TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
Breves and macrons are accurately represented (ă ĕ ā ē etc).
Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book.
A BOOK
ABOUT
WORDS.
BY
G. F. GRAHAM,
AUTHOR OF ‘ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION,’
‘ENGLISH SYNONYMES,’ ‘ENGLISH STYLE,’
‘ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE,’
ETC.
LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1869.
PREFACE.
The increased attention lately paid to our Language as a subject of
Education, has induced the Author to state in the following pages
his views on English (and other) Words. These views are the result
of a long professional career in tuition, together with the study
which such a calling naturally involves.
Notwithstanding the rapid strides made of late years in the science
of Words, much still remains unknown to the general reader; but if
the following remarks be accepted as a small contribution to a more
extended knowledge of this interesting subject, the Author will be
amply compensated for any trouble it may have cost him to collect
them.
KENSINGTON:
_May, 1869_.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION ix
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN OF WORDS (SAXON)--FAMILIES OF WORDS 1
CHAPTER II.
LATIN AND FRENCH WORDS 23
CHAPTER III.
OLD AND NEW WORDS 38
CHAPTER IV.
DEGENERACY OF WORDS 63
CHAPTER V.
PLAY UPON WORDS 79
CHAPTER VI.
CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT WORDS 96
CHAPTER VII.
GRAND WORDS 101
CHAPTER VIII.
THE SPELLING OF WORDS 107
CHAPTER IX.
FLEXIBILITY, VARIETY, CONTRACTION, ETC. OF WORDS 122
CHAPTER X.
DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME IDEA 141
CHAPTER XI.
COMPOUND WORDS 150
CHAPTER XII.
THE PRONUNCIATION OF WORDS 156
CHAPTER XIII.
SLANG WORDS AND AMERICANISMS 169
CHAPTER XIV.
GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC. 185
CHAPTER XV.
GENERAL REMARKS ON WORDS, ETC., _continued_ 202
CHAPTER XVI.
MISCELLANEOUS DERIVATIONS OF WORDS 215
INTRODUCTION.
What is meant by a Language? It is a collection of all the words,
phrases, grammatical forms, idioms, &c., which are used by one
people. It is the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of
mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, and the best
criterion of their intellect and feelings. If this explanation be
admitted, it will naturally follow that the connection between a
people and their language is so close, that the one may be judged
of by the other; and that the language is a lasting monument of the
nature and character of the people.
Every language, then, has its genius; forms of words, idioms, and
turns of expression peculiar to itself; by which, independently of
other differences, one nation may be distinguished from another.
This condition may be produced by various causes; such as soil,
climate, conquest, immigration, &c. Out of the old Roman, or Latin,
there arose several modern languages of Europe; all known by the
generic name--Romance; viz. Italian, French, Provençal, Spanish,
and Portuguese. These may be called daughters of ancient Latin; and
the natives of all these countries down to the seventh century,
both spoke and wrote that language. But when the Scandinavian and
Germanic tribes invaded the West of Europe, the Latin was broken
up, and was succeeded by Italian, French, Spanish, &c. The Latin
now became gradually more and more corrupt, and was, at length, in
each of these countries, wholly remodelled.
History has been called ‘the study of the law of change;’ i.e. the
process by which human affairs are transferred from one condition
to another. The history of a language has naturally a close
analogy with political history; the chief difference being that
the materials of the latter are facts, events, and institutions;
whilst the former treats of words, forms, and constructions. Now,
in the same way as a nation never stands still, but is continually
undergoing a silent--perhaps imperceptible--transformation, so
it is with its language. This is proved both by experience and
reason. We need hardly say that the English of the present time
differ widely from the English of the fourteenth century; and we
may be quite sure that the language of this country, two or three
centuries hence, will be very different from what it is at present.
It would be impossible for a nation either to improve or decay, and
for its language at the same time to remain stationary. The one
being a reflex of the other, they must stand or fall together.
What, then, is this law of change? On what principles is it
based? How are we to study or follow out its operations? These
questions are exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to answer
definitively. But there are circumstances connected with the
formation of certain languages which may throw some light on
them. It may be received as a principle that, when one nation is
overrun or conquered by another, the effect on the language of
the conquered depends mainly on the condition of that which is
brought in by the conquerors. If the victors be as superior to the
vanquished in civilisation and improvement as they have proved
themselves in physical power, they will impose their language on
the conquered people. If, on the other hand, that of the vanquished
be the more cultivated, the reverse will take place; the dialect of
the conquerors will be absorbed into that of the conquered.
