffered so severely from the effects of the cold that Lunardi skilfully

descended low enough to drop it safely to earth, and then, throwing

out ballast, once more ascended. He eventually came to earth near a

Hertfordshire village about 30 miles to the north of London.

CHAPTER V. The Father of British Aeronauts

No account of the early history of English aeronautics could possibly be

complete unless it included a description of the Nassau balloon, which

was inflated by coal-gas, from the suggestion of Mr. Charles Green, who

was one of Britain's most famous aeronauts. Because of his institution

of the modern method of using coal-gas in a balloon, Mr. Green is

generally spoken of as the Father of British Aeronautics. During the

close of the eighteenth and the opening years of the nineteenth century

there had been numerous ascents in Charlier balloons, both in Britain

and on the Continent. It had already been discovered that hydrogen gas

was highly dangerous and also expensive, and Mr. Green proposed to try

the experiment of inflating a balloon with ordinary coal-gas, which had

now become fairly common in most large towns, and was much less costly

than hydrogen.

Critics of the new scheme assured the promoters that coal-gas would be

of little use for a balloon, averring that it had comparatively little

lifting power, and aeronauts could never expect to rise to any great

altitude in such a balloon. But Green firmly believed that his theory

was practical, and he put it to the test. The initial experiments

quite convinced him that he was right. Under his superintendence a fine

balloon about 80 feet high, built of silk, was made in South London, and

the car was constructed to hold from fifteen to twenty passengers.

When the craft was completed it was proposed to send it to Paris for

exhibition purposes, and the inventor, with two friends, Messrs. Holland

and Mason, decided to take it over the Channel by air. It is said that

provisions were taken in sufficient quantities to last a fortnight, and

over a ton of ballast was shipped.

The journey commenced in November, 1836, late in the afternoon, as

the aeronauts had planned to cross the sea by night. A fairly strong

north-west wind quickly bore them to the coast, and in less than an hour

they found themselves over the lights of Calais. On and on they went,

now and then entirely lost to Earth through being enveloped in

dense fog; hour after hour went by, until at length dawn revealed

a densely-wooded tract of country with which they were entirely

unfamiliar. They decided to land, and they were greatly surprised to

find that they had reached Weilburg, in Nassau, Germany. The whole

journey of 500 miles had been made in eighteen hours.

Probably no British aeronaut has made more daring and exciting ascents

than Mr. Green--unless it be a member of the famous Spencer family, of

whom we speak in another chapter. It is said that Mr. Green went aloft

over a thousand times, and in later years he was accompanied by various

passengers who were making ascents for scientific purposes. His skill

was so great that though he had numerous hairbreadth escapes he seldom

suffered much bodily harm. He lived to the ripe old age of eighty-five.

CHAPTER VI. The Parachute

No doubt many of those who read this book have seen an aeronaut

descend from a balloon by the aid of a parachute. For many years this

performance has been one of the most attractive items on the programmes

of fetes, galas, and various other outdoor exhibitions.

The word "parachute" has been almost bodily taken from the French

language. It is derived from the French parer to parry, and chute a

fall. In appearance a parachute is very similar to an enormous umbrella.

M. Blanchard, one of the pioneers of ballooning, has the honour of

first using a parachute, although not in person. The first "aeronaut" to

descend by this apparatus was a dog. The astonished animal was placed

in a basket attached to a parachute, taken up in a balloon, and after

reaching a considerable altitude was released. Happily for the dog

the parachute acted quite admirably, and the animal had a graceful and

gentle descent.

Shortly afterwards a well-known French aeronaut, M. Garnerin, had an

equally satisfactory descent, and soon the parachute was used by most

of the prominent aeronauts of the day. Mr. Cocking, a well-known

balloonist, held somewhat different views from those of other inventors

as to the best form of construction of parachutes. His idea was that a

parachute should be very large and rather heavy in order to be able to

support a great weight. His first descent from a great height was also

his last. In 1837, accompanied by Messrs. Spencer and Green, he went up

with his parachute, attached to the Nassau balloon. At a height of about

a mile the parachute was liberated, but it failed to act properly; the

inventor was cast headlong to earth, and dashed to death.

From time to time it has been thought that the parachute might be

used for life-saving on the modern dirigible air-ship, and even on the

aeroplane, and experiments have been carried out with that end in view.

A most thrilling descent from an air-ship by means of a parachute was

that made by Major Maitland, Commander of the British Airship Squadron,

which forms part of the Royal Flying Corps. The descent took place from

the Delta air-ship, which ascended from Farnborough Common. In the car

with Major Maitland were the pilot, Captain Waterlow, and a passenger.

The parachute was suspended from the rigging of the Delta, and when a

height of about 2000 feet had been reached it was dropped over to the

side of the car. With the dirigible travelling at about 20 miles an hour

the major climbed over the car and seated himself in the parachute. Then

it became detached from the Delta and shot downwards for about 200 feet

at a terrific rate. For a moment or two it was thought that the opening

apparatus had failed to work; but gradually the "umbrella" opened, and

the gallant major had a gentle descent for the rest of the distance.

This experiment was really made in order to prove the stability of an

air-ship after a comparatively great weight was suddenly removed from

it. Lord Edward Grosvenor, who is attached to the Royal Flying Corps,

was one of the eyewitnesses of the descent. In speaking of it he said:

"We all think highly of Major Maitland's performance, which has shown

how the difficulty of lightening an air-ship after a long flight can be

surmounted. During a voyage of several hours a dirigible naturally loses

gas, and without some means of relieving her of weight she might have

to descend in a hostile country. Major Maitland has proved the

practicability of members of an air-ship's crew dropping to the ground

if the necessity arises."

A descent in a parachute has also been made from an aeroplane by M.

