THE EARLY LIFE OF THEODORA
The next Empress to occupy the superb apartments in the palace, with
their couches of ivory and silver and their regiments of fawning
eunuchs and silk-clad ladies, was assuredly one of the most remarkable
figures that ever sat on a throne. The Empress Euphemia hardly ever
issues into the pages of history from the becoming seclusion of the
women’s quarters in the palace, but the few details which we have
concerning her suggest the most incongruous figure that imagination
could place in such a world, and a brief account of her romantic
elevation is a necessary introduction to the equally remarkable
and better-known story of the famous Empress Theodora. The Roman
Empire seemed to be deterred by some faint recollection of its early
democratic spirit from admitting the hereditary principle; but the
absence of this arrangement for securing the succession, together with
the complete lack of any really democratic arrangement, often threw
it into a chaotic confusion when a ruler died, and made its internal
history a thrilling succession of romances and tragedies, with an
occasional page of comedy. In this case it is comedy.
Anastasius, after playing his successive parts as peasant, lay
preacher, soldier and ruler of the world, had passed away, amid the
derision and rejoicing of his people, in the year 518. His nephews had
feeble pretensions to succeed him, but the most powerful man in the
city, the Prefect Amantius, decided that the purple should pass to his
friend Theocritus. He therefore sought the commander, or Count, of the
Excubitors--the more formidable guards of the palace--and placed in his
hands a large sum of money for distribution among the troops. Justin,
the said commander, was an Illyrian peasant who had won promotion in
the wars. He was in his later sixties, though still a powerful man,
with handsome rosy face and curly white hair; but under this disarming
exterior he concealed an ambition and astuteness which the prefect
failed to suspect. He distributed the money in his own interest, and
passed unopposed from the modest quarters of the guard to the more
luxurious chambers of the palace.
Euphemia was the wife of Justin, and it may safely be said that no
woman ever experienced a more romantic elevation. In his military days
Justin had bought a barbaric slave named Lupicina, and raised her
to the rank of his concubine; though no doubt he married her in the
course of time. She retained the uncouth and illiterate manners of her
class, and Constantinople must have smiled to see her in the richly
embroidered robes of purple silk, with cascades of diamonds and pearls
falling from her gorgeous diadem. The acclamation of the crowd changed
her name to Euphemia, and she retired to the congenial privacy of her
palace. Justin brought his equally illiterate mother Bigleniza to the
palace from her rustic home, and the two women no doubt contracted a
fitting friendship in their wonderful new home. Of public action on
their part there is no question, and the events of the next few years
do not concern us. I will say only that, after securing his throne by
cutting off the head of Amantius and crushing Theocritus under heavy
stones in his dungeon, for venturing to resent the trick he had played
them, Justin ruled with moderation, if not prudence, for nine years.
Euphemia died three or four years before him, living just long enough
to see, and emphatically resent, her successor, the notorious Theodora.
In approaching the story of Theodora it is necessary to premise a
few words on the authority which has provided most of the sensational
statements about her, and to pay respectful attention to the efforts
of some recent historical writers to discredit those statements. The
general outline of her story has been made familiar by Gibbon, who
has genially dilated on the elevation of one of the lewdest actresses
and most notorious prostitutes of Constantinople to the position, not
merely of mistress of the greatest empire of the time, but also of
patroness of an important branch of the Church and the daily companion
of saintly monks and bishops. Since Theodora is very commonly described
by the chroniclers as at least equal in power to her husband, the great
Justinian, and since the next most powerful woman in the Byzantine
Empire at the time is assigned a similar origin to that of Theodora,
the world has long reflected with amazement on this spectacle of the
Roman Empire at the feet of two imperfectly converted prostitutes.
Such a situation could not pass unchallenged before the more critical
tribunal of modern history, and there are scholars who have rejected
entirely the romantic story of the youth of Theodora.[6] The majority
of historians, including the two chief living authorities, Professor
Bury and M. Diehl, regard the story as true in substance though
unreliable in detail.
The more romantic statements concerning Theodora are taken from a
work that purports to have been written by the greatest contemporary
historical writer, Procopius, but there are writers (such as Ranke and
Bury) who regard the work as, at the most, a later compilation of notes
left by Procopius, and in any case it is so envenomed in temper, and
occasionally so reckless in statement, that it should be regarded with
suspicion. The problem cannot be discussed at length here, but it is
necessary to justify the large use I am about to make of the work (the
“Anecdotes”) which bears the name of Procopius.