When the Visigoths settled in Spain in the fifth century, their
dialect made but little impression on the language afterwards known
as Spanish. The Latin element in the Peninsula, though at that time
falling into decay, was far more refined and polished than the
barbarous dialect then introduced; and it consequently remained,
with some slight modifications, the language of the country. The
same happened when the Northmen settled in France in the tenth
century. It is astonishing how rapidly the language of Rollo and
his followers was absorbed into French! This may have been assisted
by the intermarriage of the conquerors with the women of the
country; but it was produced chiefly by the different conditions of
the two languages.
On the other hand, when the Normans, under William the Conqueror,
invaded England in the eleventh century, a different effect was
produced. The Norman French after a time, though not immediately,
enriched the English language with many words, but it did not,
in the slightest degree, either then or afterwards, affect its
grammatical forms or idioms. The cause of this was that the Saxon
language was, at that epoch, already fixed, and fit for literary
purposes. It was, indeed, much further advanced as a literary
language than the invading Norman-French. It therefore resisted
this external pressure; and though it afterwards admitted numerous
French terms, the English language remains to this day Saxon, and
not French, in its tone, character, and grammar.
The climate of a country, or the temperament of a people, may
also strongly influence the character of the language. Given an
indolent and luxurious race, and we must expect that softness and
effeminacy will appear in their spoken and written expression. No
acute observer can fail to perceive a close connection between the
national character of the Italians and the softness and beauty of
their harmonious tongue. Again: the simplicity and somewhat homely
and rough vigour of the Teutonic race, are clearly shadowed forth
in the sounds and forms of the German language.
The climate, too, in both cases, may have contributed towards these
results. A hot, enervating atmosphere produces languor of mind
as well as body; whilst a bracing cold air, though it may assist
in producing a phlegmatic temperament, at the same time infuses
vigour, energy, and power into those who are subjected to its
influence.
There are also, no doubt, many hidden causes of gradual changes in
language. These are difficult to ascertain; and some of them escape
the sagacity of even the most acute observers. Political struggles,
foreign wars, domestic habits, literary studies, &c., may all
contribute to alter the character of a people, and so far to affect
their language.
But whatever may be these mysterious laws of change, they must be
left to Nature herself, and no one must attempt to interfere with
them. There are no more miserable failures recorded in history
than the attempt by rulers to interfere with the laws of Nature.
We are told (though not on very good authority) that William the
Conqueror _ordered the Saxons to speak Norman-French_. He might
as well have ordered his new subjects to walk on their heads--the
one was quite as easy as the other. But no writer tells us with
what success this decree was executed. Ordericus Vitalis, indeed,
states that William endeavoured to learn Saxon, though he does not
say how far he succeeded. Now it is not very likely that he should
have studied a language which he was, at the same time, bent on
exterminating. Indeed, there is an air of extreme improbability
about the whole story.
In more recent times, it is well known that Joseph II., of Germany,
issued an edict that all his subjects, Slavonic, Magyar, or German,
should adopt one uniform language--German. But it was soon found
impossible to execute this decree, for the people would as soon
have parted with their lives as with their language; the whole
empire was, therefore, immediately thrown into confusion. Many
of the provinces broke out into open rebellion, and it at length
became necessary to abandon the project.
It is then clear that no one has the power, of his own will or
caprice, to add a single word to a language, or to cast one out
of it. These changes must be left to Nature, and all we can do is
to watch her operations, to observe and record facts. But we may
speculate on the origin of words, and may sometimes discover the
causes of their birth. We may also inquire into the circumstances
of their career, and the laws which regulate their forms, changes,
meanings, &c. These inquiries are particularly comprehensive and
interesting, because they naturally lead us to some knowledge of
what words represent, and also because they are closely connected
with the study of the human mind both as regards intellect and
passion.
A BOOK
ABOUT
WORDS.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN OF WORDS--FAMILIES OF WORDS.
Most Philologists have hitherto held the opinion that, in general,
no satisfactory account can be given of the origin of language.
They can trace a word from one language to another, and can account
for its various forms and changes by laws now generally understood;
but they confess their inability to explain what determined the
original form of its root. They take that original form for
granted, as a sort of intuitive truth which must be admitted as a
necessity. They can explain the circumstances of its career; but
of its first cause or nature they profess to understand little or
nothing.
But though this is the general opinion, all linguists admit that in
every language certain words, more especially those that convey
ideas of sound, are formed on the principle of _onomatopœia_; i.e.
an attempt to make the pronunciation conform to the sound. Such
English words as ‘hiss,’ ‘roar,’ ‘bang,’ ‘buzz,’ ‘crash,’ &c., are
of this class. One can hardly pronounce these words without, in
some sense, performing the acts which they represent.