Pegoud, the daring French airman, of whom we speak later. A certain

Frenchman, M. Bonnet, had constructed a parachute which was intended

to be used by the pilot of an aeroplane if on any occasion he got into

difficulties. It had been tried in many ways, but, unfortunately for the

inventor, he could get no pilot to trust himself to it. Tempting offers

were made to pilots of world-wide fame, but either the risk was thought

to be too great, or it was believed that no practical good would come of

the experiment. At last the inventor approached M. Pegoud, who undertook

to make the descent. This was accomplished from a great height with

perfect safety. It seems highly probable that in the near future

the parachute will form part of the equipment of every aeroplane and

air-ship.

CHAPTER VII. Some British Inventors of Air-ships

The first Englishman to invent an air-ship was Mr. Stanley Spencer, head

of the well-known firm of Spencer Brothers, whose works are at Highbury,

North London.

This firm has long held an honourable place in aeronautics, both in the

construction of air-craft and in aerial navigation. Spencer Brothers

claim to be the premier balloon manufacturers in the world, and, at the

time of writing, eighteen balloons and two dirigibles lie in the works

ready for use. In these works there may also be seen the frame of the

famous Santos-Dumont air-ship, referred to later in this book.

In general appearance the first Spencer air-ship was very similar to

the airship flown by Santos-Dumont; that is, there was the cigar-shaped

balloon, the small engine, and the screw propellor for driving the craft

forward.

But there was one very important distinction between the two air-ships.

By a most ingenious contrivance the envelope was made so that, in the

event of a large and serious escape of gas, the balloon would assume

the form of a giant umbrella, and fall to earth after the manner of a

parachute.

All inventors profit, or should profit, by the experience of others,

whether such experience be gained by success or failure. It was found

that Santos-Dumont's air-ship lost a considerable amount of gas when

driven through the air, and on several occasions the whole craft was in

great danger of collapse. To keep the envelope inflated as tightly as

possible Mr. Spencer, by a clever contrivance, made it possible to force

air into the balloon to replace the escaped gas.

The first Spencer air-ship was built for experimental purposes. It

was able to lift only one person of light weight, and was thus a great

contrast to the modern dirigible which carries a crew of thirty or forty

people. Mr. Spencer made several exhibition flights in his little craft

at the Crystal Palace, and so successful were they that he determined to

construct a much larger craft.

The second Spencer air-ship, first launched in 1903, was nearly 100 feet

long. There was one very important distinction between this and other

air-ships built at that time: the propeller was placed in front of the

craft, instead of at the rear, as is the case in most air-ships.

Thus the craft was pulled through the air much after the manner of an

aeroplane.

In the autumn of 1903 great enthusiasm was aroused in London by the

announcement that Mr. Spencer proposed to fly from the Crystal Palace

round the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral and back to his starting-place.

This was a much longer journey than that made by Santos-Dumont when he

won the Deutsch prize.

Tens of thousands of London's citizens turned out to witness the novel

sight of a giant air-ship hovering over the heart of their city, and

it was at once seen what enormous possibilities there were in the

employment of such craft in time of war. The writer remembers well

moving among the dense crowds and hearing everywhere such remarks as

these:

"What would happen if a few bombs were thrown over the side of the

air-ship?" "Will there be air-fleets in future, manned by the soldiers

or sailors?" Indeed the uppermost thought in people's minds was not so

much the possibility of Mr. Spencer being able to complete his journey

successfully--nearly everyone recognized that air-ship construction had

now advanced so far that it was only a matter of time for an ideal craft

to be built--but that the coming of the air-ship was an affair of grave

international importance.

The great craft, glistening in the sunlight, sailed majestically from

the south, but when it reached the Cathedral it refused to turn round

and face the wind. Try how he might, Mr. Spencer could not make any

progress. It was a thrilling sight to witness this battle with the

elements, right over the heart of the largest city in the world. At

times the air-ship seemed to be standing quite still, head to wind.

Unfortunately, half a gale had sprung up, and the 24-horse-power engine

was quite incapable of conquering so stiff a breeze, and making its way

home again. After several gallant attempts to circle round the dome, Mr.

Spencer gave up in despair, and let the monster air-ship drift with

the wind over the northern suburbs of the city until a favourable

landing-place near Barnet was reached, where he descended.

The Spencer air-ships are of the non-rigid type. Spencer air-ship

A comprises a gas vessel for hydrogen 88 feet long and 24 feet in

diameter, with a capacity of 26,000 cubic feet. The framework is of

polished ash wood, made in sections so that it can easily be taken

to pieces and transported, and the length over all is 56 feet. Two

propellers 7 feet 6 inches diameter, made of satin-wood, are employed to

drive the craft, which is equipped with a Green engine of from 35 to 40

horse-power.

Spencer's air-ship B is a much larger vessel, being 150 feet long and

35 feet in diameter, with a capacity for hydrogen of 100,000 cubic feet.

The framework is of steel and aluminium, made in sections, with cars

for ten persons, including aeronauts, mechanics, and passengers. It is

driven with two petrol aerial engines of from 50 to 60 horse-power.

About the time that Mr. Spencer was experimenting with his large

air-ship, Dr. Barton, of Beckenham, was forming plans for an even larger

craft. This he laid down in the spacious grounds of the Alexandra Park,

to the north of London. An enormous shed was erected on the northern

slopes of the park, but visitors to the Alexandra Palace, intent on

a peep at the monster air-ship under construction, were sorely

disappointed, as the utmost secrecy in the building of the craft was

maintained.

The huge balloon was 43 feet in diameter and 176 feet long, with a gas

capacity of 235,000 cubic feet. To maintain the external form of the

envelope a smaller balloon, or compensator, was placed inside the larger

one. The framework was of bamboo, and the car was attached by about

eighty wire-cables. The wooden deck was about 123 feet in length. Two

50-horse-power engines drove four propellers, two of which were at

either end.