If it were true, as is sometimes said, that we had no authority for
the impeachment of the character of Theodora beyond the “Anecdotes,”
we should have to hesitate very seriously, but this is by no means
true. Procopius (“On the Persian War”) represents her as playing a
most unscrupulous part in the ruin of John of Cappadocia. Liberatus
(a contemporary cleric) and Anastasius exhibit the Empress to us
corrupting the papacy itself and deposing a venerable pontiff by the
most cruel and flagrantly dishonest charges. Zonaras and other writers
accuse her, not merely of avarice, as Mr Mallett says, but of the most
heartless and unblushing corruption in feeding her avarice. There is
every reason to regard Theodora, after her elevation to the throne, as
a woman devoid of moral scruple. But we now have ample confirmation
also of the story of her origin. The statement of an eleventh-century
writer, Aimoinus, that Justinian took his wife from a brothel, shows,
in spite of its wild inaccuracies, that some such tradition was found
in European literature quite apart from the “Anecdotes.” But the
publication in the nineteenth century of the writings of John, Bishop
of Ephesus, has furnished a decisive proof. This Monophysite bishop and
cultivated writer, who lived for years beside the palace of Theodora,
and whose sect received the most imperial and incalculable benefits
from her, speaks of her as “Theodora of the brothel”; and he uses the
phrase in such a way as to intimate plainly that this was the name
by which she was known in Constantinople before her elevation to the
throne.[7] Indeed, the fact that the author of the “Anecdotes” does
not assail the chastity of Theodora after her marriage increases our
confidence in his account of her earlier life; as he did not intend
to publish his work--it was not published until 1623--it would have
been just as easy to invent or collect legends about her after as
before her marriage. On the other hand, the temper of the writer is
so bitter and malignant that we must reserve our judgment in regard
to the details of his strange narrative. He has gathered together
every defaming rumour about Theodora and Justinian that circulated
in Constantinople, even admitting nonsense obviously unworthy of a
serious writer, and we cannot sift the true from the legendary. The
source of his animosity cannot be determined. From the tone of his
remarks on religion I gather that he was one of the many surviving
pagans who were forced into outward conformity with the new religion,
and, after giving formal praise in his historical works to Justinian
and Theodora for the splendour of their reign, he relieved his soul,
in this secret collection of notes, of the deep disgust he felt at the
contrast between their characters and their professions and between
the glamour and the misery of their empire. It must be remembered that
the thoroughly Christian and very weighty authority, Evagrius, is just
as severe on Justinian; there was in Justinian, he says, “something
surpassing the cruelty of beasts,” and any prostitute could despoil
a wealthy man by a false charge (say, of unnatural vice--a trick of
Theodora’s) “provided she let Justinian share her vile gain.” It is the
common teaching of the authorities that the Empress was worse than the
Emperor.
In point of fact, there is nothing implausible or improbable in
the details of Procopius’s story of Theodora’s early life, and the
judicious reader will merely make allowance for the rhetorical strength
of its superlatives. Her father Acacius had been a keeper of the bears
which were baited in the Hippodrome in the reign of Anastasius. The
Hippodrome at Constantinople united the functions which at Rome had
been divided between the circus, the theatre and the amphitheatre.
Its chief attraction was the chariot-racing which provided the central
and most thrilling sensation of Roman life.[8] Between the races,
however, there were contests with wild beasts in the arena, and there
were the numerous nondescript performances which occupied the theatre
at Rome--mimes (actors by gesture), clowns, acrobats, conjurers, etc.
Acacius was bear-keeper to the “greens,” and, when he died, his widow
promptly secured another partner and claimed the office for him. But
the superintendent Asterius had sold the office to another man, and the
shrewd widow appealed to the sympathy of the crowd by parading in the
Hippodrome, the heads and hands of her three daughters crowned with
the emblems of virginity. The “greens” jeered--possibly at the sight
of the eldest daughter, Comitona, a loose girl of seventeen, dressed
as a Vestal Virgin--but the “blues” received them with sympathy; a
distinction which the pale and slender little Theodora would never
forget.
The mother, who is said to have come from Cyprus, either before
or after the birth of Theodora, then pressed the fortunes of her
daughters in the theatrical world. Comitona was already a mime (or
actress without words) and, as was usual, a prostitute. The young
Theodora presently began to attend her elder sister, and is said to
have begun her career of infamy as she waited among the slaves and
lackeys on the fringe of the Hippodrome. When she in turn became an
actress, her pretty pale face, lithe figure and unrestrained gaiety and
dissoluteness made her a great favourite. She stripped to the narrowest
limit of decency which the very liberal law permitted, performed the
most nearly obscene ribaldries which the Roman theatre allowed, and
was pre-eminent for the abandonment of her gestures and movements; and
in the hours of the night, when the wealthier patrons of the Hippodrome
entertained themselves in perfumed chambers with the actresses and
courtesans, Theodora was in the greatest favour.