One school of linguists have lately expressed a belief that all
words were formed on this principle. A very curious illustration
of this view is given in Mr. Wedgwood’s ‘Origin of Language.’
Explaining the interjection _Hem_, he says, it was originally an
attempt to stop some one. We are supposed to be walking behind
some person; we wish to stop him, and we exclaim, ‘_Hem!_’ This
is given as the primary meaning of the word. ‘The sound is here
an echo to the sense.’ But _hem_ is used in other ways; either as
a noun, or a verb; always, however, retaining its original idea
of restricting, or keeping back. The _hem_ of a garment is what
_prevents_ the thread from ravelling. Again, soldiers are sometimes
_hemmed_ in by the enemy; that is, _prevented_ from using their
free will to go where they choose. This illustration is intended to
prove that the principle of onomatopœia applies not only to words
that represent sound, but, by analogy, to other meanings derived
from that principle. There _is_ sound implied in the interjection
_hem_; though in the noun and the verb, both derived from that
interjection, no idea of sound is conveyed.
This connection between sound and sense is certainly a natural
principle; and however scornfully it may have been ridiculed by
some philosophers, it has undoubtedly produced many very fine
passages in the poetry of both ancient and modern times.
1. The chorus of frogs in Aristophanes, where their croaking is
represented by words invented for the occasion:
Βρεκεκεξ, κοαξ, κοαξ.
This is, to say the least of it, very ingenious, and, in its way,
beautiful, because true.
2. The same principle seems to apply in the πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης
(poluphloisboio thalassēs) of Homer, where the first word was
probably intended to represent the roaring of the wave mounting on
the sea-shore; and the second, the hissing sound which accompanies
a receding billow.
3. Another example of onomatopœia, in Virgil’s Æneid, viii. 452,
has been often quoted:
‘Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum;’
where the succession of dactyls is admirably adapted to represent
the sound of the hoofs of a galloping horse.
4. Several examples of the same figure may be found in Milton.
Describing the thronging of the fallen angels in Pandemonium:
Thick swarmed, both on the ground and in the air,
Bru_sh_ed with the hi_ss_ of ru_st_ling win_gs_.
5. Also, speaking of the gates of hell:
... open fly
Th’ infe_r_nal doo_r_s; and on their hinges g_r_ates
Ha_r_sh thunde_r_ ...
Here the recurrence of the letter _r_ is well calculated to convey
the idea of a harsh, creaking, grating sound.
6. A similar effect is produced in Tasso’s ‘Gerusalemme Liberata.’
Il _r_auco son della Ta_r_tarea tromba.
This connection between sound and sense may very probably exist in
many words where we now fail to perceive it; but in the present
state of our knowledge of the subject, we can hardly pronounce
positively in favour of this view as applied to the whole body of a
language. The question remains, for the present, in abeyance.
_Families of Words (Saxon)._
But setting aside the origin of words, it is not difficult to show
the affinity which many springing from the same root have for
each other. There are in English, as in other languages, hundreds
of words which may be said to have a family connection, and which
are traceable to one common origin, or root. This connection
may be found in the Saxon as well as the Romance part of our
language. _Th_ (soft) may be considered as the type of the idea
of demonstration. All the English pronouns and adverbs beginning
with these letters have that general meaning, which may be seen in
‘_th_at,’ ‘_th_e,’ ‘_th_ere,’ ‘_th_ence,’ ‘_th_is,’ ‘_th_ither,’
‘_th_ose,’ ‘_th_us,’ and others. Again, the initial _wh_ may be
considered as the type of an interrogative, or relative meaning.
This also may be seen in many English pronouns and adverbs; as in
‘_wh_at,’ ‘_wh_en,’ ‘_wh_ence,’ ‘_wh_ere,’ ‘_wh_ither,’ ‘_wh_o,’
‘_wh_om,’ ‘_wh_ose,’ &c. The principle of inversion has affected
the whole of this class of words. They are all of Saxon origin,
and were spelled in that language _hw_, and not _wh_; as in ‘hwæt’
(what), ‘hwaer’ (where), ‘hwanne’ (when), &c.
_Tw._
The Saxon initial _tw_ corresponds with the Romance _du_. There
are many English words having this initial, which convey the idea
of ‘two.’ 1. The numeral itself, ‘_tw_o’ 2. ‘_Tw_ain,’ a now
obsolete form of ‘two.’ 3. ‘_Tw_in,’ one of _tw_o children born at
a birth. 4. ‘Be_tw_een,’ which is only another form of ‘by twain.’
5. ‘_Tw_ilight,’ i.e. between _tw_o lights--daylight and lamplight.