The inventor employed a most ingenious contrivance to preserve the

horizontal balance of the air-ship. Fitted, one at each end of the

carriage, were two 50-gallon tanks. These tanks were connected with a

long pipe, in the centre of which was a hand-pump. When the bow of the

air-ship dipped, the man at the pump could transfer some of the water

from the fore-tank to the after-tank, and the ship would right itself.

The water could similarly be transferred from the after-tank to the

fore-tank when the stern of the craft pointed downwards.

There were many reports, in the early months of 1905, that the air-ship

was going to be brought out from the shed for its trial flights, and the

writer, in common with many other residents in the vicinity of the park,

made dozens of journeys to the shed in the expectation of seeing

the mighty dirigible sail away. But for months we were doomed to

disappointment; something always seemed to go wrong at the last minute,

and the flight had to be postponed.

At last, in 1905, the first ascent took place. It was unsuccessful. The

huge balloon, made of tussore silk, cruised about for some time, then

drifted away with the breeze, and came to grief in landing.

A clever inventor of air-ships, a young Welshman, Mr. E. T. Willows,

designed in 1910, an air-ship in which he flew from Cardiff to London

in the dark--a distance of 139 miles. In the same craft he crossed the

English Channel a little later.

Mr. Willows has a large shed in the London aerodrome at Hendon, and he

is at present working there on a new air-ship. For some time he has been

the only successful private builder of air-ships in Great Britain. The

Navy possess a small Willows air-ship.

Messrs. Vickers, the famous builders of battleships, are giving

attention to the construction of air-ships for the Navy, in their works

at Walney Island, Barrow-in-Furness. This firm has erected an enormous

shed, 540 feet long, 150 feet broad, and 98 feet high. In this shed two

of the largest air-ships can be built side by side. Close at hand is an

extensive factory for the production of hydrogen gas.

At each end of the roof are towers from which the difficult task of

safely removing an air-ship from the shed can be directed.

At the time of writing, the redoubtable DORA (Defence of the Realm Act)

forbids any but the vaguest references to what is going forward in the

way of additions to our air forces. But it may be stated that air-ships

are included in the great constructive programme now being carried

out. It is not long since the citizens of Glasgow were treated to the

spectacle of a full-sized British "Zep" circling round the city prior to

her journey south, and so to regions unspecified. And use, too, is being

found by the naval arm for that curious hybrid the "Blimp", which may be

described as a cross between an aeroplane and an air-ship.

CHAPTER VIII. The First Attempts to Steer a Balloon

For nearly a century after the invention of the Montgolfier and Charlier

balloons there was not much progress made in the science of aeronautics.

True, inventors such as Charles Green suggested and carried out new

methods of inflating balloons, and scientific observations of great

importance were made by balloonists both in Britain and on the

Continent. But in the all-important work of steering the huge craft,

progress was for many years practically at a standstill. All that the

balloonist could do in controlling his balloon was to make it ascend or

descend at will; he could not guide its direction of flight. No doubt

pioneers of aeronautics early turned their attention to the problem of

providing some apparatus, or some method, of steering their craft.

One inventor suggested the hoisting of a huge sail at the side of the

envelope; but when this was done the balloon simply turned round with

the sail to the front. It had no effect on the direction of flight of

the balloon. "Would not a rudder be of use?" someone asked. This plan

was also tried, but was equally unsuccessful.

Perhaps some of us may wonder how it is that a rudder is not as

serviceable on a balloon as it is on the stern of a boat. Have you ever

found yourself in a boat on a calm day, drifting idly down stream, and

going just as fast as the stream goes? Work the rudder how you may, you

will not alter the boat's course. But supposing your boat moves faster

than the stream, or by some means or other is made to travel slower than

the current, then your rudder will act, and you may take what direction

you will.

It was soon seen that if some method could be adopted whereby the

balloon moved through the air faster or slower than the wind, then the

aeronaut would be able to steer it. Nowadays a balloon's pace can be

accelerated by means of a powerful motor-engine, but the invention of

the petrol-engine is very recent. Indeed, the cause of the long delay in

the construction of a steerable balloon was that a suitable engine

could not be found. A steam-engine, with a boiler of sufficient power

to propel a balloon, is so heavy that it would require a balloon of

impossible size to lift it.

One of the first serious attempts to steer a balloon by means of engine

power was that made by M. Giffard in 1852. Giffard's balloon was

about 100 feet long and 40 feet in diameter, and resembled in shape

an elongated cigar. A 3-horse-power steam-engine, weighing nearly 500

pounds, was provided to work a propeller, but the enormous weight was so

great in proportion to the lifting power of the balloon that for a time

the aeronaut could not leave the ground. After several experiments the

inventor succeeded in ascending, when he obtained a speed against the

wind of about 6 miles an hour.

A balloon of great historical interest was that invented by Dupuy du

Lonie, in the year 1872. Instead of using steam he employed a number of

men to propel the craft, and with this air-ship he hoped to communicate

with the besieged city of Paris.

His greatest speed against a moderate breeze was only about 5 miles

an hour, and the endurance of the men did not allow of even this speed

being kept up for long at a time.

Dupuy foreshadowed the construction of the modern dirigible air-ship by

inventing a system of suspension links which connected the car to

the envelope; and he also used an internal ballonet similar to those

described in Chapter X.

In the year 1883 Tissandier invented a steerable balloon which was

fitted with an electric motor of 1 1/2 horse-power. This motor drove

a propeller, and a speed of about 8 miles an hour was attained. It is

interesting to contrast the power obtained from this engine with that

of recent Zeppelin air-ships, each of which is fitted with three or four

engines, capable of producing over 800 horse-power.