It is absurd to say that this is to impute to Theodora “a moral
turpitude unparalleled in any age.” It was the common turpitude of
that age, of our age, and of every intervening age. The theatre,
indeed, no longer admits the very broad licence which was admitted at
Constantinople, but the performances which are ascribed by Procopius
to Theodora are innocent in comparison with certain performances which
may be witnessed, in semi-publicity, in very many cities of Europe
to-day. Of Theodora’s private behaviour--that she practised both forms
of unnatural, as well as natural, vice--one need only say that it is,
and always has been, common to her class. An actress at that time meant
a woman of loose conduct. The imperial decrees and the Church fully
recognised this, and it is significant that one of the theatres--if not
the one theatre--of Constantinople was called “The Harlots,” and is so
named in an imperial document. Procopius is merely imputing to Theodora
the common practices of loose women of her time and our own. And when,
in later pages, we come to realise the fiery and unrestrained temper of
the beautiful Greek, we can well believe that she was at that time one
of the worst of her class.
Not less plausible is the next chapter in the life of Theodora. A
wealthy official, Hecebolus, induced her to accompany him to the
African province which he was to administer, and her very brief
career at Constantinople came to a close. M. Diehl conjectures that
this occurred in 517, in her eighteenth year, and that she remained
a few years with Hecebolus. However that may be, she was, about
the year 521, ejected from the governor’s house, and she passed to
Alexandria, and thence to Antioch and the other cities of Syria and
Asia Minor. It is most probable that this was the time when, either at
Alexandria or Antioch, she became a convert to the Monophysite faith.
The question of the true character of Christ had racked and rent the
Eastern world, amidst all its ribaldry and vice, for two hundred years,
and the burning issue at this time was whether the nature of Christ
should be described as single or twofold; the Monophysites held that
there was but one nature in Christ, and were bitterly opposed to the
“Synodists,” or supporters of the orthodox Council of Chalcedon. It may
seem incongruous to drag in so solemn an issue on so defiled a page
of biography, but it is essential for the understanding of Theodora’s
career.
According to Procopius, Theodora still practised her evil profession
in the cities of Asia. For the next few years, however, there is much
obscurity about her movements, and the biographer cannot proceed with
great confidence. One eleventh-century writer represents that Justinian
and the commander Belisarius chose their wives in a loose house in
Constantinople; another equally remote and unreliable chronicler says
that Justinian found Theodora living a modest life, supporting herself
by spinning wool, in a small house under the portico--a very strange
residence for a virtuous woman. I prefer still to follow the very
plausible story (in substance) of the “Anecdotes.” At Antioch Theodora
went in great distress to visit Macedonia, an actress who had influence
with Justinian. It is hardly strained to conjecture that this was the
real occasion of her introduction to Justinian; that she went on to
Constantinople with a recommendation to him and was at once taken into
his house. Beyond question she was his mistress for some years before
he married her.
Justin had brought from Upper Macedonia, and educated in the schools
of Constantinople, the favourite nephew who was to become the Emperor
Justinian. At the time when Theodora came back to Constantinople,
about the year 522, he approached his fortieth year: a handsome,
wealthy and free-living bachelor, of fresh and florid complexion and
the curly hair of a Greek. His reputation was somewhat sinister: his
influence unbounded. In entertaining the populace on his elevation to
the consulship in the previous year he had spent about £160,000, and
had turned twenty lions and thirty leopards together into the arena. He
was plainly marked for the throne. The pretty pale face and bright eyes
and graceful figure of Theodora captivated him, and her experienced art
enabled her to profit by the infatuation. Justinian lived in the palace
of Hormisdas on the shore of the Sea of Marmora, and Constantinople
would take little scandal at his connexion with Theodora. Four or five
years’ absence would have enfeebled the memory of her earlier career,
and the zeal for the true religion--the Monophysite heresy, which she
paraded from the moment of her connexion with Justinian--would ensure
the genial indulgence of the frivolous population. Justinian had her
made a “patrician” (or noble), lodged her in his beautiful palace, and
showered his favours upon her. It is at this point that Bishop John
begins to describe his co-religionists appealing to the protection of
“Theodora of the brothel” from all parts of the Empire.