6. ‘_Tw_ice’ is equivalent to ‘_tw_o’ times. 7. To ‘_tw_ist’ is
to bend _tw_o or more threads together. 8. To ‘_tw_ine’ is to
interlace, so as to form one body out of _tw_o. And 9. A ‘_tw_ig’
is so called from its being easily twisted.
It is said that the word ‘nose’ originally signified a
promontory--something prominent--and that it is so called from
being the prominent feature of the face. This view is supported
by its analogy with _naze_, a headland, and the Scotch _ness_ (as
in Inver_ness_), a part of the coast which juts forward. It may
be observed that the word meaning ‘nose’ has in most European
languages the form N-S-. This may be seen in the Greek νῆσος, an
island or promontory; the Latin _nasus_, the Italian _naso_, the
German _Nase_, the French _nez_, and the English _nose_. Whether
this be or be not an onomatopœia one thing is certain, viz. that
in English the initial sn (ns inverted) in so many cases expresses
nasal action, that it may be taken as a general type of that
meaning. This may be found in a multitude of words having that
initial, all expressing various actions of the nose. It may be
seen in ‘_sn_arl,’ ‘_sn_eer,’ ‘_sn_eeze,’ ‘_sn_iff,’ ‘_sn_ore,’
‘_sn_ort,’ ‘_sn_ooze,’ ‘_sn_out,’ ‘_sn_ub,’ ‘_sn_uff,’ &c.
_Ber-an--to bear._
This is the source of our English verb ‘to bear.’ It produces
the following:--1. ‘Barrow,’ an implement used for carrying or
_bearing_. 2. ‘Berth,’ a place in which one is _borne_. 3. ‘Bier,’
a coffin in which a corpse is _borne_ to the grave. 4. ‘Birth,’ the
_bearing_ of a child. 5. ‘Berry,’ the fruit which a tree _bears_.
_Bles-an--to blow._
From this verb we have, 1. ‘Blaze,’ a strong flame _blown_ forth.
2. ‘Blast,’ a violent _blowing_, or gust of wind. 3. ‘Blain,’ a
boil, or _blowing_ up of the flesh. 4. ‘Blight,’ injury done to
corn, &c., from being _blasted_. 5. ‘Blister,’ a _blowing_, or
rising, up of the skin. 6. ‘Blossom’ (or ‘bloom’), the _blowing_
forth of the flower. 7. ‘Blush,’ a _blowing_ forth of the blood. 8.
‘Bluster,’ as the wind when _blowing_ hard.
_Brecc-an--to break._
1. The English verb ‘to break’ is directly from the above. 2.
‘Bridge,’ a building which _breaks_ a passage across a river, &c.
3. ‘Breach,’ that part of a wall or fortification _broken_ into by
artillery. 4. To ‘broach’ a cask of ale is to _break_ into it. 5.
A ‘brook’ is a stream of water which _breaks_ its way across the
country.
_Bug-an--to bend._
1. A ‘bay’ is a _bending_ in of the line of coast. 2. In sailors’
language, a ‘bight’ is the hollow part of a bay, or a coil of
rope _bent_ round. 3. A ‘bow’ is so called from its being _bent_.
4. To make a ‘bow’ is to _bend_ the body. 5. ‘Beam’ (compare the
German ‘Baum’) is so named from its property of _bending_. 6. A
‘bough’ is the part of the tree that easily _bends_. 7. A ‘bower’
is made of branches bowed or _bent_ down. 8. The adjective ‘buxom’
(compare the German ‘biegsam’) is properly _bending_ or pliable.
9. ‘El_bow_’ is the bow of the ell, or that part where the arm
_bends_. ‘Big’ and ‘bag’ are probably from the same source; they
both convey the idea of something _bent_ round.
_Ceap-ān--to exchange._
The essence of buying and selling lies in the exchange of goods for
money, or money for goods. Hence come 1. the English word ‘chapman’
(sometimes contracted into _chap_), which properly means a buyer
and seller. 2. To ‘chaffer’ is to bargain about a purchase. 3.
‘Cheap,’ bearing a low price, refers to a similar transaction. 4.
We have also ‘_Cheap_side’ and ‘East_cheap_,’ originally markets,
or places for buying and selling. 5. Chepstow, Chipping Norton, and
other names of market-towns in England, are from the same root. 6.
The wind is said to _chop_ when it changes from one point of the
compass to another.
_Ceaw-an--to chew._
1. The older form of ‘chew’ was ‘chaw,’ which we still occasionally
hear in ‘chaw-bacon.’ 2. The cud is the grass _chewed_ by
ruminating animals. 3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in the
mouth to be _chewed_.
_Dael-an--to divide._
1. To ‘deal’ is from the above verb. It is used in English in a
variety of senses, all containing the idea of dividing into parts.