The first instance on record of an air-ship being steered back to its

starting-point was that of La France. This air-craft was the invention

of two French army captains, Reynard and Krebs. By special and

much-improved electric motors a speed of about 14 miles an hour was

attained.

Thus, step by step, progress was made; but notwithstanding the promising

results it was quite evident that the engines were far too heavy

in proportion to the power they supplied. At length, however, the

internal-combustion engine, such as is used in motor-cars, arrived, and

it became at last possible to solve the great problem of constructing a

really-serviceable, steerable balloon.

CHAPTER IX. The Strange Career of Count Zeppelin

In Berlin, on March 8, 1917, there passed away a man whose name will be

remembered as long as the English language is spoken. For Count Zeppelin

belongs to that little band of men who giving birth to a work of

genius have also given their names to the christening of it; and so the

patronymic will pass down the ages.

In the most sinister sense of the expression Count Zeppelin may be said

to have left his mark deep down upon the British race. In course of time

many old scores are forgiven and forgotten, but the Zeppelin raids on

England will survive, if only as a curious failure. Their failure was

both material and moral. Anti-aircraft guns and our intrepid airmen

brought one after another of these destructive monsters blazing to the

ground, and their work of "frightfulness" was taken up by the aeroplane;

while more lamentable still was the failure of the Zeppelin as an

instrument of terror to the civil population. In the long list of German

miscalculations must be included that which pictured the victims of

bombardment from the air crying out in terror for peace at any price.

Before the war Count Zeppelin was regarded by the British public as

rather a picturesque personality. He appeared in the romantic guise of

the inventor struggling against difficulties and disasters which would

soon have overwhelmed a man of less resolute character. Even old age

was included in his handicap, for he was verging on seventy when still

arming against a sea of troubles.

The ebb and flow of his fortunes were followed with intense interest

in this country, and it is not too much to say that the many disasters

which overtook his air-ships in their experimental stages were regarded

as world-wide calamities.

When, finally, the Count stood on the brink of ruin and the Kaiser

stepped forward as his saviour, something like a cheer went up from

the British public at this theatrical episode. Little did the audience

realize what was to be the outcome of the association between these

callous and masterful minds.

And now for a brief sketch of Count Zeppelin's life-story. He was born

in 1838, in a monastery on an island in Lake Constance. His love of

adventure took him to America, and when he was about twenty-five years

of age he took part in the American Civil War. Here he made his first

aerial ascent in a balloon belonging to the Federal army, and in this

way made that acquaintance with aeronautics which became the ruling

passion of his life.

After the war was over he returned to Germany, only to find another war

awaiting him--the Austro-Prussian campaign. Later on he took part in the

Franco-Prussian War, and in both campaigns he emerged unscathed.

But his heart was not in the profession of soldiering. He had the

restless mind of the inventor, and when he retired, a general, after

twenty years' military service, he was free to give his whole attention

to his dreams of aerial navigation. His greatest ambition was to make

his country pre-eminent in aerial greatness.

Friends to whom he revealed his inmost thoughts laughed at him behind

his back, and considered that he was "a little bit wrong in his head".

Certainly his ideas of a huge aerial fleet appeared most extravagant,

for it must be remembered that the motor-engine had not then arrived,

and there appeared no reasonable prospect of its invention.

Perseverance, however, was the dominant feature of Count Zeppelin's

character; he refused to be beaten. His difficulties were formidable.

In the first place, he had to master the whole science of aeronautics,

which implies some knowledge of mechanics, meteorology, and electricity.

This in itself was no small task for a man of over fifty years of age,

for it was not until Count Zeppelin had retired from the army that he

began to study these subjects at all deeply.

The next step was to construct a large shed for the housing of his

air-ship, and also for the purpose of carrying out numerous costly

experiments. The Count selected Friedrichshafen, on the shores of Lake

Constance, as his head-quarters. He decided to conduct his experiments

over the calm waters of the lake, in order to lessen the effects of a

fall. The original shed was constructed on pontoons, and it could be

turned round as desired, so that the air-ship could be brought out in

the lee of any wind from whatsoever quarter it came.

It is said that the Count's private fortune of about L25,000 was soon

expended in the cost of these works and the necessary experiments. To

continue his work he had to appeal for funds to all his friends, and

also to all patriotic Germans, from the Kaiser downwards.

At length, in 1908, there came a turning-point in his fortunes. The

German Government, which had watched the Count's progress with great

interest, offered to buy his invention outright if he succeeded in

remaining aloft in one of his dirigibles for twenty-four hours. The

Count did not quite succeed in his task, but he aroused the great

interest of the whole German nation, and a Zeppelin fund was

established, under the patronage of the Kaiser, in every town and city

in the Fatherland. In about a month the fund amounted to over L300,000.

With this sum the veteran inventor was able to extend his works, and

produce air-ship after air-ship with remarkable rapidity.

When, war broke out it is probable that Germany possessed at least

thirteen air-ships which had fulfilled very difficult tests. One had

flown 1800 miles in a single journey. Thus the East Coast of England,

representing a return journey of less than 600 miles was well within

their range of action.

CHAPTER X. A Zeppelin Air-ship and its Construction

After the Zeppelin fund had brought in a sum of money which probably

exceeded all expectations, a company was formed for the construction

of dirigibles in the Zeppelin works on Lake Constance, and in 1909 an

enormous air-ship was produced.

In shape a Zeppelin dirigible resembled a gigantic cigar, pointed at

both ends. If placed with one end on the ground in Trafalgar Square,

London, its other end would be nearly three times the height of the

Nelson Column, which, as you may know, is 166 feet.