There were two obstacles to marriage. Justin was feeble and senile,
and little able or disposed to resist his nephew’s whims, but Euphemia
strongly opposed the marriage until her death in 523 or 524. The more
serious impediment was the standing law of the Roman Empire, that a
noble could not wed a woman of ill-fame (an actress, tavern-girl or
courtesan). Justinian afterwards removed this restriction, but it
must have been in some way overruled by Justin, and many authorities
believe that the first law in the Justinian Code on the point was
really promulgated by Justin. A daughter seems to have been born before
the marriage, possibly before the connexion with Justinian, as John
of Ephesus confirms the statement of Procopius that Theodora had a
marriageable grandson before she died (in 548).
The next step for the enterprising young Greek was the attainment of
the throne. Justin was pressed, as he aged, to associate his nephew
in the government, and, although he nervously refused for some time,
he at length (April 527) conferred the supreme dignity of Augustus on
his nephew and of Augusta on Theodora. She now entered upon the full
splendour of imperial life, and no parvenue ever bore it with more
exaggerated dignity than the ex-actress, as we shall see. There must
have been many who smiled when Theodora first witnessed the old sights
of the Hippodrome from the imperial chapel of St Stephen, or sat for
the homage of the Senators in the long gold-embroidered mantle, with
the screen of heavy jewels falling in chains from her diadem upon
her neck and breast, as we find her depicted in a mosaic at Ravenna;
but her formidable power and her unscrupulous use of it would soon
extinguish the last echo of her opprobrious nickname.
The early years of Theodora’s power were spent in enlarging the
prestige of her position and in recompensing her friends. The existent
palaces could not meet the requirements of the woman who, a few years
before, had begged money of an Antioch courtesan. Justin had to annex
his palace of Hormisdas to the imperial domain and build fresh palaces.
The favourite residence of Theodora was the cool and superb palace of
Hieria across the water, and in spite of the lack of accommodation
for her enormous suite and the terrors of a whale, popularly named
Porphirio, which infested the waters of Constantinople at the time, she
frequently crossed to it.
At home, in the sacred palace, she led a life strangely opposed to that
of the temperate, accessible and hard-working Justinian. Rising at an
early hour she devoted a considerable time to the bath and toilet, by
which she trusted to sustain her charm, in spite of delicate health.
After breaking her fast, she again retired to rest before she would
consent to receive courtiers and suitors. In view of her paramount
influence with the Emperor many sought her patronage, or dreaded to
incur her terrible resentment, by seeming indifferent to it. Numbers
of nobles waited, sometimes for days, in the hot ante-room to her
apartments, standing on tiptoe to catch the eye of the pampered eunuchs
who passed to and fro. After a long delay they might be admitted to
kiss the golden sandals of Theodora, and listen to her august wishes.
No man was permitted to speak except in reply to a question. In the
course of time, as we shall see, the highest nobles eagerly submitted
to this humiliating treatment, in order to preserve their wealth
from the extortioner. Dinner and supper, at which, though Theodora
ate little, the most opulent banquets had to be served, occupied the
further hours of the day, together with Theodora’s abundant devotions
and converse with holy men.
Her friends were generously admitted to share her advantages. The
“Anecdotes” tell a story of an illegitimate son of hers who discovered
his birth, came to the Empress for recognition or money, and was
at once despatched to another world. That seems to be one of the
calumnious fables which the writer too eagerly admitted into his
indictment. The “Anecdotes” themselves rather show that Theodora did
not make every effort to conceal the past, however strongly she might
resent discussion of it. Her sister Comitona was certainly married
in the first year of her reign to a wealthy and powerful noble.
It is not so certain, but probable enough, that she cherished her
earlier theatrical friends, Chrysomallo and Indara, and found wealthy
husbands for their daughters. The woman whose name we shall find most
closely connected with hers, Antonina, the wife of the great general
Belisarius, is said to have been her tirewoman before she married
Belisarius. This would account for Theodora’s coolness until Antonina
won her by securing her revenge on John of Cappadocia, when Theodora
is said not merely to have overlooked, but promoted, the vices of her
friend. There is, at least, no room for doubt about the character of
Antonina.