2. A certain sort of wood is called ‘deal’ from being easily
_divided_, or cut into planks. 3. To ‘deal’ cards is to _divide_
them into packets or parcels. 4. Tradesmen ‘deal’ in certain
articles when they sell them in small, _divided_ quantities. 5.
We also say ‘a great deal,’ speaking of a large part _divided_
from the mass. [‘_Some-deal_’ was formerly said, but it is now
obsolete.] 6. A ‘dole’ is a small part or share _dealt_ out.
(Compare the German ‘theilen.’)
_Dic-ian--to dig._
From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To ‘dig.’ 2. ‘Dike,’ a mound of
earth ‘_dug_’ out. 3. ‘Ditch,’ a line ‘_dug_.’ 4. ‘Dagger,’ an
instrument used for ‘_digging_;’ and 5. ‘Dock,’ a place ‘_dug_’
out on the side of a harbour or bank of a river, where ships are
repaired.
_Drag-an--to draw._
This Saxon verb gives the English ‘to draw.’ From this we have, 1.
‘Dray,’ a heavy cart _drawn_ along. 2. A ‘drain,’ a tube to _draw_
off water. 3. A ‘draft,’ an order to _draw_ out money from a bank.
4. A ‘draught’ is a quantity of liquid _drawn_ into the mouth.
5. To ‘drawl’ is to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ‘Drudge,’ and
7. ‘Dredge’ (for oysters, &c.); both which express a dragging or
_drawing_. (Compare the German ‘tragen’ and the Latin ‘trahere.’)
_Dropi-an--to drop._
From this root comes 1. The verb ‘to drop.’ 2. To ‘droop,’ i.e. to
lean downwards. 3. To ‘drip,’ or fall continually. 4. To ‘dribble,’
or to fall in small ‘_drops_.’ 5. A ‘driblet,’ or a very small
_drop_.
_Eri-an--to till._
1. To ‘ear,’ in the sense of ‘to plough,’ is now obsolete in
English, though we have an ‘ear,’ or spike, of corn--the result of
_tilling_; and 3. ‘Earth,’ that which is _tilled_ or cultivated.
_Far-an--to journey._
1. From this verb (German ‘fahren’) comes our verb to ‘fare;’
literally, to go on, or make a journey. 2. The adverbs ‘fore,’
‘forth,’ and ‘far’ convey a similar idea; viz. that of onward
movement. 3. The ‘ford’ of a river is that point at which it can
be ‘fared,’ or crossed; and 4. To ‘ferry’ is the act of faring, or
passing across a river or lake. 5. ‘Frith’ and ‘firth’ are formed
on the same principle; they are those parts of the sea where one
can be ferried across. 6. The first syllable (_fur_) in the word
‘furlough’ belongs to this family. It is leave (lough) granted to
a soldier to ‘fare,’ or journey, home for a time. All these forms
are devices to explain a variety of modes of _faring_, or moving
onwards.
_Fed-an--to feed._
This gives us, 1. To ‘feed.’ 2. ‘Fat,’ the result of being well
‘_fed_.’ 3. ‘Fodder,’ provision for cattle; and, 4. ‘Food,’ that
which ‘_feeds_,’ or supplies nourishment.
_Fi-an--to hate._
From this verb we have in English--1. A ‘fiend,’ one who _hates_.
2. Hence also comes ‘foe,’ an enemy, or one _hated_. 3. To the
same root may be traced ‘fie!’ an interjection expressing dislike
or _hatred_; 4. and also ‘foh!’ or ‘faugh!’ an exclamation of
disgust.
_Fleaw-an--to flow._
Hence come, 1. ‘To flow.’ 2. ‘Fleet;’ a number of ships that
‘_flow_,’ or swim, on the water. 3. The adjective ‘fleet,’
qualifying what _flows_ by. 4. To ‘float,’ or swim, on the water;
and, 5. ‘Flood,’ a large _flow_ of water.
_Fuli-an--to make dirty._
From this root come, 1. ‘Foul’ (putrid, offensive). 2. To ‘defile;’
to make ‘foul.’ 3. The noun ‘filth,’ dirt. 4. The adjective
‘filthy;’ and 5. ‘Fulsome;’ full of filth, nauseous, disgusting.
_G-an--to go._
1. ‘Gan’ is the Saxon verb whence the English ‘to go’ is derived.
2. This gives us ‘gait,’ i.e. a manner of ‘_going_;’ and, 3.
‘Gate,’ a door through which one ‘_goes_.’ To these may be added 4.
‘Gang,’ a number of people ‘_going_’ together; and, 5. the nautical
term ‘gang-way,’ i.e. a passage ‘to go’ through. 6. The verb ‘to
gad,’ i.e. to be continually ‘_going_’ from one place to another,
also probably belongs to this family.