From the diagram here given, which shows a sectional view of a typical

Zeppelin air-ship, we may obtain a clear idea of the main features of

the craft. From time to time, during the last dozen years or so, the

inventor has added certain details, but the main features as shown in

the illustration are common to all air-craft of this type.

Zeppelin L1 was 525 feet in length, with a diameter of 50 feet. Some

idea of the size may be obtained through the knowledge that she was

longer than a modern Dreadnought. The framework was made of specially

light metal, aluminium alloy, and wood. This framework, which was stayed

with steel wire, maintained the shape and rigidity of her gas-bags;

hence vessels of this type are known as RIGID air-ships. Externally the

hull was covered with a waterproof fabric.

Though, from outside, a rigid air-ship looks to be all in one piece,

within it is divided into numerous compartments. In Zeppelin L1 there

were eighteen separate compartments, each of which contained a balloon

filled with hydrogen gas. The object of providing the vessel with these

small balloons, or ballonets, all separate from one another, was to

prevent the gas collecting all at one end of the ship as the

vessel travelled through the air. Outside the ballonets there was a

ring-shaped, double bottom, containing non-inflammable gas, and the

whole was enclosed in rubber-coated fabric.

The crew and motors were carried in cars slung fore and aft. The ship

was propelled by three engines, each of 170 horse-power. One engine was

placed in the forward car, and the two others in the after car. To steer

her to right or left, she had six vertical planes somewhat resembling

box-kites, while eight horizontal planes enabled her to ascend or

descend.

In Zeppelin L2, which was a later type of craft, there were four motors

capable of developing 820 horse-power. These drove four propellers,

which gave the craft a speed of about 45 miles an hour.

The cars were connected by a gangway built within the framework. On the

top of the gas-chambers was a platform of aluminium alloy, carrying a

1-pounder gun, and used also as an observation station. It is thought

that L1 was also provided with four machine-guns in her cars.

Later types of Zeppelins were fitted with a "wireless" installation of

sufficient range to transmit and receive messages up to 350 miles. L1

could rise to the height of a mile in favourable weather, and carry

about 7 tons over and above her own weight.

Even when on ground the unwieldy craft cause many anxious moments to

the officers and mechanics who handle them. Two of the line have broken

loose from their anchorage in a storm and have been totally destroyed.

Great difficulty is also experienced in getting them in and out of their

sheds. Here, indeed, is a contrast with the ease and rapidity with which

an aeroplane is removed from its hangar.

It was maintained by the inventor that, as the vessel is rigid, and

therefore no pressure is required in the gas-chamber to maintain its

shape, it will not be readily vulnerable to projectiles. But the Count

did not foresee that the very "frightfulness" of his engine of war would

engender counter-destructives. In a later chapter an account will be

given of the manner in which Zeppelin attacks upon these islands were

gradually beaten off by the combined efforts of anti-aircraft guns and

aeroplanes. To the latter, and the intrepid pilots and fighters, is due

the chief credit for the final overthrow of the Zeppelin as a weapon of

offence. Both the British and French airmen in various brilliant sallies

succeeded in gradually breaking up and destroying this Armada of the

Air; and the Zeppelin was forced back to the one line of work in which

it has proved a success, viz., scouting for the German fleet in the few

timid sallies it has made from home ports.

CHAPTER XI. The Semi-rigid Air-ship

Modern air-ships are of three general types: RIGID, SEMI-RIGID, and

NON-RIGID. These differ from one another, as the names suggest, in the

important feature, the RIGIDITY, NON-RIGIDITY, and PARTIAL RIGIDITY of

the gas envelope.

Hitherto we have discussed the RIGID type of vessel with which the name

of Count Zeppelin is so closely associated. This vessel is, as we have

seen, not dependent for its form on the gas-bag, but is maintained

in permanent shape by means of an aluminium framework. A serious

disadvantage to this type of craft is that it lacks the portability

necessary for military purposes. It is true that the vessel can be taken

to pieces, but not quickly. The NON-RIGID type, on the other hand, can

be quickly deflated, and the parts of the car and engine can be readily

transported to the nearest balloon station when occasion requires.

In the SEMI-RIGID type of air-ship the vessel is dependent for its form

partly on its framework and partly on the form of the gas envelope. The

under side of the balloon consists of a flat rigid framework, to

which the planes are attached, and from which the car, the engine, and

propeller are suspended.

As the rigid type of dirigible is chiefly advocated in Germany, so the

semi-rigid craft is most popular in France. The famous Lebaudy air-ships

are good types of semi-rigid vessels. These were designed for the firm

of Lebaudy Freres by the well-known French engineer M. Henri Julliot.

In November, 1902, M. Julliot and M. Surcouf completed an air-ship for

M. Lebaudy which attained a speed of nearly 25 miles an hour. The craft,

which was named Lebaudy I, made many successful voyages, and in 1905 M.

Lebaudy offered a second vessel, Lebaudy II, to the French Minister of

War, who accepted it for the French nation, and afterwards decided to

order another dirigible, La Patrie, of the same type. Disaster, however,

followed these air-ships. Lebaudy I was torn from its anchorage during

a heavy gale in 1906, and was completely wrecked. La Patrie, after

travelling in 1907 from Paris to Verdun, in seven hours, was, a few days

later, caught in a gale, and the pilot was forced to descend. The wind,

however, was so strong that 200 soldiers were unable to hold down the

unwieldy craft, and it was torn from their hands. It sailed away in a

north-westerly direction over the Channel into England, and ultimately

disappeared into the North Sea, where it was subsequently discovered

some days after the accident.

Notwithstanding these disasters the French military authorities

ordered another craft of the same type, which was afterwards named the

Republique. This vessel made a magnificent flight of six and a half

hours in 1908, and it was considered to have quite exceptional features,

which eclipsed the previous efforts of Messrs. Julliot and Lebaudy.