But while Theodora admitted these mute reminders of her earlier life,
she turned with extraordinary severity upon her earlier colleagues
as a body and undertook the purification of the city. The decrees of
Justinian for regulating the morals of Constantinople--decrees which
go so far as to define the penalties for people who made assignations
in churches, and on the strength of which bishops were castrated and
exhibited in public for unnatural vice--are generally ascribed to her
influence. She had the imperial net dragged through the loose houses
of Constantinople, and five hundred of the occupants were imprisoned
in an ancient palace on the Asiatic shore: a form of enforced piety
which, the carping Procopius says, drove many of them to suicide. Many
writers think this zeal for purity inconsistent with the story of her
earlier life. It has rather the appearance of a feverish affectation
of repentance, and must be balanced by the many proofs we have of
Theodora’s really corrupt and unscrupulous character. One may recall
that Domitian drastically punished the vices of others. Procopius would
have us believe that Theodora compelled unmarried women to marry,
and that when two delicate widows fled to the Church to escape her
pressure, she had them dragged from the altar and married to men of
infamous life. Yet, he says, vice was rampant in Constantinople, and
protected by the Empress, when money was paid into her greedy coffers.
Such details we cannot control, and must reproduce with reserve; we
know only from other sources that she extorted money by corrupt means.
And the most singular and piquant feature of Theodora’s life at this
period was her zealous patronage of the Monophysites. Long before her
coronation, from the time when she became the mistress of Justinian,
the joyous news of her elevation flew throughout the Empire among
the persecuted heretics. They had had their hours of triumph under
Basiliscus and Anastasius, but with the accession of Justin the
orthodox had returned to power, and the twofold nature of the gentle
Christ had been urged with bloody arguments. From the monasteries and
towns of the provinces pilgrims now began to arrive at the Hormisdas
palace in great numbers, and through Justinian she obtained relief and
money for them. When she entered the imperial palace the procession
increased, and, while the nobles of Constantinople were detained
for hours before being permitted to kiss her feet, ragged monks and
unlettered deacons strode into the imperial apartments without a
moment’s delay.
So zealous, indeed, was Theodora for their edifying conversation that
she kept them as long as possible about her. St Simeon of Persia came
to plead the cause of his persecuted brethren, and was induced to
live for a year in the luxurious palace. Arsenius of Palestine, one
of the chief firebrands of his province, was cherished by her; though
Procopius affirms that he at length lost her favour and was crucified.
Orthodox monks were even permitted with impunity to rebuke the terrible
Empress. A holy hermit came one day to chide Theodora for her heresy.
Ragged and dirty, with garment so patched that hardly three inches
of cloth of one colour appeared in it, he admonished her in fiery
language. Theodora was so charmed with his piety that she sought to add
him to her domestic collection of sanctities. When persuasion failed,
she resorted to corruption; we read the story, not in the “Anecdotes,”
but in John. She had a large sum of gold concealed in linen and imposed
on him, but the fiery monk hurled it across the palace, crying: “Thy
money perish with thee.” St Sabas, also, the unlettered and unadorned
abbot of an orthodox monastery at Jerusalem, came to ask her patronage.
His piety excused his heresy in her eyes, and she kept him for days
at the palace, and humbly asked his prayers that she might have a son.
The grim monk refused, and, when companions asked how he could scorn
the request of so generous a patroness, he replied: “We do not want any
fruit from that womb, lest it be suckled on the heretical doctrines of
Severus.”
So great at length became the number of pious pilgrims from the
provinces, and so eager was Theodora to retain them near her person,
that the Hormisdas palace, which Justinian had richly decorated for
her and enclosed within the area of the imperial palace, was converted
into a monastery. Then were witnessed the quaintest scenes that ever
enlivened the passion-throbbing palace of the Eastern Emperors. Five
hundred monks, of all ages and nationalities, of every degree of
sanctity and raggedness, were crowded in or about its marbled walls.
Every form that monastic fervour had assumed in the fiery provinces of
Syria or Egypt was exemplified in it. The orderly community sang its
endless psalms and macerated its flesh in the rooms where Justinian had
dallied with his mistress: little huts were scattered about the grounds
for those who were called to the life of the hermit: and even columns
were set up here and there for those who would imitate the more novel
and arduous piety of St Simeon Stylites, and pass, at the open summit
of the column, a kind of existence which the polite pen must refrain
from describing. All the beggars of Constantinople gathered for the
crumbs of this remarkable colony, and crowds of citizens pressed to
witness this singular oasis of virtue in the most corrupt city of the
world. Theodora rarely let a day pass without crossing the gardens to
receive the blessing and enjoy the pious conversation of such of the
saints as would deign to converse with a woman.
How she went on to put a courtly heretic upon the archiepiscopal
throne of Constantinople, and, by an extraordinary piece of intrigue
and corruption, depose a pope and replace him by one who pretended to
favour her designs, we shall see presently. We must now set forth the
imperial career of Theodora in chronological order, and learn what
kind of character this remarkable woman maintained amid the chants and
prayers of her deeply venerated monks.