_Glowi-an--to burn._
The verb ‘to low,’ in the sense of ‘to burn,’ does not now exist in
the language; but the above verb gives us, 1. To ‘glow,’ i.e. to
burn intensely; whence come the forms, 2. ‘Gleam;’ 3. ‘Glimmer;’
and, 4. ‘Glimpse;’ 5. ‘Gloom,’ or a state into which light
‘gleams;’ and, 6. the word ‘light,’ which is a participial form of
the old verb to ‘low.’ In one English word the root ‘low’ is still
retained, viz. ‘whit_low_,’ a painful _white burning_ on the finger
or thumb.
_Graf-an--to dig._
From this verb we have in English, 1. ‘Grave,’ a pit _dug_. 2. To
‘engrave,’ i.e. to scratch or _dig_ in. 3. ‘Groove,’ a line _dug_
in. 4. ‘Gravel,’ earth _dug_ up. 5. To ‘grovel,’ literally, to
_dig_ up earth; and, 6. To ‘grub,’ or scratch into the earth.
_Gyrd-an--to enclose._
The English words derived from ‘_gyrdan_,’ and having a cognate
meaning are, 1. To ‘gird,’ to _enclose_ by tying round. 2.
‘Girdle,’ a small band or cincture. 3. ‘Girth,’ the band which
‘girds’ the saddle on a horse. 4. ‘Garter,’ a band tied round the
leg; and, 5. ‘Garden,’ a space _enclosed_ for the cultivation of
fruit, vegetables, &c.
_Lang--long._
From the Anglo-Saxon and German ‘lang’ is derived, 1. our adjective
‘long;’ from which again comes, 2. the abstract noun ‘length.’ 3.
The adjective, ‘lean;’ and 4. ‘lanky’ are also members of this
family. 5. To ‘linger,’ i.e. to remain a _long_ time in a place.
6. To ‘lunge;’ to make a _long_ stroke with a rapier; and, 7. A
‘_link_,’ that which makes a chain ‘_longer_.’
_Lecj-an--to lay._
1. Both the English verbs ‘lay’ and ‘lie’ (which is to lay oneself
down) come from this verb, 2. ‘Ledge,’ a place on which to _lay_
anything; 3. ‘Ledger,’ a book which _lies_ on a merchant’s desk;
and, 4. ‘Law,’ a rule _laid_ down.
_Læd-an--to lead._
1. Besides the verb ‘to lead,’ we have from this source: 2.
‘Ladder,’ an instrument which _leads_ to a higher place. 3.
Load-star, and loadstone, i.e. a _leading_ star or stone.
_(H)lifi-an--to lift._
This is the source of, 1. our verb to ‘lift.’ Also, 2. ‘Loft,’
i.e. a room ‘lifted’ high. 3. The adverb ‘aloft’--‘lifted up.’ 4.
‘Aloof;’ and 5. The adjective ‘lofty.’
_Maw-an--to cut down._
From the Saxon root ‘maw’ comes immediately 1. Our verb to
‘mow,’--as well as a ‘mow’ (a barley-_mow_ or a hay-_mow_); i.e. a
quantity of barley or hay mown and heaped together. From this is
derived, 2. ‘Mead,’ i.e. a _mowed_ field; and, 3. Meadow, a large
mead. 4. Farmers still use the word after_math_, which, with them,
is a second mowing. 5, The now obsolete ‘mo’ or ‘moe,’ as used in
the sense of a collected quantity or heap by Chaucer and other
writers down to Lord Surrey, is said to give us the words ‘more’
and ‘most’ as the comparative and superlative forms of ‘mo;’ but
this is doubted by many etymologists.
_Pocca--a bag._
There are several English derivatives from this root. 1. We find it
in the word ‘smallpox’ (or pocks), where it means little bags or
holes left in the skin by the action of this disease. 2. We once
had the word ‘poke’ in the sense of ‘a bag,’ as in the phrase ‘to
buy a pig in a _poke_.’ 3. ‘Pocket’ is a diminutive of poke, i.e.
a little bag. 4. To ‘poach;’ and 5. ‘Pouch’ are variations of the
same root; for to ‘poach’ is to steal game and conceal it in a
‘pouch.’ 5. A ‘peck,’ and 6. a ‘pack’ are both generic terms of a
similar meaning; and, 7. ‘Puckered’ cheeks are bagged or puffed
out with the cold.