Unfortunately, however, this vessel was wrecked in a very terrible

manner. While out cruising with a crew of four officers one of the

propeller blades was suddenly fractured, and, flying off with immense

force, it entered the balloon, which it ripped to pieces. The majestic

craft crumpled up and crashed to the ground, killing its crew in its

fall.

In the illustration facing p. 17, of a Lebaudy air-ship, we have a good

type of the semi-rigid craft. In shape it somewhat resembles an enormous

porpoise, with a sharply-pointed nose. The whole vessel is not as

symmetrical as a Zeppelin dirigible, but its inventors claim that

the sharp prow facilitates the steady displacement of the air during

flight. The stern is rounded so as to provide sufficient support for the

rear planes.

Two propellers are employed, and are fixed outside the car, one on

each side, and almost in the centre of the vessel. This is a some what

unusual arrangement. Some inventors, such as Mr. Spencer, place the

propellers at the prow, so that the air-ship is DRAWN along; others

prefer the propeller at the stern, whereby the craft is PUSHED along;

but M. Julliot chose the central position, because there the disturbance

of the air is smallest.

The body of the balloon is not quite round, for the lower part is

flattened and rests on a rigid frame from which the car is suspended.

The balloon is divided into three compartments, so that the heavier air

does not move to one part of the balloon when it is tilted.

In the picture there is shown the petrol storage-tank, which is

suspended immediately under the rear horizontal plane, where it is out

of danger of ignition from the hot engine placed in the car.

CHAPTER XII. A Non-rigid Balloon

Hitherto we have described the rigid and semi-rigid types of air-ships.

We have seen that the former maintains its shape without assistance

from the gas which inflates its envelope and supplies the lifting power,

while the latter, as its name implies, is dependent for its form partly

on the flat rigid framework to which the car is attached, and partly on

the gas balloon.

We have now to turn our attention to that type of craft known as a

NON-RIGID BALLOON. This vessel relies for its form ENTIRELY upon the

pressure of the gas, which keeps the envelope distended with sufficient

tautness to enable it to be driven through the air at a considerable

speed.

It will at once be seen that the safety of a vessel of this type depends

on the maintenance of the gas pressure, and that it is liable to

be quickly put out of action if the envelope becomes torn. Such an

occurrence is quite possible in war. A well-directed shell which pierced

the balloon would undoubtedly be disastrous to air-ship and crew. For

this reason the non-rigid balloon does not appear to have much future

value as a fighting ship. But, as great speed can be obtained from

it, it seems especially suited for short overland voyages, either for

sporting or commercial purposes. One of its greatest advantages is that

it can be easily deflated, and can be packed away into a very small

compass.

A good type of the non-rigid air-ship is that built by Major Von

Parseval, which is named after its inventor. The Parseval has been

described as "a marvel of modern aeronautical construction", and also as

"one of the most perfect expressions of modern aeronautics, not only on

account of its design, but owing to its striking efficiency."

The balloon has the elongated form, rounded or pointed at one end, or

both ends, which is common to most air-ships. The envelope is composed

of a rubber-texture fabric, and externally it is painted yellow, so that

the chemical properties of the sun's rays may not injure the rubber.

There are two smaller interior balloons, or COMPENSATORS, into which can

be pumped air by means of a mechanically-driven fan or ventilator, to

make up for contraction of the gas when descending or meeting a cooler

atmosphere. The compensators occupy about one-quarter of the whole

volume.

To secure the necessary inclination of the balloon while in flight, air

can be transferred from one of the compensators, say at the fore end of

the ship, into the ballonet in the aft part. Suppose it is desired to

incline the bow of the craft upward, then the ventilating fan would

DEFLATE the fore ballonet and INFLATE the aft one, so that the latter,

becoming heavier, would lower the stern and raise the bow of the vessel.

Along each side of the envelope are seen strips to which the car

suspension-cords are attached. To prevent these cords being jerked

asunder, by the rolling or pitching of the vessel, horizontal fins, each

172 square feet in area, are provided at each side of the rear end of

the balloon. In the past several serious accidents have been caused by

the violent pitching of the balloon when caught in a gale, and so severe

have been the stresses on the suspension cords that great damage has

been done to the envelope, and the aeronauts have been fortunate if they

have been able to make a safe descent.

The propeller and engine are carried by the car, which is slung well

below the balloon, and by an ingenious contrivance the car always

remains in a horizontal position, however much the balloon may be

inclined. It is no uncommon occurrence for the balloon to make a

considerable angle with the car beneath.

The propeller is quite a work of art. It has a diameter of about 14

feet, and consists of a frame of hollow steel tubes covered with fabric.

It is so arranged that when out of action its blades fall lengthwise

upon the frame supporting it, but when it is set to work the blades

at once open out. The engine weighs 770 pounds, and has six cylinders,

which develop 100 horse-power at 1200 revolutions a minute.

The vessel may be steered either to the right or the left by means of a

large vertical helm, some 80 square feet in area, which is hinged at the

rear end to a fixed vertical plane of 200 square feet area.

An upward or downward inclination is, as we have seen, effected by

the ballonets, but in cases of emergency these compensators cannot be

deflated or inflated sufficiently rapidly, and a large movable weight is

employed for altering the balance of the vessel.

In this country the authorities have hitherto favoured the non-rigid

air-ship for military and naval use. The Astra-Torres belongs to this

type of vessel, which can be rapidly deflated and transported, and so,

too, the air-ship built by Mr. Willows.

CHAPTER XIII. The Zeppelin and Gotha Raids

In the House of Commons recently Mr. Bonar Law announced that since

the commencement of the war 14,250 lives had been lost as the result of

enemy action by submarines and air-craft. A large percentage of these

figures represents women, children, and defenceless citizens.