_Scuf-ian--to push._
This root is a fertile source of English words; we find it, 1. in
our now not very elegant word ‘shove,’ that is, to push rudely
or roughly. 2. A ‘sheaf’ of corn takes its name from the stalks
of which it is composed being ‘shoved,’ or _pushed_ up together;
and, 3. the ‘shaft’ of a javelin is the wooden part which is
‘_shoved_’ into the iron. 4. A ‘shovel’ is a small instrument
used to ‘_shove_,’ or push into, coals, etc.; and, 5. our ‘shoes’
are so called because we ‘_shove_’ our feet into them. 6.
‘Scuffle’ and ‘shuffle’ are only modified forms of the verb ‘to
shove,’ and express a repetition of that act. According to some
etymologists the word ‘sheep’ belongs to this family, as being an
animal ‘_shoved_’ or pushed along in flocks from place to place.
Hence, perhaps, the name; but this must be considered a doubtful
derivation.
_Scyr-an--to cut._
From this Saxon verb come, 1. To ‘shear’ and the noun ‘shears.’
2. A ‘share’ of anything means, properly, a part ‘_cut_’ off, or
divided from the whole substance; and a ‘ploughshare’ is that
part of the implement which ‘_cuts_’ through the earth. 3. Common
experience tells us that the adjective ‘sharp’ qualifies what
easily _cuts_ or divides. 4. A ‘shire’ signifies a district _cut_
off or divided from the rest of the country; and ‘sheriff’ is a
contraction of ‘shire-reeve,’ i.e. the officer of the ‘shire.’ 5.
‘Shirt’ and, 6. ‘Short’ both belong to the same class; the first
is a garment ‘_cut_’ off, and the second is a participle from the
verb ‘to shore’ or _divide_, the noun ‘shore’ meaning the line
which ‘_divides_’ the sea from the land. From the same root comes,
7. ‘Sheer.’ Sheer impudence and sheer nonsense mean impudence
and nonsense unqualified, i.e. ‘divided’ or _cut_ off from any
modesty and sense. Besides the above, we have the same general idea
in the expression, 8. ‘Shreds’ and patches, little snippings or
‘_cuttings_.’ 9. Shakspere’s ‘shard-borne’ beetle means the beetle
borne on his ‘shards,’ or scaly wings _divided_ in the middle. 10.
To these we may add ‘potsherd,’ a piece broken off or _divided_
from a pot. The words ‘scar,’ ‘score,’ ‘scream,’ ‘screech,’
‘shrill,’ ‘shriek,’ &c., belong to the same class, the leading idea
in them all being that of _cutting_ or dividing; and they are all
based upon the type ‘scr’ or ‘shr.’
_Sitt-an--to sit._
1. This is the origin of our word to ‘sit;’ whence comes, 2. To
‘set.’ The latter is the transitive from the intransitive, formed
by a change of the vowel. 3. ‘Settle’ is a frequentative of
‘_sit_,’ and expresses a permanent sitting. 4. A ‘seat’ is from the
same root; it is that on which any one ‘_sits_;’ and, 5. A ‘saddle’
is a seat on horseback.
_Sleaw--slow._
1. From the Anglo-Saxon ‘Sleaw’ comes our adjective ‘slow.’ Hence
we have, 2. ‘Sloth,’ or the quality of being _slow_; 3. ‘Sloven’
(m.) and ‘slut’ (f.), which both convey the idea of being _slow_
and negligent; 4. ‘Slug,’ a _slow_ animal, from which comes the
verb ‘to slug,’ to indulge in sloth; and, 7. ‘Sluggard,’ a lazy
indolent man.
_Stig-an--to mount._
This root gives us, 1. ‘Stair,’ a step to _mount_ by; 2. ‘Stile’
(A.-S. Stigel), a gate to be _mounted_ or got over; 3. ‘Stirrup’
(or stig-rope), a rope by which to _mount_; and, 4. ‘Stye,’ i.e. a
_rising_ pustule on the eyelid.
_Straeg-an--to spread._
From the A.-S. root ‘straeg’ we have the English words ‘straw’ and
‘strew.’ 1. ‘Straw’ is the dry stalks of certain plants ‘strewn’
or scattered about. 2. To ‘stray’ means to go dispersedly or
separately. 3. ‘Straggle’ is a frequentative of the last word. 4.
The word ‘street’ is by some supposed to be connected with this
root. A ‘street’ is a way ‘strewn’ or paved with stones.
_Taepp-an--to draw drink._
Hence we have in English, 1. ‘To tap,’ and, 2. A ‘tap,’ the
instrument by which wine or beer is drawn from the cask; 3.
‘Tapster,’ one who draws liquor. 4. To ‘tope’ is to ‘tip’ off beer
or spirits. 5. A ‘toper’ is one who topes, and to ‘tipple’ is to
be continually toping. 6. One who ‘tipples’ is likely to be often
‘tipsy.’
_Tell-an--to count._
The ordinary meaning of our English verb ‘to tell’ is to recount
the particulars of some event or occurrence. Hence comes a ‘tale,’
which signifies the recounting of such particulars. The passage in
Milton’s ‘L’Allegro’--
Every shepherd _tells his tale_
Under the hawthorn in the dale--
has been explained as ‘every shepherd _counts over his sheep_.’
Shakspere has, ‘as thick as _tale_ came post with post,’ that is,
as rapidly as could be counted. From the same root comes ‘till,’
a box into which money is _counted_. Again, when we speak of
‘tolling’ a bell, a similar meaning is implied, viz. the numbering
or _counting_ out the strokes; and a ‘toll’ is money _told_ or
_counted_ into the hands of the receiver. Again, accounts are said
to ‘_tally_’ when, after being reckoned or _counted_ up, they
amount to the same sum.
_Teog-an--to pull._
From this verb come, 1. To ‘tow,’ to _pull_ a boat or vessel along;
2. To ‘tug,’ to _pull_ with force. 3. The noun ‘tow’ means flax
which must be ‘tugged,’ or _pulled_, asunder. 4. The adjective
‘tough,’ which qualifies what must be _pulled_ hard. 5. ‘Team,’
a number of horses _pulling_ together; and, 6. ‘Tight,’ what is
‘towed’ or _pulled_ together with force. 7. The sailor’s phrase ‘to
haul taut,’ is ‘to _pull_ tight.’
_Wan-ian--to decrease._
1. We still say, ‘the moon waxes and “wanes,”’ i.e. apparently
increases and _decreases_ in size. 2. ‘Wan,’ an adjective which
expresses thinness or _decrease_ of health. 3. ‘Want’ signifies a
condition in which our means are _decreased_; and, 4. To ‘wean’ is
to gradually accustom any one to a ‘want.’
_Weg-an--to move._
1. From this come the English ‘way,’ which means the space through
which one can ‘_move_.’ 2. To ‘wag’ (the tongue or the head), i.e.
to ‘_move_’ it rapidly. 3. A waggon (sometimes contracted into
‘wain’) is a vehicle which ‘_moves_’ goods, &c., from one place
to another. 4. To ‘sway’ is the intensive of wag--it is to _move_
strongly; and, 5. ‘Swagger’ is the frequentative of ‘sway.’
_Weri-an--to wear._
1. This is the origin of our word ‘to wear,’ in its ordinary sense.
2. From this we have ‘weary,’ the state of being ‘_worn_’ with
fatigue. 3. From the same root come ‘worse’ and ‘worst,’ which are
really the comparative and superlative degrees of ‘_wear_,’ i.e.
‘more worn’ and ‘most worn.’ 4. To ‘worry,’ i.e. to ‘_wear_ out’ by
importunity.
_Wit-an--to know._
From the root ‘wit’ in this Saxon verb came, in English, 1. The
old forms ‘wist’ and ‘wot,’ together with, 2. The modern word
‘wit,’ and the expression, ‘to wit’--all these imply _knowledge_.
3. We have ‘wise’ (which at first signified _knowing_ much), with
its derivative, ‘wisdom.’ 5. ‘Wizard’ and ‘witch’ are both from
the same source, and were terms originally applied to those who
were supposed to come by their ‘_knowledge_’ by a compact with
the powers of darkness. 6. The word ‘wittingly,’ i.e. of one’s
own _knowledge_; and, 7. A ‘witness,’ or one who tells us what he
‘_knows_’ about some fact.
_Wrid-an--to twist._
This is the source of many English words: 1. To ‘writhe,’ or
_twist_ the body in pain. 2. ‘Wrath.’ When in ‘wrath,’ one is
‘writhed’ or tortured by angry passion. 3. ‘Wry’ and ‘awry,’ i.e.
‘_twisted_’ on one side. 4. To ‘wring’ the hands is to ‘_twist_’
them convulsively. 5. ‘Wrong’ properly means ‘wrung,’ or _twisted_
out of the right path. 6. ‘Wrangle’ denotes a continual distortion
or perversity; and, 7. To ‘wriggle’ is the frequentative of ‘to
wring;’ it means to _twist_ about repeatedly. Beside these, we
have, 8. The wrist, i.e. the joint which ‘_twists_’ or turns
easily; and, 9. To ‘wrest’ and ‘wrestle.’ 10. To ‘wrench.’ These
are all modes of _twisting_. 11. To ‘wreathe’ is to _twist_ or
twine together, and, 13. A ‘wrinkle’ denotes a distortion of a
smooth surface.