One had become almost hardened to the German method of making war on the

civil population--that system of striving to act upon civilian "nerves"

by calculated brutality which is summed up in the word "frightfulness".

But the publication of these figures awoke some of the old horror of

German warfare. The sum total of lives lost brought home to the people

at home the fact that bombardment from air and sea, while it had failed

to shake their MORAL, had taken a large toll of human life.

At first the Zeppelin raids were not taken very seriously in this

country. People rushed out of their houses to see the unwonted spectacle

of an air-ship dealing death and destruction from the clouds. But soon

the novelty began to wear off, and as the raids became more frequent

and the casualty lists grew larger, people began to murmur against the

policy of taking these attacks "lying down". It was felt that "darkness

and composure" formed but a feeble and ignoble weapon of defence. The

people spoke with no uncertain voice, and it began to dawn upon the

authorities that the system of regarding London and the south-east coast

as part of "the front" was no excuse for not taking protective measures.

It was the raid into the Midlands on the night of 31st January,

1916, that finally shelved the old policy of do nothing. Further

justification, if any were needed, for active measures was supplied by

a still more audacious raid upon the east coast of Scotland, upon

which occasion Zeppelins soared over England--at their will. Then the

authorities woke up, and an extensive scheme of anti-aircraft guns and

squadrons of aeroplanes was devised. About March of the year 1916 the

Germans began to break the monotony of the Zeppelin raids by using

sea-planes as variants. So there was plenty of work for our new

defensive air force. Indeed, people began to ask themselves why we

should not hit back by making raids into Germany. The subject was well

aired in the public press, and distinguished advocates came forward

for and against the policy of reprisals. At a considerably later date

reprisals carried the day, and, as we write, air raids by the British

into Germany are of frequent occurrence.

In March, 1916, the fruits of the new policy began to appear, and people

found them very refreshing. A fleet of Zeppelins found, on approaching

the mouth of the Thames, a very warm reception. Powerful searchlights,

and shells from new anti-aircraft guns, played all round them. At length

a shot got home. One of the Zeppelins, "winged" by a shell, began

a wobbly retreat which ended in the waters of the estuary. The navy

finished the business. The wrecked air-ship was quickly surrounded by a

little fleet of destroyers and patrol-boats, and the crew were brought

ashore, prisoners. That same night yet another Zeppelin was hit and

damaged in another part of the country.

Raids followed in such quick succession as to be almost of nightly

occurrence during the favouring moonless nights. Later, the conditions

were reversed, and the attacks by aeroplane were all made in bright

moonlight. But ever the defence became more strenuous. Then aeroplanes

began to play the role of "hornets", as Mr. Winston Churchill, speaking

rather too previously, designated them.

Lieutenant Brandon, R.F.C., succeeded in dropping several aerial bombs

on a Zeppelin during the raid on March 31, but it was not until six

months later that an airman succeeded in bringing down a Zeppelin on

British soil. The credit of repeating Lieutenant Warneford's great feat

belongs to Lieutenant W. R. Robinson, and the fight was witnessed by

a large gathering. It occurred in the very formidable air raid on the

night of September 2. Breathlessly the spectators watched the Zeppelin

harried by searchlight and shell-fire. Suddenly it disappeared behind

a veil of smoke which it had thrown out to baffle its pursuers. Then it

appeared again, and a loud shout went up from the watching thousands.

It was silhouetted against the night clouds in a faint line of fire. The

hue deepened, the glow spread all round, and the doomed airship began

its crash to earth in a smother of flame. The witnesses to this amazing

spectacle naturally supposed that a shell had struck the Zeppelin. Its

tiny assailant that had dealt the death-blow had been quite invisible

during the fight. Only on the following morning did the public learn of

Lieutenant Robinson's feat. It appeared that he had been in the air

a couple of hours, engaged in other conflicts with his monster foes.

Besides the V.C. the plucky airman won considerable money prizes from

citizens for destroying the first Zeppelin on British soil.

The Zeppelin raids continued at varying intervals for the remainder

of the year. As the power of the defence increased the air-ships were

forced to greater altitudes, with a corresponding decrease in the

accuracy with which they could aim bombs on specified objects. But,

however futile the raids, and however widely they missed their mark,

there was no falling off in the outrageous claims made in the German

communiques. Bombs dropped in fields, waste lands, and even the sea,

masqueraded in the reports as missiles which had sunk ships in harbour,

destroyed docks, and started fires in important military areas. So

persistent were these exaggerations that it became evident that the

Zeppelin raids were intended quite as much for moral effect at home as

for material damage abroad. The heartening effect of the raids upon

the German populace is evidenced by the mental attitude of men made

prisoners on any of the fronts. Only with the utmost difficulty were

their captors able to persuade them that London and other large towns

were not in ruins; that shipbuilding was not at a standstill; and that

the British people was not ready at any moment to purchase indemnity

from the raids by concluding a German peace. When one method of

terrorism fails try another, was evidently the German motto. After the

Zeppelin the Gotha, and after that the submarine.

The next year--1917--brought in a very welcome change in the situation.

One Zeppelin after another met with its just deserts, the British navy

in particular scoring heavily against them. Nor must the skill and

enterprise of our French allies be forgotten. In March, 1917, they shot

down a Zeppelin at Compiegne, and seven months later dealt the blow

which finally rid these islands of the Zeppelin menace.

For nearly a year London, owing to its greatly increased defences, had

been free from attack. Then, on the night of October 19, Germany made

a colossal effort to make good their boast of laying London in ruins. A

fleet of eleven Zeppelins came over, five of which found the city. One,

drifting low and silently, was responsible for most of the casualties,

which totalled 34 killed and 56 injured.

The fleet got away from these shores without mishap. Then, at long last,

came retribution. Flying very high, they seem to have encountered an

aerial storm which drove them helplessly over French territory. Our

allies were swift to seize this golden opportunity. Their airmen and

anti-aircraft guns shot down no less than four of the Zeppelins in broad

daylight, one of which was captured whole. Of the remainder, one at

least drifted over the Mediterranean, and was not heard of again. That

was the last of the Zeppelin, so far as the civilian population was

concerned. But, for nearly a year, the work of killing citizens had been

undertaken by the big bomb-dropping Gotha aeroplanes.

The work of the Gotha belongs rightly to the second part of this book,

which deals with aeroplanes and airmen; but it would be convenient to

dispose here of the part played by the Gotha in the air raids upon this

country.

The reconnaissance took place on Tuesday, November 28, 1916, when in a

slight haze a German aeroplane suddenly appeared over London, dropped

six bombs, and flew off. The Gotha was intercepted off Dunkirk by the

French, and brought down. Pilot and observer-two naval lieutenants-were

found to have a large-scale map of London in their possession. The new

era of raids had commenced.

Very soon it became evident that the new squadron of Gothas were much

more destructive than the former fleets of unwieldy Zeppelins. These

great Gothas were each capable of dropping nearly a ton of bombs. And

their heavy armament and swift flight rendered them far less vulnerable

than the air-ship.

From March 1 to October 31, 1917, no less than twenty-two raids

took place, chiefly on London and towns on the south-east coast. The

casualties amounted to 484 killed and 410 wounded. The two worst raids

occurred June 13 on East London, and September 3 on the Sheerness and

Chatham area.

A squadron of fifteen aeroplanes carried out the raid, on June 13, and

although they were only over the city for a period of fifteen minutes

the casualty list was exceedingly heavy--104 killed and 432 wounded.

Many children were among the killed and injured as the result of a bomb

which fell upon a Council school. The raid was carried out in daylight,

and the bombs began to drop before any warning could be given. Later,

an effective and comprehensive system of warnings was devised, and when

people had acquired the habit of taking shelter, instead of rushing

out into the street to see the aerial combats, the casualties began to

diminish.

It is worthy of record that the possible danger to schools had been

anticipated, and for some weeks previously the children had taken part

in "Air Raid Drill". When the raid came, the children behaved in the

most exemplary fashion. They went through the manoeuvres as though it

was merely a rehearsal, and their bearing as well as the coolness of the

teachers obviated all danger from panic. In this raid the enemy first

made use of aerial torpedoes.

Large loss of life, due to a building being struck, was also the feature

of the moonlight raid on September 4. On this occasion enemy airmen

found a mark on the Royal Naval barracks at Sheerness. The barracks were

fitted with hammocks for sleeping, and no less than 108 bluejackets lost

their lives, the number of wounded amounting to 92. Although the raid

lasted nearly an hour and powerful searchlights were brought into

play, neither guns nor our airmen succeeded in causing any loss to

the raiders. Bombs were dropped at a number of other places, including

Margate and Southend, but without result.

No less than six raids took place on London before the end of the month,

but the greatest number of killed in any one of the raids was eleven,

while on September 28 the raiders were driven off before they could

claim any victims. The establishment of a close barrage of aerial guns

did much to discourage the raiders, and gradually London, from being the

most vulnerable spot in the British Isles, began to enjoy comparative

immunity from attack.

Paris, too, during the Great War has had to suffer bombardment from

the air, but not nearly to the same extent as London. The comparative

immunity of Paris from air raids is due partly to the prompt measures

which were taken to defend the capital. The French did not wait, as

did the British, until the populace was goaded to the last point of

exasperation, but quickly instituted the barrage system, in which we

afterwards followed their lead. Moreover, the French were much more

prompt in adopting retaliatory tactics. They hit back without having to

wade through long moral and philosophical disquisitions upon the ethics

of "reprisals". On the other hand, it must be remembered that Paris,

from the aerial standpoint, is a much more difficult objective than

London. The enemy airman has to cross the French lines, which, like his

own, stretch for miles in the rear. Practically he is in hostile country

all the time, and he has to get back across the same dangerous air

zones. It is a far easier task to dodge a few sea-planes over the wide

seas en route to London. And on reaching the coast the airman has to

evade or fight scattered local defences, instead of penetrating the

close barriers which confront him all the way to Paris.

Since the first Zeppelin attack on Paris on March 21, 1915, when two of

the air-ships reached the suburbs, killing 23 persons and injuring 30,

there have been many raids and attempted raids, but mostly by single

machines. The first air raid in force upon the French capital took place

on January 31, 1918, when a squadron of Gothas crossed the lines north

of Compiegne. Two hospitals were hit, and the casualties from the raid

amounted to 20 killed and 50 wounded.

After the Italian set-back in the winter of 1917, the Venetian plain

lay open to aerial bombardment by the Germans, who had given substantial

military aid to their Austrian allies. This was an opportunity not to be

lost by Germany, and Venice and other towns of the plain were subject to

systematic bombardment.

At the time of writing, Germany is beginning to suffer some of the

annoyances she is so ready to inflict upon others. The recently

constituted Air Ministry have just published figures relating to the

air raids into Germany from December 1, 1917, to February 19, 1918

inclusive. During these eleven weeks no fewer than thirty-five raids

have taken place upon a variety of towns, railways, works, and barracks.

In the list figure such important towns as Mannheim (pop. 20,000) and

Metz (pop. 100,000). The average weight of bombs dropped at each raid

works out about 1000 lbs. This welcome official report is but one of

many signs which point the way to the growing supremacy of the Allies in

the air.

PART II. AEROPLANES AND AIRMEN